The concept and composition of the geographical envelope. Geographical envelope of the earth What geographical envelopes does the earth have?

- this is a complex shell of the globe, where they touch and mutually penetrate and interact with each other, and. the shell within its boundaries almost coincides with the biosphere.

The mutual penetration into each other of the gas, water, living and living shells that make up the geographical shell of the Earth and their interaction determines the integrity of the geographical shell. There is a continuous circulation and exchange of substances and energy in it. Each shell of the Earth, developing according to its own laws, experiences the influence of other shells and, in turn, exerts its own influence on them.

The influence of the biosphere on the atmosphere is associated with photosynthesis, which results in intensive gas exchange between them and the regulation of gases in the atmosphere. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into it, which is necessary for breathing for all living beings. Thanks to the atmosphere, the Earth's surface does not overheat during the day by the sun's rays and does not cool down too much at night, which creates conditions for the existence of living individuals. The biosphere also influences the hydrosphere, since organisms have a significant impact on. They take from the water the substances they need, especially calcium, to build skeletons, shells, and shells. The hydrosphere is a living environment for many creatures, and water is essential for many life processes of plants and animals. The impact of organisms is especially noticeable in its upper part. The remains of dead plants and animals accumulate in it and are formed of organic origin. Organisms participate not only in the formation of rocks, but also in their destruction - in: They secrete acids that act on rocks, destroying them with roots penetrating into cracks. Dense, hard rocks turn into loose sedimentary (gravel, pebbles).

Conditions for education are being prepared. Rocks appeared in the lithosphere and began to be used by humans. Knowledge of the law of the integrity of the geographical shell is of great practical importance. If human economic activity does not take it into account, it often leads to undesirable consequences.

A change in one of the geographic shells affects all others. An example is the era of the great glaciation in.

The increase in land surface led to the onset of colder weather, which led to the formation of thick snow and ice that covered vast areas in the north and, and this in turn led to changes in the flora and fauna and to changes in soils.

The modern geographical envelope is the result of its long development, during which it continuously became more complex. Scientists distinguish 3 stages of its development.

Stage I lasted 3 billion years and was called prebiogenic. During it, only the simplest organisms existed. They took little part in its development and formation. The atmosphere at this stage was characterized by a low content of free oxygen and a high content of carbon dioxide.

Stage II lasted about 570 million years. It was characterized by the leading role of living beings in the development and formation of the geographical envelope. Living beings had a huge influence on all its components. Rocks of organic origin accumulated, the composition of water and the atmosphere changed, where the oxygen content increased, as photosynthesis occurred in green plants, and the carbon dioxide content decreased. At the end of this stage a man appeared.

Stage III- modern. It began 40 thousand years ago and is characterized by the fact that man begins to actively influence different parts of the geographical envelope. Therefore, it depends on man whether it will exist at all, since man on Earth cannot live and develop in isolation from it.

In addition to integrity, the general patterns of the geographical shell include its rhythm, that is, the periodicity and repetition of the same phenomena, and.

Geographical zonation manifests itself in a certain shift from the poles. Zoning is based on the different supply of heat and light to the earth's surface, and they are already reflected on all other components, and above all soils and the animal world.

Zoning can be vertical and latitudinal.

Vertical zoning- a natural change in natural complexes both in height and in depth. For mountains, the main reason for this zonation is the change in the amount of moisture with height, and for the depths of the ocean - heat and sunlight. The concept of “vertical zoning” is much broader than “,” which is valid only in relation to land. In latitudinal zonality, the largest division of the geographical envelope is distinguished -

The largest natural complex of the Earth is the geographical envelope. It includes the lithosphere and atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, which interact with each other. Thanks to this, an active circulation of energy and substances occurs in nature. Each shell - gas, mineral, living and water - has its own laws of development and existence.

Basic patterns of the geographical envelope:

geographical zoning;
the integrity and interconnection of all parts of the shell of the globe;
rhythmicity – repetition of daily and annual natural phenomena.

Earth's crust

The solid part of the earth, containing rocks, sediment and minerals, is one of the components of the geographical envelope. It contains more than ninety chemical elements that are unevenly distributed over the entire surface of the planet. Iron, magnesium, calcium, aluminum, oxygen, sodium, and potassium make up the majority of all rocks in the lithosphere. They are formed in various ways: under the influence of temperature and pressure, during the redeposition of weathering products and the vital activity of organisms, in the thickness of the earth and during sedimentation from water. There are two types of earth's crust - oceanic and continental, which differ from each other in rock composition and temperature.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the most important component of the geographical envelope. It affects the weather and climate, the hydrosphere, the world of flora and fauna. The atmosphere is also divided into several layers, and the geographical envelope includes the troposphere and stratosphere. These layers contain oxygen, which is required for the life cycles of different spheres on the planet. In addition, the atmosphere layer protects the earth's surface from the ultraviolet rays of the Sun.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the water surface of the earth, which consists of groundwater, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans. The main part of the Earth's water resources is concentrated in the ocean, and the rest is on the continents. The hydrosphere also includes water vapor and clouds. In addition, permafrost, snow and ice cover are also part of the hydrosphere.

Biosphere and anthroposphere

The biosphere is a multi-shell of the planet, which includes the world of flora and fauna, hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere, which interact with each other. A change in one of the components of the biosphere leads to significant changes in the entire ecosystem of the planet. The geographical envelope of the earth can also include the anthroposphere - the sphere in which people and nature interact.

biosphere noosphere technogenesis

The most common object of study of geographical science is the geographical envelope. The term “geographical envelope” was proposed by the famous geographer A.A. Grigoriev in 1932

The geographic envelope is the largest natural complex on Earth, in which the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere, intricately intertwined, interact with each other, penetrate each other, exchange matter and energy. Each component of the complex has its own chemical composition and is distinguished by its unique properties. Within the shell, as if lying on the border of the planet and space, both cosmic and internal forces act. One of the most important properties of the geographical shell is the presence of substances (primarily water) simultaneously in liquid, solid and gaseous states. They may have their own organization of matter, patterns of development, and may be organic or inorganic.

The processes occurring in the geographic environment are diverse, closely interconnected and can be easily disrupted. They have not yet been sufficiently studied and their significance is extremely important for the preservation of the Earth and human survival. The geographical shell is unique, first of all, in that they act in it, intertwining with each other, mutually complementing each other, or colliding as opposite, different forms of energy: partly terrestrial, partly cosmic. The abundance of energy gives rise to various processes - geological, biological, physical and chemical. We are talking about the fact that on the earth's surface there is a confrontation between external and internal forces. Moreover, some of them strive to establish balance. For example: the force of gravity, which is associated with both the leveling of the relief and the flow of water from its depression. The tides are associated with the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun. Among internal sources of energy, the first place is occupied by the decay of radioactive substances, which is associated with the formation of mountains and the movement of lithospheric plates, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, the activity of geysers and hot springs. All these processes are accompanied by dehydration and degassing of the subsoil, that is, the removal of water and gases to the earth's surface. An important role is also played by the fact that the Earth, as a general magnet, forms a magnetic field, which affects not only the processes of attraction, but also the behavior of electric charges in the atmosphere. Cosmic energy reaches the surface of the Earth in the form of various radiations, of which solar radiation predominates. There's a lot of it coming in. Much of the sun's energy is reflected back into space. In solar energy, two important processes are connected, which create a unique shell on Earth. This is the water cycle and the development of life. The boundaries of the geographical envelope are not clearly expressed and are drawn differently by different scientists, since the basis for its division is different. But more often everyone draws the following boundaries.

Fig.1

The geographic envelope includes a layer of the atmosphere in which the presence of dust, mainly of volcanic origin, water vapor is noted, and organisms can exist. The height of this layer reaches 25-30 km, i.e. The geographical envelope includes the troposphere and the lower layers of the stratosphere. In the lithosphere, the geographic envelope includes only part of the earth's crust, which extends from the Earth's surface to a depth of several hundred meters, sometimes up to 4-5 km. It is to this depth that the influence of the atmosphere and hydrosphere on the lithosphere can be traced. The geographical envelope includes almost the entire hydrosphere, with the exception of a small part of it, which is located at great depth. The largest part of the geographical shell is the biosphere - one of the shells of the Earth, the composition, properties and processes of which are determined by the activities of living organisms. That is, the basis for identifying the boundaries of the biosphere is the activity of living organisms, and the basis for the geographical envelope is the presence of interaction between the main parts (spheres). Therefore, the basic parameters of the biosphere and geosphere may not coincide. There is no consensus regarding the relationship between the biosphere and the geographical envelope of the Earth. If we take the presence or absence of bacteria as a basis, then the habitat of the latter goes beyond the boundaries of the geographical envelope, since bacterial spores are found much higher than the troposphere, and in the oil-bearing layers of the lithosphere, bacteria are found at depths of up to several kilometers. Within the landmass of the geographical envelope, some scientists distinguish the landscape sphere. This is a small layer in thickness (from 5-10 m in the tundra, to 100-150 m in the tropics), including the upper part of the weathering crust, soil, vegetation, fauna, ground layer of air, surface and ground water.

The main object of study of modern physical geography is the geographical envelope of the Earth - a complex natural system in which the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere border, collide, penetrate, mix and interact with each other under conditions of simultaneous influence of endogenous and exogenous factors, primarily internal and external energy. This system is called geographical because it unites inanimate and living nature into a single whole. No other terrestrial sphere, like any known shell of the remaining planets of the Solar System, has such a complex unification due to the absence of the organic world in them.

The most important features of the geographical shell are its exceptional richness in the forms of manifestation of free energy, the extreme diversity of substances in chemical composition and state of aggregation, their types and masses - from free elementary particles through atoms, molecules to chemical compounds and complex bodies, including flora and fauna, to the pinnacle of evolution of which is man. Among other specific features, it is worth highlighting the presence within this natural system of liquid water, sedimentary rocks, various forms of relief, soil cover, concentration and accumulation of solar heat, and the greater activity of most physical and geographical processes.

The geographic envelope is genetically inextricably linked with the surface of the Earth and is the arena of its development. On the earth's surface, processes caused by solar energy (for example, the action of wind, water, ice) develop very dynamically. These processes, together with internal forces and the influence of gravity, redistribute huge masses of rocks, water, air and even cause the descent and ascent of certain sections of the lithosphere. Finally, life develops most intensively on the surface of the Earth or near it.

The main features and patterns of the geographical shell are integrity, rhythm, zonality and the circulation of matter and energy.

The integrity of the geographic envelope lies in the fact that a change in the development of any component of nature necessarily causes a change in all others (for example, climate change in different eras of the Earth’s development affected the nature of the entire planet). The scale of these changes is different: they can evenly cover the entire geographical envelope or appear only in certain areas of it.

Rhythm is the repetition of identical natural phenomena at certain intervals. These are, for example, daily and annual rhythms, which are especially noticeable in nature. Cyclical are long periods of warming and cooling, fluctuations in the level of lakes, seas, the World Ocean as a whole, the advance and retreat of glaciers, etc.

Zoning is a natural change in the spatial structure of the components of the geographic shell. There are horizontal (latitudinal) and vertical (altitudinal) zoning. The first is due to different amounts of heat arriving at different latitudes due to the spherical shape of the Earth. Another type of zonation - altitudinal zonality - appears only in the mountains and is caused by climate change depending on altitude.

The circulation of matter and energy leads to the continuous development of the geographical envelope. All substances in it are in constant motion. Often cycles of matter are accompanied by cycles of energy. For example, as a result of the water cycle, heat is released during condensation of water vapor and heat is absorbed during evaporation. The biological cycle most often begins with the transformation of inorganic substances into organic substances by plants. After dying, organic matter turns into inorganic matter. Thanks to the cycle, there is a close interaction of all components of the geographical shell, their interconnected development.

The geographical envelope, although an organically unique, naturally constructed whole, is nevertheless heterogeneous. its components are rocks, relief, air masses, solar heat, water, soil, flora and fauna, but in different places on the Earth’s surface they are combined and interact with each other differently. Their different ratios cause significant spatial differences within the shell. So, the nature of any region of our planet also has original and unique features, as a result of which numerous dissimilar natural-territorial complexes (NTCs), or landscapes, have been formed.

Since the geographic envelope consists of a large number of diverse and dissimilar PTCs, in the past it was also called landscape. But unlike PTC or landscapes, this term has not taken root in science. Some geographers use the name “landscape sphere” in the scientific literature in a sense close to the term “geographical envelope.” So, F.M. Milkov (1990) believes that the landscape sphere forms a thin layer on Earth 5-150 m thick, which differs significantly from others in the high concentration and activity of various organisms in it. This is where the “focus of life” is. THEM. Zabelin (in 1959) Instead of the term “geographical envelope,” he proposed “biogeosphere,” that is, he characterized it as the sphere of the origin and development of life. But this name, like the previous one, narrows the spatial boundaries of the geographical envelope, focuses too much attention on the biological aspects of the study and assigns a secondary place to general geographical problems. The name “geosystem”, which was adopted by V.B., also turned out to be unsuccessful. Sochava (1963 p.), since geotopology studies not a geographical area, but individual small places (sections) of the territory. This approach has been widely used in regional geographical studies.

The term “geographical envelope” received wide recognition only in modern scientific literature, although individual scientists came close to defining the essence and some general features of this complex sphere much earlier. Thus, in the Netherlands, B. Varenius (1622-1650 pp.) believed that the subject of the study of geography is the “amphibian circle,” that is, the shell on the surface of the Earth formed by the interpenetration of one part of the earth, water and atmosphere. The great German scientist-encyclopedist, traveler and naturalist A. Humboldt (1769-1859) in his famous work “Cosmos” developed the idea not only of the relationship, but also of the interaction of air, ocean, earth, and the unity of inorganic and organic nature. Another German scientist F. Richthofen (1833-1905), developing questions regarding the subject of geography, defined it as the science of the components of the earth's surface and their interaction.

The original idea of a kind of “outer shell of the Earth” as a subject for the study of physical geography was first expressed at the beginning of the 20th century. Professor of Kyiv and St. Petersburg Universities P.I. Brownov (1853-1927). He considered the outer shell of the earth as a sphere that unites together the concentric shells of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere: they all penetrate each other, causing through their interaction the appearance of our planet and all the phenomena occurring on it. A deeply analytical study of the complex vertical “special physical-geographical shell”, which was done in the thirties by A.A. Grigoriev (1883-1968), contributed to the final approval of this natural system as an object of study of geography. The doctrine of the geographical shell of the Earth received further substantiation in the works of S.V. Kolesnik (1901-1977) - author of the fundamental textbook "Fundamentals of General Geography". Note that it was this book that contributed to the widespread recognition of geosciences as an independent scientific discipline of geography. A certain contribution to the development of the science of the geographical envelope was made by Ukrainian scientists K.I. Gerenchuk, V.A. Bokov and I. Chervanev (1984 p.), who gave a modern interpretation of its structure, composition, structure, dynamics and development, and also highlighted complex issues of managing global geographical processes.

The geographic envelope, as a sphere special in its structure and properties, has vertical boundaries. But since the transition from it to other shells occurs gradually, the upper and lower boundaries are not clear enough and therefore, to some extent, they can be considered conditional.

Scientists present and justify the height and depth of the geographic envelope from the Earth's surface in different ways.

According to A.A. Grigoriev (1963 p.), The upper boundary of the geographic envelope lies in the stratosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, slightly below the layer of maximum ozone concentration. The fact is that the ozone layer retains doses of ultraviolet radiation harmful to organisms, so it is here that favorable conditions appear for the existence of living beings, primarily microorganisms. The lower boundary is located under the earth's crust. The entire earth's crust belongs to the geographic shell, since processes of relief formation of various activities constantly occur in it.

According to S.V. Kolesnik (1955 p.), The upper limit of the geographic envelope lies in the tropopause (that is, on average, at a distance of 10-12 km from the Earth’s surface), since the entire troposphere interacts especially closely with the rest of the components of nature. The lower boundary is located in the earth's crust at a depth of 4-5 km and corresponds to the average thickness of sedimentary rocks formed as a result of the interaction of all geospheres.

Subsequently S.V. Kolesnik recognized the opinion of N.N. as more justified. Ermolaeva (1969) On the spread of the upper boundary of the geographic shell to the stratopause - the transition layer from the stratosphere to the mesosphere, because it is at this boundary that life is possible and the thermal effect of the earth's surface on atmospheric processes is manifested. It is more expedient to associate the lower boundary of the shell not with the entire thickness of the earth’s crust, but only with that surface part that is currently most actively interacting with exogenous and endogenous processes. The thickness of this layer on land does not exceed 600-800 m. In the windows, the geographic envelope permeates the entire water column, as well as the surface layers of bottom sediments.

Thus, the geographic envelope includes the entire hydrosphere and biosphere, as well as the lower part of the atmosphere (in which, however, about 80% of the air mass is concentrated) and the surface layers of the lithosphere. As for the horizontal boundaries of the geographic shell, they are determined by the size of the Earth; its shape is a closed sphere.

About 40,000 kilometers. The geographic shells of the Earth are systems of the planet where all the components inside are interconnected and defined relative to each other. There are four types of shells - atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The aggregate states of substances in them are of all types - liquid, solid and gaseous.

Shells of the Earth: atmosphere

The atmosphere is the outer shell. It contains various gases:

nitrogen - 78.08%;
oxygen - 20.95%;
argon - 0.93%;
carbon dioxide - 0.03%.

In addition to them, ozone, helium, hydrogen, and inert gases are found, but their share in the total volume is no more than 0.01%. This shell of the Earth also includes dust and water vapor.

The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into 5 layers:

troposphere - height from 8 to 12 km, characterized by the presence of water vapor, the formation of precipitation, and the movement of air masses;
stratosphere - 8-55 km, contains the ozone layer, which absorbs UV radiation;
mesosphere - 55-80 km, low air density compared to the lower troposphere;
ionosphere - 80-1000 km, contains ionized oxygen atoms, free electrons and other charged gas molecules;
the upper atmosphere (scattering sphere) is more than 1000 km, molecules move at enormous speeds and can penetrate into space.

The atmosphere supports life on the planet because it helps keep the Earth warm. It also prevents direct sunlight from penetrating. And its precipitation influenced the soil-forming process and climate formation.

Shells of the Earth: lithosphere

This is the hard shell that makes up the earth's crust. The globe consists of several concentric layers with different thicknesses and densities. They also have a heterogeneous composition. The average density of the Earth is 5.52 g/cm 3, and in the upper layers it is 2.7. This indicates that there are heavier substances inside the planet than on the surface.

The upper lithospheric layers have a thickness of 60-120 km. They are dominated by igneous rocks - granite, gneiss, basalt. Most of them were subjected to destruction processes over millions of years, pressure, temperatures and turned into loose rocks - sand, clay, loess, etc.

Up to 1200 km there is the so-called sigmatic shell. Its main constituents are magnesium and silicon.

At depths of 1200-2900 km there is a shell called medium semi-metallic or ore. It mainly contains metals, in particular iron.

Below 2900 km is the central part of the Earth.

Hydrosphere

The composition of this shell of the Earth is represented by all the waters of the planet, be it oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, groundwater. The hydrosphere is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies 70% of the total area - 361 million km 2.

1375 million km 3 of water is concentrated in the ocean, 25 on the land surface and in glaciers, and 0.25 in lakes. According to Academician Vernadsky, large reserves of water are located deep in the earth’s crust.

On the land surface, water is involved in continuous water exchange. Evaporation occurs mainly from the surface of the ocean, where the water is salty. Due to the process of condensation in the atmosphere, the land is provided with fresh water.

Biosphere

The structure, composition and energy of this shell of the Earth are determined by the processes of activity of living organisms. Biosphere boundaries - the land surface, the soil layer, the lower atmosphere and the entire hydrosphere.

Plants distribute and accumulate solar energy in the form of various organic substances. Living organisms carry out the migration process of chemicals in the soil, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and sedimentary rocks. Thanks to animals, gas exchange and redox reactions occur in these shells. The atmosphere is also the result of the activity of living organisms.

The shell is represented by biogeocenoses, which are genetically homogeneous areas of the Earth with one type of vegetation cover and inhabiting animals. Biogeocenoses have their own soils, topography and microclimate.

All shells of the Earth are in close continuous interaction, which is expressed as the exchange of substances and energy. Research in the field of this interaction and the identification of common principles is important for understanding the soil-forming process. The geographic envelopes of the Earth are unique systems characteristic only of our planet.