Brief history of Poland. Xi

At the end of the 9th century, an unknown historian, later called the Bavarian geographer, reported on the tribal Slavic groups living on the banks of the Warta and the Oder, and occupying the vast flat lands of Central Europe. Initially scattered in Western sources, they were called Lekhites, but later they began to be called glades, after the name of one of the strongest tribes; It was from the meadows that the founder of the Polish state, Mieszko I, came out.

Ancestors

Separate scattered tribes of Lekhites were ruled by princes, whose names history has not preserved. Modern historians know only one message, which concerns the genealogy of the rulers of the Glade tribe. This is explained by the fact that the glade, having carried out a number of successful military operations and subjugated the neighboring tribes, preferred to oust the names of their rulers from the memory of the vanquished, and preserve their traditions in history. In the 12th century, the chronicler Gallus Anonymus wrote down oral legends about the rulers of the meadows, and this is how they ended up in medieval chronicles. According to Anonymous, Prince Popiel, who was expelled, ruled in the city of Gniezno. His place was taken by Semovit, who did not occupy a high social position, but was the son of a simple plowman Piast. Semovit and laid the foundation for the Piastovich dynasty, who ruled in the fortification of Gniezno. It was this prince and his heirs, Lestko and Semomysl, who became the ancestors of Meshko I.

Prerequisites

Most likely, Mieszko I formed his state not from scratch. One can be sure that the history of the Polish state began long before the birth of this prince, and the former princely dynasty had already taken serious steps towards the centralization of power. The ancestors of Meshko I added the lands of neighboring tribes to the possessions of the glades: Kuvyan, Mazovshan, Lendzyan. On the occupied lands, defensive structures were built - cities. In some lands, towns were located at a distance of 20-25 km from each other, that is, during the daytime march of a combat detachment. A strong army became decisive factors in expanding and strengthening the power of the meadows. But vast territories, wetlands and impenetrable jungles of forests allowed the conquered tribes to maintain significant independence. The invaders did not change the way of life of the captured tribes, but imposed taxes on the peasant communities, which were collected by the servants of the prince. Thus, the founder of the Polish state owed much to his predecessors, who had created a system of government over the previous two centuries.

Beginning of the reign

Meshko was the son of Semomysl, the name of his mother remained unknown. The beginning of the reign dates back to 960, when the future founder of the Polish state began to rule in the principality of Great Poland with the center in Gniezno. Ten years later, he almost doubled the area under his control by annexing the territories of Mazovia, Kuyavia and the Gdansk Pomerania. The year 982 became the date of the conquest of Silesia, and in 990 the meadow was annexed by the Vistula lands. The conquests of the Poles began to take on a threatening character. In Western European and Arabic sources, information appeared about a powerful man with strong power and a well-trained army. Therefore, it is generally accepted that the Polish state was formed in the 10th century, when the Polish possessions were significantly expanded and strengthened, and the prince and his squad converted to Christianity.

Adoption of Christianity

Without the adoption of Christianity by Mieszko I in 966, the formation of the Polish state would have been impossible. The expansive foreign policy of the prince led to an aggravation of relations with neighboring states. Emperor Otto I repulsed the attempts of the Polyans to conquer the lands of the Lubushans, and Mieszko I agreed to pay tribute to this ruler. At the same time, the prince develops Polish-Czech relations. To secure relations with the Czech kingdom, Mieszko marries the daughter of the Czech king, Princess Dubravka. Two powerful neighbors - Sacred and Bohemia, led the prince to the decision to accept Christianity. Prince Mieszko was baptized according to the Latin rite in 966. The adoption of Christianity gave impetus to the fact that the first Polish state began to be recognized by contemporaries at the European level.

The structure of the Polish state

At the initial stage of formation, the Polish-Lithuanian state occupied an area of ​​approximately 250 thousand square meters. km. It is impossible to say more precisely, since the borders of the newly formed country were constantly changing. Most of the population was engaged in agriculture. The most numerous stratum of the population were the Kmets, free peasants. The Kmets lived in large families and after the unification of the tribes, the differences between the communities were preserved, which gave rise to the administrative division of the Polish lands, and later the adoption of Christianity, the same principle formed the division of the territory into dioceses.

Administrative division

The smallest step of the administrative division was the urban district. It was under the control of the representatives of the prince, who had full administrative, military and judicial power. There are references to four such centers in the cities of Gniezno, Poznań, Geche and Wloclawek. It was here that the shield-bearers and men-at-arms, who formed the backbone of the Polish army, took place. If necessary, detachments were assembled from all the free peasants. In terms of their armament and military training, such detachments were inferior to the soldiers of the princely squad, but they were successfully used in reconnaissance and in partisan attacks. According to historians, at the beginning of the 11th century, the total number of troops of Mieszko I was over 20 thousand people.

Economy of ancient Poland

The maintenance of a large and combat-ready army required a constant influx of funds. To ensure the country's defense capability and hold the occupied lands, Prince Meshko I created an established fiscal apparatus, which was engaged in the collection and distribution of taxes. The tax was paid by the entire rural population of the country, in the form of livestock products and agriculture. Another financial lever was the distribution of "regalia" - various rights to conduct especially profitable branches of economic activity. Regalia were: coinage, extraction of precious metals, the organization of markets and inns, some types of hunting. The main exports were furs, amber and slaves. But by the end of the 11th century, the development of agriculture began to require a constant influx of labor, and the growing influence of the church prohibited human trafficking. Therefore, the slave trade after XI ceased to be an element of export, and later it ceased altogether.

The end of the reign of Mieszko I

As in other European states, the rights to the princely throne were inherited. However, the right of birthright was not yet fixed on the Polish lands, therefore there were frequent civil strife between possible contenders for the throne. The founder of the Polish state had two brothers, one of whom died in battle, and the second, Chtibor, held a high-ranking post. Dying, Mieszko I left part of the state in the hands of his firstborn son Boleslav. This son went down in history as Boleslav the Brave. He inherited from his father a developed, rich, vast country with great international influence. And after a long series of victories and defeats, Bolesław the Brave became the first king of the Polish state.

As you remember, in the VI-VII centuries. During the Great Migration of Peoples, Slavic tribes settled in Eastern Europe. In the second half of the 10th century, the Polish prince Mieszko I (960-992) subjugated the tribes that settled along the Vistula River. Together with a 3,000-strong squad, he adopted the Christian faith and thereby greatly strengthened his power. He laid the foundation for the Polish state, the history of which you will get acquainted with in today's lesson.

Mieszko I fought for the unification of the Polish lands, made an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire against the Polabian Slavs, but at times supported the German feudal lords against the emperor. The unification of Poland was completed during the reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025). He managed to annex the southern Polish lands. The capital of Poland was moved to the city of Krakow - a major trading center on the way from Kyiv to Prague. Boleslav I managed to capture the Czech Republic with Prague for a while, but soon the Czech Republic was freed from his power. Boleslav went on a campaign to Kyiv, trying to put his son-in-law on the throne, but to no avail. In the west, he fought long wars with the Holy Roman Empire. Shortly before his death, Boleslav was proclaimed king of Poland (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Poland under Boleslaw the Brave ()

In the middle of the 11th century, Poland entered a period of feudal fragmentation.

In the 13th century, Poland was going through difficult times. Dozens of small principalities existed on its territory. By the middle of the 13th century, the Teutonic Order captured all of Prussia and Pomorie. The Tatar invasion was also a great disaster for Poland. In 1241, the Mongol-Tatar army passed through all of Poland, turning cities and villages into piles of ruins. Mongol raids were repeated in the future.

In the XIII-XIV centuries, fragmented Poland gradually united. As in other countries, ordinary Polish townspeople and peasants, who suffered most from feudal civil strife, gentry knights, as well as the Polish clergy, oppressed by the Germans, were interested in a single strong state. Strong royal power could protect them from large feudal magnates. The magnates did not need the power of the king: they themselves could defend themselves or suppress any uprising of the peasants with the help of detachments of the gentry dependent on them. Cities led by German patricians also did not support the unification of the country. Many large cities (Krakow, Wroclaw, Szczecin) were part of the Hanseatic League and were more interested in trade with other countries than within the country.

The unification of Poland was accelerated by the need to defend against external enemies, especially from the Teutonic Order.

At the end of the XIII century, the unification of the Polish lands was headed by one of the princes - the energetic Vladislav I Loketek (Fig. 2). He entered into a struggle with the Czech king, who temporarily united the Czech and Polish lands under his rule. Vladislav was opposed by German knights and local magnates. The struggle was difficult: Prince Vladislav even had to leave the country for several years. But with the support of the gentry, he managed to break the resistance of his opponents and almost completely take over the territory of Poland. In 1320, Vladislav Loketek was solemnly crowned. But it was not possible to establish the power of the king over all of Poland. The magnates retained their possessions, power and influence. Therefore, the unification did not lead to a complete merger of individual lands: they retained their structure, their governing bodies.

Rice. 2. Vladislav Loketek ()

Loketek's successor Casimir III (1333-1370) (Fig. 3) concluded a peace treaty with the Czech Republic: its king renounced claims to the Polish throne, but retained some of the lands of Poland. For a while, Poland stopped the war with the Teutonic Order. Many Polish feudal lords tried to expand their possessions at the expense of the current Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian lands. In the middle of the XIV century, Polish feudal lords captured Galicia and part of Volhynia. Therefore, they temporarily abandoned the continuation of the struggle for the complete liberation of the indigenous Polish lands in the west and north of the country.

Rice. 3. Casimir III ()

Childless Casimir passed the throne to his nephew from his sister, Louis, King of Hungary; the powerful gentry agreed to this transfer, because Louis promised not to impose taxes without the consent of the people. During the reign of Louis, the power of the Polish gentry increased markedly. Louis bequeathed Poland to his daughter Jadwiga, who, under the terms of the Polish-Lithuanian union, married in 1385 the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, who became both the king of Poland and the grand duke of Lithuania. But the unification of the two states did not happen. The advantages that the Poles and Catholics received in Lithuania caused discontent among the Orthodox part of the Principality. The struggle for the independence of Lithuania was led by Vytautas. In 1392 Vytautas became the Grand Duke of the Principality of Lithuania, and Jagiello retained the Polish crown.

Bibliography

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2. Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000
3. An illustrated world history: from ancient times to the 17th century. - M., 1999
4. History of the Middle Ages: book. For reading / Ed. V.P. Budanova. - M., 1999
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6. Stories on the history of the Middle Ages / Ed. A.A. Svanidze. M., 1996

1. Poland.ru ().
2. Paredox.narod.ru ().
3. Poland.ru ().

Homework

1. When did the period of feudal fragmentation begin in the history of Poland?
2. What external opponents did Poland have to fight in the Middle Ages?
3. With the names of which rulers is the unification of the fragmented Polish lands associated?
4. How did relations between Poland and the Russian principalities develop?

HistoryPoland is an incredible tale. Forever sandwiched between two powerful and aggressive neighbors, Poland has defended its freedom and sovereignty countless times over the past millennium. She went from the largest country in Europe to a country completely disappearing from the map of the world, and saw her population defeated in two world wars. However, it testifies to the amazing resilience of the Polish people, and that Poland not only recovered from each crushing blow, but also retained the energy to maintain its own culture.

History of Poland in ancient times

The lands of present-day Poland have been inhabited since the Stone Age by numerous tribes from east and west who have called its fertile plains home. Archaeological finds from the Stone and Bronze Ages can be seen in many Polish museums, but the greatest example of pre-Slavic peoples is in Biskupin. This fortified city was built by the Lusatian tribe about 2700 years ago. The Celts, the Germanic tribes, and then the Baltic people, they all established themselves on the territory of Poland. But this was all before the arrival of the Slavs, who began to form the country into a nation.

Although the exact date of the arrival of the first Slavic tribes is unknown, historians believe that the Slavs began to settle in Poland between the 5th and 8th centuries. Starting from the 8th century, smaller tribes began to unite, creating large conglomerates, thus asserting themselves more fully on the lands of the future Polish state. The name of the country comes from one of these tribes - Polanie(“people of the fields”) - settled on the banks of the Warta River near the modern city of Poznan. The leader of this tribe, the legendary Piast, in the 10th century managed to unite disparate groups from the surrounding regions into a single political bloc, and gave it the name Polska, later Wielkopolska, that is, Greater Poland. This was the case until the arrival of the great-great-grandson of Piast, Duke Mieszko I, who united a significant part of Poland under one dynasty.

First state of Poland

After Mieszko I converted to Christianity, he did what the previous Christian rulers did and began to conquer his neighbors. Soon, the entire coastal region of Pomerania (Pomerania) came under its sovereignty, along with Szlensk (Silesia) and Lesser Poland Voivodeship. By the time of his death in 992, the Polish state had approximately the same borders as modern Poland, and the city of Gniezno was appointed its first capital. By that time, such cities as Gdansk, Szczecin, Poznan, Wroclaw and Krakow already existed. Mieszko's son, Bolesław I the Brave, continued his father's work, pushing the borders of Poland to the east, all the way to Kyiv. His son, Mieszko II, was less successful in his conquests, and during his reign the country experienced wars in the north and a period of internal strife within the royal family. The administrative center of the country was moved from Greater Poland to the less vulnerable Lesser Poland Voivodeship, where by the middle of the 11th century Krakow was appointed as the center of royal rule.

When the pagan Prussians attacked the central province of Mazovia in 1226, the Duke of Mazovia Konrad called for help from the Teutonic Knights and German troops, who were marked in history during the time of the Crusades. Soon, the knights subjugated the pagan tribes, but then "bit the hand that fed them", starting massive castle building on Polish territory, conquering the port city of Gdansk, and effectively occupying the north of Poland, proclaiming it their territory. They ruled from their largest castle in Malbork and, within a few decades, became the main military power of Europe.

Casimir III and reunification

Only in 1320 the Polish crown was restored and the state was reunited. This happened during the reign Casimir III the Great(1333-1370), when Poland gradually became a prosperous and strong state. Casimir the Great restored suzerainty over Mazovia, then captured the vast territories of Little Russia (today Ukraine) and Podolia, thereby significantly expanding the boundaries of the monarchy to the southeast.

Casimir the Great was also an enlightened and energetic ruler on the home front. By developing and reforming, he laid a solid legal, economic, commercial and educational foundation. He also passed a law providing benefits for Jews, thus making Poland a safe home for the Jewish community for centuries to come. More than 70 new cities were created. In 1364, one of the first universities in Europe was established in Krakow, and castles and fortifications were erected to improve the country's defenses. There is a saying that Casimir the Great "found Poland built of wood, and left it built up with stones."

Jagiellonian dynasty (1382-1572)

The end of the 14th century was remembered by Poland for the dynastic union with Lithuania, the so-called political marriage, which increased the territory of Poland fivefold in one night and lasted for the next four centuries. The unification benefited both sides - Poland received a partner in the fight against the Tatars and Mongols, and Lithuania received help in the fight against the Teutonic Order. under power Vladislav II Jagiello(1386-1434), the alliance defeated the knights and restored eastern Pomerania, part of Prussia and the port of Gdansk, and for the next 30 years the Polish empire was the largest state in Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea.

Eastern Progress and Poland's Golden Age

But it didn't last long. The threat of invasion became apparent towards the end of the 15th century - this time the main instigators were the Turks from the south, the Crimean Tatars from the east and the Muscovite tsars from the north and east. Together or separately, they repeatedly invaded and raided the eastern and southern parts of the Polish territories, and, on one occasion, penetrated so far that they reached Krakow.

Despite this, the power of the Polish kingdom was firmly established and the country advanced both culturally and spiritually. The beginning of the 16th century brought the Renaissance to Poland, and during the reign Sigismund I the Old and his son Sigismund II Augustus art and science flourished. This was the Golden Age of Poland, which gave birth to such great men as Nicolaus Copernicus.

The bulk of Poland's population at this time was made up of Poles and Lithuanians, but included significant minorities from neighboring countries. Jews were an important and growing part of society, and by the end of the 16th century Poland had a larger Jewish population than the rest of united Europe.

On the political front, Poland evolved in the 16th century into a parliamentary monarchy with most of the privileges of the nobility (nobility, feudal nobility), who made up about 10% of the population. At the same time, the status of the peasants decreased, and they gradually fell into a state of virtual slavery.

Hoping to strengthen the monarchy, the Sejm, convened in Lublin in 1569, united Poland and Lithuania into a single state, and made Warsaw the site of future meetings. Since there was no direct heir to the throne, the Sejm also established a system of succession based on voting by nobles in a general election, who must come to Warsaw to vote. In the absence of serious Polish applicants, foreign candidates could also be considered.

Royal Republic (1573-1795)

From the very beginning, the experiment led to disastrous consequences. For each royal election, foreign powers promoted their candidates by making deals and bribing voters. During this period, no less than 11 kings ruled over Poland, and only four of them were Poles by birth.

First elected king Henri de Valois, retreated to his homeland to take the French throne after only a year on the Polish throne. his successor, Stefan Batory(1576-1586), prince of Transylvania, was a much wiser choice. Batory, along with his gifted commander and chancellor Jan Zamoyski, fought a series of successful battles against Tsar Ivan the Terrible and came close to forging an alliance with Russia against the Ottoman Empire.

After Batory's premature death, the crown was offered to the Swede, Sigismund III Vase(1587-1632), and during his reign Poland reached its maximum expansion (three times the size of modern Poland). Despite this, Sigismund is best remembered for the relocation of the Polish capital from Kraków to Warsaw between 1596 and 1609.

The beginning of the 17th century was a turning point in the fate of Poland. The increasing political power of the Polish gentry undermined the authority of the Sejm. The country was divided into several huge private estates, and the nobles, frustrated by the ineffective government, resorted to armed rebellion.

Meanwhile, foreign invaders were systematically dividing the land. Jan II Casimir Vase(1648-68), the last of the Vaza dynasty on the Polish throne, was unable to resist the aggressors - Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians, Cossacks, Turks and Swedes - who were approaching on all fronts. Swedish invasion in the years 1655-1660, known as the Deluge, was especially pernicious.

The last shining moment in the fall of the Royal Republic was the reign of Jan III Sobieski(1674-96), a brilliant commander who fought several victorious battles against the Ottoman Empire. The most famous of these was the Battle of Vienna in 1683, in which he defeated the Turks.

Rise of Russia

By the early 18th century, Poland was in decline and Russia had grown into a powerful, expansive empire. The kings systematically increased their power over the spinning country, and the rulers of Poland actually became puppets of the Russian regime. This became quite clear during the reign Stanisław August Poniatowski(1764-95), when Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, intervened directly in the affairs of Poland. The collapse of the Polish empire was not far off.

Three sections

While Poland languished Russia, Prussia and Austria were gaining strength. The end of the 18th century was a disastrous period for the country, with neighboring powers agreeing to partition Poland on no less than three separate occasions in a span of 23 years. The First Partition led to immediate reforms and a new, liberal constitution, and Poland remained relatively stable. Catherine the Great could no longer tolerate this dangerous democracy and sent Russian troops to Poland. Despite fierce resistance, the reforms were reversed by force and the country was divided for the second time.

Input Tadeusz Kosciuszko hero of the American Revolutionary War. With the help of patriotic forces, he launched an armed uprising in 1794. The campaign soon gained public support and the rebels scored some early victories, but the Russian troops, stronger and better armed, defeated the Polish forces within a year. Resistance and unrest remained within the Polish borders, which brought the three occupying powers to a third and final partition. Poland disappeared from the map for the next 123 years.

Fight for independence

Despite partitions, Poland continued to exist as a spiritual and cultural community, and many secret nationalist societies were formed. Since revolutionary France was perceived as the main ally in the struggle, some leaders fled to Paris and established their headquarters there.

In 1815 the Congress of Vienna created the Congress of the Kingdom of Poland, but Russian oppression continued. In response, armed uprisings broke out, the most significant of which took place in 1830 and 1863. There was also an uprising against the Austrians in 1846.

In the 1870s, Russia dramatically increased its efforts to eradicate Polish culture, suppressing the Polish language in education, government, and commerce, and replacing it with Russian. However, it was also a time of great industrialization in Poland: cities like Łódź are experiencing an economic boom. With the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, the fate of Poland changed once again.

First World War (1914-18)

World War I brought Poland's three occupying powers into the war. On the one hand, there were the Central Powers, Austria-Hungary and Germany (including Prussia), on the other hand, Russia and its Western allies. Most of the hostilities were organized on Polish lands, resulting in huge loss of life and livelihood. Because no official Polish state existed, there was no Polish army to fight for the national cause. Worse, about two million Poles were drafted into the Russian, German or Austrian armies and were required to fight each other.

Paradoxically, the war ultimately led to Polish independence. After October revolution in 1917, Russia plunged into civil war and no longer had the power to oversee Polish affairs. The final collapse of the Austrian Empire in October 1918 and the withdrawal of the German army from Warsaw in November brought the right moment. Marshal Józef Piłsudski assumed control of Warsaw on November 11, 1918, declared Polish sovereignty and usurped power as head of state.

Rise and fall of the Second Republic

Poland began its new incarnation in a hopeless situation - the country and its economy were in ruins, and about a million Poles died in the First World War. All state institutions - including the army, which had not existed for over a century - had to be built from scratch.

Treaty of Versailles in 1919 he awarded Poland the western part of Prussia, providing access to the Baltic Sea. The city of Gdansk, however, became the free city of Danzig. The rest of Poland's western frontier was drawn up through a series of plebiscites that led Poland to acquire some significant industrial areas of Upper Silesia. The eastern borders were established when Polish forces defeated the Red Army during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-20.

When Poland's territorial struggle ended, the Second Republic covered nearly 400,000 sq. km and had a population of 26 million. One third of the population was of non-Polish ethnic origin, mainly Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Germans.

After Piłsudski retired from politics in 1922, the country experienced four years of unstable government until the great general seized power in a military coup in May 1926. Parliament was gradually reduced, but despite the dictatorial regime, political repression had little effect on ordinary people. The economic situation was relatively stable, and cultural and intellectual life flourished.

On the international front, Poland's position in the 1930s was unenviable. In an attempt to patch things up with its two staunchly hostile neighbors, Poland has signed non-aggression pacts both with the Soviet Union and Germany. However, it soon became clear that the treaties provided no real security guarantees.

August 23, 1939, in Moscow, a non-aggression pact was signed between Germany and the Soviet Union by Foreign Ministers Ribbentrop and Molotov. This treaty contained a secret protocol defining the proposed division of Eastern Europe between these two great powers.

World War II (1939-45)

World War II started at dawn September 1, 1939 years since the massive German invasion of Poland. Fighting began in Gdańsk (then the free city of Danzig) when German forces clashed with a stubborn handful of Polish partisans at Westerplatte. The battle lasted a week. Simultaneously, another German line stormed Warsaw, which finally surrendered on 28 September. Despite the valiant resistance, there was simply no hope of facing the overwhelming and well-armed German forces numerically; the last resistance groups were put down by early October. Hitler's policy was to destroy the Polish nation and Germanize the territory. Hundreds of thousands of Poles were sent to forced labor camps in Germany, while others, primarily the intelligentsia, were executed in an attempt to exterminate the spiritual and intellectual leadership.

The Jews were to be completely liquidated. First they were separated and imprisoned in ghettos, and then sent to concentration camps scattered throughout the country. Almost the entire Jewish population of Poland (three million) and approximately one million Poles perished in the camps. Resistance broke out in numerous ghettos and camps, the most famous of which was in Warsaw.

Within weeks of the Nazi invasion, the Soviet Union moved into Poland and took over the eastern half of the country. Thus, Poland was again divided. Mass arrests, exiles and executions followed, and it is believed that between one and two million Poles were sent to Siberia, the Soviet Arctic and Kazakhstan in 1939-40. Just like the Nazis, the Soviet army set in motion the process of intellectual genocide.

Shortly after the start of the war, a Polish government-in-exile was formed in France under General Władysław Sikorski and later Stanisław Mikolajczyk. As the front line moved west, this formed government, in June 1940, was moved to London.

The course of the war changed dramatically when Hitler unexpectedly attacked the Soviet Union. June 22, 1941. Soviet troops were pushed out of Eastern Poland and all of Poland came under Nazi control. The Führer set up camp in the depths of Polish territory, and remained there for more than three years.

nationwide movement Resistance, concentrated in the cities, was put in place shortly after the end of the war in order to manage the Polish educational, judicial and communications systems. Armed detachments were created by the government-in-exile in 1940 and became the Home Army (AK; Home Army), which figured prominently in the Warsaw Uprising.

Surprisingly, given the Soviet treatment of the Poles, Stalin turned to Poland for help in the war against the German forces advancing east towards Moscow. The official Polish Army was reorganized at the end of 1941, but was largely under Soviet control.

Hitler's defeat at Stalingrad in 1943 was the turning point of the war on the Eastern Front, and the Red Army successfully advanced westward. After the Soviet troops liberated the Polish city of Lublin, on July 22, 1944, the Polish Pro-Communist Committee for National Liberation (PKNO) was established, which took over the functions of the interim government. A week later, the Red Army reached the outskirts of Warsaw.

Warsaw at that time remained under Nazi occupation. In a last-ditch effort to create an independent Polish administration, AK tried to gain control of the city before the arrival of Soviet troops, with disastrous results. The Red Army continued its movement west through Poland, reaching Berlin a few months later. On May 8, 1945, the Nazi Reich capitulated.

At the end of World War II, Poland lay in ruins. Over six million people, about 20% of the pre-war population, lost their lives, and out of three million Polish Jews in 1939, only 80-90 thousand survived the war. Her cities were little more than rubble, and only 15% of Warsaw's buildings survived. Many Poles who had seen the war in foreign countries chose not to return to the new political order.

On the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin decided to leave Poland under Soviet control. They agreed that Poland's eastern border would roughly follow the 1939 Nazi-Soviet demarcation line. Six months later, Allied leaders established Poland's western frontier along the rivers: Odra (Oder) and Nysa (Neisse); in reality the country has returned to its medieval borders.

Radical border changes were accompanied by population movements: Poles were moved to the newly defined Poland, while Germans, Ukrainians and Belarusians were resettled outside of it. Eventually, 98% of Poland's population became ethnically Polish.

Once Poland formally came under Soviet control, Stalin launched an intense campaign of Sovietization. The military leaders of the resistance were accused of collaborating with the Nazis, and were shot or sentenced to arbitrary prison terms. The provisional Polish government was established in Moscow in June 1945 and then moved to Warsaw. The general election was postponed until 1947 to allow time for the secret police to arrest prominent Polish political figures. After the rigged election results, the new Sejm elected Bolesław Bierut as president; Stanisław Mikolajczyk, accused of espionage, fled back to England.

In 1948, the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP) was formed to monopolize power, and in 1952 a Soviet-style constitution was adopted. The post of president was abolished and power passed to the first secretary of the Party Central Committee. Poland became part of the Warsaw Pact.

Stalinist fanaticism never gained as much influence in Poland as in neighboring countries, and shortly after Stalin's death in 1953 it all disappeared. The powers of the secret police were reduced. The pressure was reduced and Polish cultural property was reanimated.

In June 1956, a massive industrial strike broke out in Poznań, demanding ‘bread and freedom’. The action was suppressed by force, and soon Vladislav Gomulka, a former political prisoner of the Stalin era, was appointed the first secretary of the Party. At first he commanded public support, but later he showed a tougher and more authoritarian attitude, putting pressure on the church and intensifying the persecution of the intelligentsia. Eventually there was an economic crisis that caused his downfall; when he announced an official price increase in 1970, a wave of mass strikes broke out in Gdańsk, Gdynia and Szczecin. Again, the protests were violently crushed, resulting in 44 deaths. The party, to save face, removed Gomułk from office and replaced him with Edvard Gierek.

Another attempt to raise prices in 1976 incited labor protests, and again workers left work, this time in Radom and Warsaw. Caught in a downward spiral, Gierek borrowed more from abroad, but in order to earn hard currency on which to pay interest, he was forced to divert domestic consumer goods and sell them abroad. By 1980, external debt reached US$21 billion and the economy collapsed.

By then, the opposition had become a significant force, backed by numerous intellectual advisors. When the government again announced increases in food prices in July 1980, the result was predictable: hot and well-organized strikes and riots spread like wildfire throughout the country. In August, they paralyzed the largest ports, the Silesian coal mines and the Lenin shipyard in Gdansk.

Unlike most previous popular protests, the 1980 strikes were non-violent; the strikers did not take to the streets, but remained in their factories.

Solidarity

August 31, 1980, after long, protracted negotiations in the shipyard named after Lenin, the government signed the Gdansk agreement. This forced the ruling party to accept most of the strikers' demands, including the right of workers to organize independent trade unions and go on strike. In turn, the workers agreed to uphold the constitution and accept the Party's authority as supreme.

Delegations of workers from all over the country convened and founded Solidarity(Solidarność), a nationwide independent and self-governing trade union. Lech Walesa, who led the strike in Gdansk, was elected chairman.

The ripple effect was not long in coming, causing fluctuations in the government. Zhirek was replaced by Stanisław Kanya, who in turn lost in October 1981 to General Wojciech Jaruzelski. However, the trade union's greatest influence was on Polish society. After 35 years of restraint, the Poles have embroiled themselves in a spontaneous and chaotic kind of democracy. A wide-ranging debate on the reform process was spearheaded by Solidarity and an independent press flourished. Forbidden historical topics such as the Stalin-Hitler pact and the Katyn massacres could, for the first time, be discussed openly.

Not surprisingly, Solidarity's 10 million participants represented a wide range of views, from confrontational to conciliatory. By and large, it was the charismatic authority of Walesa, who kept the union on a moderate and balanced course.

The government, however, under pressure from Soviet and local hardliners, was reluctant to make any significant reforms and systematically rejected Solidarity's proposals. This led to further discontent and, in the absence of other legal options, more strikes. Amid the fruitless debate, the economic crisis has become more serious. After unsuccessful negotiations in November 1981 between the government, Solidarity and the church, social tensions increased and led to a political stalemate.

Martial law and the collapse of communism

When General Jaruzelski appeared unexpectedly on television in the early hours of the morning December 13, 1981 To declare martial law, tanks were already on the streets, army checkpoints set up at every corner, and paramilitaries were stationed at possible flashpoints. Power was placed in the hands of the Military Council of National Salvation (WRON), a group of officers commanded by Jaruzelski himself.

Solidarity activities were suspended and all public gatherings, demonstrations and strikes were banned. Several thousand people, including most of the Solidarity and Walesa leaders, were interned. The spontaneous demonstrations and strikes that followed were crushed, military rule effectively took effect on Polish territory within two weeks of its declaration, and life returned to the times before the founding of Solidarity.

In October 1982, the government officially dissolved Solidarity and released Wales from custody. In July 1984, a limited amnesty was announced and some members of the political opposition were released from prison. But, after every public outcry, arrests continued, and it was not until 1986 that all political prisoners were released.

Election Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in 1985 and its glasnost and perestroika programs provided an important impetus for democratic reform throughout Eastern Europe. By early 1989, Jaruzelski softened his position and allowed the opposition to fight for seats in parliament.

Non-free elections were held in June 1989, in which Solidarity succeeded in winning an overwhelming majority of its supporters' votes and being elected to the Senate, the upper house of parliament. The Communists, however, secured for themselves 65% of the seats in the Sejm. Jaruzelski was placed in the presidency as a stabilizing guarantor of political change for both Moscow and local communists, but a non-communist prime minister, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, was installed as a result of Walesa's personal pressure. This power-sharing agreement with the first non-communist prime minister in Eastern Europe since World War II paved the way for a domino-like collapse of communism throughout the Soviet bloc. In 1990 the Party historically disbanded itself.

The free market and the times of Lech Walesa

In January 1990, Finance Minister Leszek Balcerowicz introduced a package of reforms to replace the centrally planned communist system with a market economy. His economic shock therapy allowed prices to move freely, subsidies were removed, money was tightened, and the currency depreciated sharply, making it fully convertible with Western currencies.

The effect was almost instantaneous. Within a few months, the economy seemed to stabilize, food shortages were clearly non-existent, and stores filled with goods. On the other hand, prices have skyrocketed and the unemployment rate has risen. An initial wave of optimism and patience turned into uncertainty and discontent, and austerity measures caused a decline in the government's popularity.

In November 1990, Walesa won the first completely free presidential election, and was born Third Polish Republic. During his statutory five-year tenure, Poland witnessed no fewer than five governments and five prime ministers, all of whom struggled to get the newborn democracy back on track.

After his election, Walesa appointed Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, an economist and former adviser, to the post of prime minister. His cabinet tried to continue the strict principles of economic policy introduced by the previous government, but was unable to maintain parliamentary support and resigned a year later. At least 70 parties contested the country's first free parliamentary elections in October 1991, which resulted in the appointment of Prime Minister Jan Olszewski at the head of a centre-right coalition. Olszewski lasted only five months, and was replaced by Hanna Suchocka in June 1992. Suchocka was, in Poland, the first female prime minister, and she was called the Polish Margaret Thatcher. Under her coalition rule, she was able to command a parliamentary majority, but divisions on many issues grew, and she lost in the June 1993 elections.

Return of the communist regime

An impatient Walesa stepped in, dissolving parliament and calling for a general election. His decision was a gross miscalculation. The pendulum swung and the elections resulted in a coalition of the Democratic Left (SLD) and the Polish Peasants' Party (PSL).

The new government, led by PSL leader Waldemar Pawlak, continued the overall market reform, but the economy began to slow down. Continuous tensions within the coalition led to a decline in her popularity, and her battles with the president brought further changes in February 1995 when Walesa threatened to dissolve Parliament unless Pawlak was replaced. The fifth and last prime minister of Walesa's presidential term was Józef Oleksy: another former official of the Communist Party.

Walesa's presidential style and achievements have been repeatedly questioned by virtually all political parties and the majority of the electorate. His bizarre behavior and capricious use of power caused the decline in success he enjoyed in 1990 and led to the lowest level of public support ever in 1995, when polls indicated that only 8% of the country would have him as president for another term. . Despite this, Walesa maneuvered vigorously and came pretty close to getting a second term.

The elections in November 1995 were essentially a difficult duel between the anti-communist popular figure, Lech Walesa, and the young, former communist technocrat and leader of the SLD, Aleksander Kwasniewski. Kwaśniewski was ahead of Wales, but by a narrow margin of just 3.5%.

Włodzimierz Cymoszewicz, another former party official of the Communist Party, took over as prime minister. In reality, the post-communists have taken power in a stranglehold, running the president, government and parliament - the 'red triangle' - as Walesa warned. The central and right - almost half of the political nation - have effectively lost control of the decision-making process. The church endorsed by Walesa during his reign also failed and warned believers against the dangers of "neopaganism" under the new regime.

Striking a balance

By 1997, the electorate clearly understood that things had gone too far. The parliamentary elections in September were won by an alliance of some 40 small Solidarity offshoot parties, collectively called the Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS). The union formed a coalition with the centrist liberal Union for Freedom (UW), pushing ex-communists into opposition. Jerzy Buzek of AWS became prime minister, and the new government accelerated the country's privatization.

President Kwasniewski's political style contrasted sharply with that of his predecessor Walesa. Kwasniewski brought political calm during his reign and was able to cooperate successfully with the left and right wings of the political establishment. This brought him a significant degree of popular support, and paved the way for another five-year term.

At least 13 people contested the October 2000 presidential election, but no one came close to Kwasniewski, who won with 54% of the popular vote. Centrist businessman Andrzej Olechowski came in second with 17% support, while Walesa, after trying his luck for the third time, was defeated with just 1% of the vote.

On the way to Europe

On the international front, Poland was granted full NATO membership in March 1999, while at home parliamentary elections in September 2001 changed the political axis once again. The Union of the Democratic Left (SLD) organized its second comeback, holding 216 seats in the Sejm. The party formed a coalition with the Polish Peasants' Party (PSL), echoing the shaky alliance of 1993, and a former senior Communist Party official, Leszek Miller, took over as prime minister.

Poland's biggest movement in the 21st century was accession to the European Union May 1, 2004. The next day, Miller resigned due to a string of corruption scandals and unrest over high unemployment and low living standards. His replacement, respected economist Marek Belka, lasted until the September 2005 elections, when the conservative Law and Justice Party (PiS) and the liberal-conservative Civic Platform (PO) party came to power. Together, they won 288 seats in the Seimas out of 460. PiS member Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz was appointed prime minister, and a month later, another PiS member, Lech Kaczynski took the presidency.

History of Poland today

Unsurprisingly, Martsinkevich didn't last long and resigned in July 2006 over an alleged rift with PiS leader Yaroslav Kaczynski. Yaroslav, the president's twin brother, was quickly appointed to the position. However, his reign was short-lived - in early elections in October 2007, Yaroslav lost to the more liberal and EU-friendly Donald Task and his Civic Platform party.

President Kaczynski, his wife and dozens of senior officials died April 10, 2010 when their plane crashed in the Katyn forest near Smolensk. A total of 96 people died in the plane crash, including Poland's deputy foreign minister, 12 members of parliament, leaders of the army and navy, and the president of the national bank. Bronisław Komorowski, leader of the lower house of parliament, took on the role of acting president.

Kaczynski's twin brother and former Prime Minister Jarosław Kaczynski ran for president against the candidacy of Bronisław Komorowski, head of the Civic Platform party. Komorowski won the first and second rounds of the election and was recognized as president in July.

Despite countless reforms and coalitions, Poland still wavers in political and economic interests. But given its turbulent past, the country has found some stability and is enjoying self-rule and peace.

The history of the country is closely connected with the general history of Europe and with the events that have taken place on the continent for the last millennium.

Ancient history of Poland

In ancient times, Germans, Goths, Slavs lived on these lands. Over time, the Slavic tribes began to unite, which ultimately led to the formation of Poland in the 9th century. The center of the then state was the city of Gniezno. In 966, Christianity of the Catholic rite was adopted. In 1320 the city of Krakow became the political center. In the fourteenth century, Galicia was annexed. In 1385, after the conclusion of the Union of Krevo, a united Letovo-Polish state arose, Catholicism began to spread in Lithuania and the Western Russian lands.

History of the Commonwealth

1569 - the date of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin. As a result of this event, the state of the Commonwealth was formed. The kingdom was a confederation of the Principality of Lithuania and Poland, headed by a king elected by the Sejm. In 1648, an uprising began under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, and later, from 1654 to 1667, a war took place between Russia and the Commonwealth. These events led to the weakening of the Commonwealth and to the loss of Kyiv and the lands that she owned on the left bank of the Dnieper. The further gradual decline of the kingdom led, at the end of the eighteenth century, to the three partitions of Poland. The country was divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia.

Period without independence

After Napoleon defeated Prussia, the Duchy of Warsaw was created on the part of Poland that belonged to Prussia. After the defeat of Napoleon, another division of the country was carried out. Its fate was decided at the Congress of Vienna. It was assumed that the Polish lands will be granted autonomy in Prussia and in Austria and in Russia. As a result, it so happened that autonomy was given only by the Russian Empire, as a result of which the autonomous Kingdom of Poland was formed as part of Russia.

Recent history of Poland

In 1918 the independence of Poland was proclaimed. Yuzev Pilsudski became the first head of state after gaining independence. From 1919 to 1921, the newly formed state was at war with the Soviet Union. The result of the war was the signing of a peace treaty in Riga. This treaty defined the borders between the countries. Western Belarusian and Western Ukrainian lands went to Poland. In 1939 the country was occupied by German troops, in the same year the Western Ukrainian and Western Belarusian lands were ceded to the USSR. Poland was liberated from Germany by the Soviet Union. In 1952, the country was named the Polish People's Republic, and in 1955 it became a member of the Warsaw Pact. In 1989, free elections were held in the country. Reforms began in the republic. In 1999, the state became a member of NATO, and in 2004 joined the European Union.

During the 9th century, large tribal unions arose in the Polish lands, uniting a number of tribal territories. Two such centers were of particular importance: Wislicko-Krakow in Lesser (southern) Poland - the Principality of the Wislanians, and Gniezno-Nozpansky in Greater (Northern) Poland - the Principality of the Polans. Vislans at the end of the 9th century came under the rule of Great Moravia, and then became dependent on the Czech Republic. This determined the leading role of the Polan principality in the process of unification of Polish lands. The Piast peasant, who founded the Piastok dynasty, is considered the legendary ancestor of the Polish rulers. The capital of the state was the city of Gniezno.

The formation of the early feudal Polish state was completed during the reign of Mieszko I (960-992) and his son Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025). Through the efforts of these princes, Silesia, Pomerania, Lesser Poland were annexed (including Krakow - in 999). In 966, Poland adopted Christianity as the state religion, and then in 1000, an independent Polish archbishopric arose with its center in Gniezno. Bolesław in 1025 became the first king in the history of Poland. By the end of this reign, the state territory was about 250 thousand square meters. km with a population of about 1 million people.

After the death of Boleslav the Brave, the country experienced a political and economic crisis, which ultimately led to the largest anti-feudal uprising of 1037-1038. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Polish state, the Czech prince Brzhstislav in 1038 made a military campaign against Wormwood and ravaged Gniezno. Krakow became the capital of the state. The centralization of the state intensified during the reign of Boleslav II the Bold, who in 1076 received the royal crown. However, as a result of the conspiracy, he was removed from power and fled to Hungary. From that moment on, trends of political decentralization prevailed in Poland. Bolesław III Krivousty (1102-1138), trying to prevent the disintegration of the country, in his will in 1138 established a principate in the succession to the grand prince's throne: the eldest received power and the most important lands, and the rest of the sons, inheriting separate destinies, obeyed him.

After the death of Boleslav, more precisely, after the expulsion in 1146 by the younger princes, supported by large feudal lords, his eldest son Vladislav II, nicknamed from that time the Exile, feudal fragmentation finally set in. The principate system in the third decade of the 13th century finally fell into decay. The state broke up into a number of independent specific principalities. The princes granted court ranks (positions) and land holdings with the population living in them to local feudal lords. Thus, feudal land ownership continued to develop, the dependence of the peasant population deepened, and a class organization of feudal society took shape.
Even in the period of fragmentation, however, the traditions of state unity were preserved. This was facilitated by such factors as the fact that the princes belonged to a single ruling dynasty, the presence of a common church organization, and a common (despite regional differences) system of customary law. Interest in unification was stimulated by the fight against foreign policy danger from the Crusaders (Teutonic Order) and Brandenburg.

Specific fragmentation continued in Poland for a relatively short time - until the end of the 13th century. In 1314, Prince Vladislav Lockstock united Great and Lesser Poland, and in 1320 became the king of a single state, occupying about 106 thousand square meters. km. Outside the united kingdom remained Western Pomerania (became part of Brandenburg), Eastern Pomerania and Kuyavia (captured by the Crusaders), Silesia (became "part of the Czech Kingdom), Mazovia (retained its own princely dynasty). Thus, Poland lost more than half of the state territory , lost access to the sea.The capital of the state again became Krakow, where the residence of the Polish kings was located, their coronation and burial were carried out.

Casimir III the Great (1333-1370), son of Loketok, managed to strengthen the state and ensured a solid international position for Poland. Under him, a centralized system of administration was formed, which was represented locally by elders who were independent of the local nobility. The so-called "Statutes of Casimir the Great" (1347) were published, which marked the beginning of the unification and codification of Polish law. The introduction of a single coin and regular taxation, the monopoly on salt production made it possible to replenish the state treasury and ensure the financial independence of the royal power. Casimir almost doubled the state territory. The Polish-Hungarian union was concluded, according to which the Polish throne passed after the death of Casimir to the Hungarian king Louis. In alliance with Hungary, Poland seized the lands of Galician Rus and thus partially compensated for the loss of its ethnic territories. These events marked the beginning of the Polish political and cultural expansion in the lands of the Eastern Slavs, which was one of the main factors in the state and political development of Poland in the following centuries.

According to the will of Casimir, the Polish throne was occupied by the Hungarian king Louis of Anjou, who granted a number of privileges to the gentry (the Kosice privileges of 1374). After the death of Louis in 1382, the Polish feudal lords decided to transfer the crown to the youngest daughter of Louis Jadwiga, who was married to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello. In 1385, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania concluded in Kreva the so-called Union of Krevo, which promoted the rapprochement of the two states and the unification of their efforts in the fight against the crusaders. As a result, the Teutonic Order was defeated first at the Battle of Grunwald (1410) and then during the Thirteen Years' War (1454-1466). Poland returned the lands of East Pomerania with the cities of Gdansk and Torunsm. In 1569, the Union of Lublin was concluded between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the federal state of the Commonwealth was formed. Ukrainian lands from the BKL were transferred to Poland. Unified authorities were created, but the principality retained a separate army, finances, judiciary, traditional state and zemstvo positions, and its own laws (Statute of the Grand Duchy of 1588).

Polish state in the XIV-XV centuries. was an estate monarchy. In contrast to the early feudal period, when the state was viewed as a private possession of the king (patrimonial monarchy), now the state was perceived as separate from the personality of the monarch. The sovereignty of the state, independent of the personality of the king, was embodied in the concept of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. In the absence of a king, the fate of the crown was to be decided by the "people", i.e. feudal gentry. The principle of the election of the king was established. The positions of the gentry estate were strengthened, a nationwide body of estate representation - the general Sejm - and local gentry sejmiks were being formed. The formation of a system of gentry democracy began, which finally took shape in the 16th century. and was enshrined in the so-called Heinrich articles (they were published in 1573 by Heinrich of Valois, who was elected to the Polish throne after the death of Sigismund II Augustus, the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty). Thus, unlike other European states, Poland did not follow the path of becoming an absolute monarchy. The royal power was weak.

In the 17th century the power of the gentry led to the weakening of the Polish state. From the middle of the XVII century. anarchist tendencies prevailed in political life. Under the guise of the institutions of gentry democracy, groups of magnates acted in their own selfish interests, disrupted meetings of diets, created confederations for armed struggle with each other and the central government. During the reign of the last Polish king, Stanislaw August Popyatovsky, reforms were carried out aimed at strengthening the state. The so-called four-year Sejm adopted on May 3, 1791, the Constitution of the Commonwealth, the first in the history of Europe. However, the intervention of foreign states did not allow to carry out the plan. In 1772, 1793 and 1795 Russia, Prussia and Austria carried out partitions of the Commonwealth. The national liberation uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1794) ended in defeat. The Polish state ceased to exist, and was restored only in 1918.