What is studying vocabulary as a branch of linguistics. Cheat Sheet: Basic Concepts of Lexicology
Lexicology(from the Greek. lexikos -‘Verbal, dictionary’ (from lexis -‘Word’) and logos -‘Teaching’) - the ego branch of linguistics, the object of study of which is the vocabulary of a particular language. This section discusses the words in various aspects that determine the main directions of lexicology. A related branch of linguistics is phraseology; she studies set expressions, which are usually called phraseological units.
From point of view object studies distinguish general and private lexicology.
General lexicology studies the laws of the construction of the lexical system that are universal for all languages, which are determined by the action paradigmatic, syntagmatic and derivational relationships between units. The purpose of their analysis is to study the principles of organizing lexical groupings of varying degrees of complexity, in the description of which close attention is paid to understanding the semantic structure of polysemantic words. In any language, words are differentiated in terms of their stylistic coloring, origin, belonging to an active or passive stock.
Private lexicology explores the lexical system of a particular language, in this case Russian. When studying it, in addition to general lexical problems, it is necessary to take into account the absence of conversion as a way of forming words (compare with English and Chinese), which determines the emphasized hierarchy of Russian lexical paradigms; take into account the leading role of nouns in the organization of the lexical system; pay attention to the layers of synonyms and antonyms, a ramified stylistic system. An important aspect of the private lexicology of the Russian language is the study of the sociolinguistic originality of the elements of the lexico-phraseological system.
V dependence on method studies highlight historical (diachronic) and descriptive (synchronic) lexicology.
Historical (diachronic) lexicology examines vocabulary from the point of view of its origin and development.
Descriptive (synchronic) lexicology characterizes the relationship of the lexical system at the present stage of its existence and development. Within the framework of the synchronic lexicology of the Russian language, the following are studied:
- a) semasiology(from the Greek. semasia -'Designation') - a section of private lexicology, within which the structure of the meaning of a word is considered, taking into account its reflection of extra-linguistic reality, the typology of meanings in terms of the functions they perform is characterized. semasiology synonymous with it is used semantics, however, this polysemantic word has a different understanding - meaning(words, phraseological unit, grammatical unit);
- b) onomasiology(from the Greek. opot -‘Name’) - a section of lexicology that examines the process of nomination, in particular, the methods of nomination, the types of lexico-phraseological units used for this purpose, the relationship between them. Within the framework of onomasiology, phenomena such as synonymy, antonymy, conversion, homonymy, paronymy.
Sociolinguistics studies words from the point of view of their use by various social groups, taking into account the communicative situation. This section of lexicology examines the layer of extra-literary vocabulary in terms of its differences from the stylistically marked vocabulary of the literary language; considers words from the point of view of their origin, as well as their historical perspective, i.e. belonging to active and passive stock.
Sociolinguistics adjoins etymology(from the Greek. etymon- "truth, the main meaning of the word"), the object of study of which is the origin of specific words based on dictionaries and linguistic sources. onomastics(Greek. onomastikos -‘The art of naming’), the science of proper nouns. It includes sections such as anthroponymy- study of personal names of people from the point of view of their origin and functioning in the modern language; toponymy- study of the names of geographical objects.
In the development stage are:
- a) pragmonimics, examining the patterns of product nomination (pragmopim(from pragma -'Thing, product') - a product or a verbal trademark);
- b) ergonomics, researching the names of institutions and organizations (ergonyms(from the Greek. ergon- ‘business, labor, activity’) - the names of business associations of people, including organizations, enterprises).
The last two sections are connected not only with synchronic, but also with diachronic lexicology.
In addition to phraseology, important linguistic areas closely related to lexicology are lexicography and phraseology.
Lexicology is a science that focuses on the vocabulary of a particular language. It has its own laws and categories. This science deals with the various aspects of words, as well as their function and development.
Concept
Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language and its features. The subject of this section of linguistics is the following:
- Functions of lexical units.
- The problem of the word as a basic constituent element of the language.
- Types and kinds of lexical units.
- The structure of the vocabulary of the language.
This is not yet a complete list of what lexicology studies. This science deals with the issues of replenishment and expansion of the vocabulary, and also considers the connections and contradictions between lexical units.
Object of study
The word and its meaning is the basis for many sciences. These issues are dealt with by morphology, as well as various directions of word formation. However, if in these sciences words are a means of studying grammatical structures or studying various models for different variants of word formation, then what lexicology studies is used directly for knowing the specifics of the words themselves. Lexical units are considered not just a collection of letters and sounds, but are an integral system that has its own connections, functions, categories and concepts. This is the object of the study of lexicology. She does not consider individual words, but the entire vocabulary as something whole and inseparable.
This approach has its own characteristics. This allows us to classify not only words, but also stable phrases that have a certain analytical role.
Word problem
Lexicology of the modern Russian language focuses on the object and subject of its study. Since a word is considered as a certain unit that has connections between its form and content, it is considered in three main aspects:
- Structural. The form of the word, its structure and constituent components are studied.
- Semantic. The meaning of lexical units is considered.
- Functional. The role of words in speech and in the general structure of language is investigated.
If we talk about the first aspect, then lexicology is a science that sets specific criteria for determining the difference and identity of individual words. For this, lexical units are compared with phrases, and an analytical structure is developed that allows one to establish the invariants of the word.
As for the semantic aspect, this is a separate science - semasiology. She studies the relationship between a word and a specific object. This is important for lexicology. She studies the word and its meaning, as well as its individual categories and types, which makes it possible to single out such concepts as monosymy (unambiguity) and polysymy (polysemy). Lexicology is also concerned with the study of the reasons that lead to the appearance or loss of a word of its meaning.
The functional aspect considers a lexical unit as an object that connects with other similar elements and builds a whole language system. Here, the role of the interaction of vocabulary and grammar is important, which, on the one hand, support and, on the other, limit each other.
Vocabulary concept
Lexicology considers words as a system that consists of several subsystems. Lexical units form groups that are different in volume, form and content. This is part of what lexicology studies. Vocabulary is investigated simultaneously in two aspects: as a group relationship between individual units and their correct location in relation to each other. Thanks to this, the vocabulary can be divided into separate categories. For example, homonyms, paronyms, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, etc.
Additionally, almost any branch of linguistics, including Russian or English lexicology, studies more voluminous groupings of words, which are called fields. Usually this is built on the basis of the core of the field, for example, a certain number of keywords, and the very boundaries, which are various paradigmatic, semantic, grammatical or other types of relations with these lexical units.
Sections of lexicology
Like any other science, lexicology has its own system of disciplines that are responsible for certain aspects of its object and subject of study:
- Semasiology. Deals with the meanings of words and phrases.
- Onomasiology. Studying the procedure for naming objects and phenomena.
- Etymology. Explores the origin of words.
- Onomastics. Deals with proper names. This applies to both the names of people and place names.
- Stylistics. Examines the meaning of words and expressions of a connotative nature.
- Lexicography. Deals with the ways of organizing and compiling dictionaries.
- Phraseology. Explores phraseological units and persistent expressions.
Sections of lexicology have their own categories, as well as the object and subject of study. In addition, some types of this science are distinguished. In particular, we are talking about general, particular, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. The first type is responsible for the general patterns of vocabulary, including its structure, stages of development, functions, etc. Private lexicology deals with the study of a specific language. The historical type is responsible for the development of words in connection with the history of the names of objects and phenomena. Comparative lexicology examines words in order to identify the relationship between different languages. The latter type is responsible for such processes as speech culture, translation features, linguistic pedagogy and lexicography.
Categories of lexical units
The vocabulary of any language is diverse and heterogeneous. Accordingly, categories are distinguished that have their own distinctive features and characteristics. Russian lexicology foresees the following subspecies:
- By scope: commonly used words and lexical units that are used in special situations (science, poetry, vernacular, dialects, etc.).
- Emotional load: neutral and emotionally colored units.
- Historical development: neologisms and archaisms.
- By its origin and development: internationalism, borrowing, etc.
- In terms of functionality - active and passive lexical units, as well as occasionalisms.
Given the constant development of the language, the boundaries between words are fuzzy and they can shift from one group to another.
Problems
Like any other science, lexicology deals with the solution of certain problems. Modern experts distinguish the following:
- Frequency of words in the text.
- The difference between lexical units in writing and speaking.
- Possibilities of words that allow you to create new names for objects and phenomena.
- Changing vocabulary meanings.
Science also studies word combinations at different levels: semantic and lexical.
Ways to improve your vocabulary
Lexicology deals with the study of options for nominations. This is understood as various ways and methods of vocabulary expansion. For this, both the internal resources of a specific language and the attraction of lexical units from other languages can be used. There are the following methods of vocabulary replenishment:
- Word formation - the creation of new words.
- Construction of new meanings for already existing words: polysemy, transfer of meanings, etc.
- Formation of persistent phrases.
- Borrowing.
These methods are typical for any language, but in each case they have their own characteristics and distinctive features.
Methods
For its own needs, lexicology uses general linguistic research methods. These include:
- Distribution. Responsible for defining the scope of a lexical unit, for the number of meanings, etc.
- Substitution. Examines the phenomena of synonymy and word variations.
- Component method. Responsible for splitting lexical units into separate components, as well as dealing with their general structure.
- Transformation. It is used in the process of word formation in order to determine the main component of a word.
- It is used to determine the frequency of use of lexical units, as well as to calculate their semantic, paradigmatic and other types of relationships.
The information obtained using these methods is used in other sciences, including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, as well as a number of disciplines of a social nature.
Lexicology is a section of the science of language that studies the vocabulary, vocabulary of the language.
The problem of the word as the basic unit of language is studied in the general theory of the word. The category of lexical units includes (the main lexical unit is a word):
single words (whole-formed units)
stable phrases (analytical, or compound, units).
Since a word is a unit characterized by the correlation of form and content, the problem of the word as a unit of language is considered in three aspects:
Structural aspect (highlighting a word, its construction). In this aspect, the main task of the lexicological theory of the word is to establish criteria for its separateness and identity (2, p. 38).
In the first case, the word is compared with a phrase, the signs of its integral form and separateness are revealed, the problem of the analytical form of the word is developed;
In the second case, we are talking about establishing the invariant of the word that underlies both its grammatical forms (in this regard, the category of word forms is determined), and its variants - phonetic, morphological, lexico-semantic (in this regard, the problem of the word variant is being developed).
Semantic aspect (lexical meaning of the word). Semantic analysis of lexical units is the subject of study of lexical semantics, semasiology, which investigates the correlation of a word with the concept expressed by it (significatum) and the object (denotatum) designated by it in speech. Lexicology studies the semantic types of words, highlighting lexicological categories that reflect the semantic features of lexical units (2, p. 75):
monosemy and polysemy;
general and special;
abstract and concrete;
wide and narrow (hyperonym and hyponym);
logical and expressive;
direct and figurative meanings of lexical units.
Particular attention is paid to:
semantic structure of a polysemantic lexical unit;
identifying the types of meanings of words and criteria for their differentiation;
ways of changing and developing the meaning of words.
The phenomenon of desemantization is analyzed - the loss of a word of its lexical meaning and its transition into grammatical formants.
Functional aspect (the role of the word in the structure of language and speech). The word as a unit of language is viewed from the point of view
its role in the structure and functioning of the language as a whole;
its relationship with units of other levels.
The interaction of vocabulary and grammar is especially significant: vocabulary imposes restrictions on the use of grammatical categories, grammatical forms contribute to the differentiation of the meanings of words. Lexical and grammatical means with a common meaning form lexical and grammatical fields (expression of quantity, time, etc.).
When studying vocabulary in its functioning, the following problems are considered (6, p. 49):
frequency of vocabulary in texts
vocabulary in speech, in the text, its nominative function, contextual shifts in meanings and features of use (many of the lexicological categories are refracted in a peculiar way in speech, in connection with which they distinguish between linguistic and speech synonyms, antonyms; lexical polysemy and homonymy in speech is usually eliminated or takes the form puns melee semantic syncretism
combinability of words. Differ:
Free combinations;
Associated combinations (idiomatic ones differ internally, which is the subject of the study of phraseology).
Combination of words is considered at levels:
semantic (compatibility of concepts denoted by these lexical units: “stone house”, “fish swims”);
Lexicology explores the ways of replenishing and developing the vocabulary of the language, distinguishing four ways of creating nominations:
creation of new words;
the formation of new values (polysemy, transfer of values, and the patterns of filiation of values are studied);
the formation of phrases;
borrowings (lexical borrowings and tracing papers) (factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are investigated).
The first three methods are based on the use of the internal resources of the language, and the fourth - on the involvement of the resources of other languages.
An important aspect of lexicology is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings that the life experience of a collective in a certain era is directly fixed. In this regard, the following problems are considered:
vocabulary and culture;
the problem of linguistic relativity (the influence of vocabulary on the “vision of the world”);
linguistic and extralinguistic components in the meaning of the word;
background vocabulary, etc.
The structure of the vocabulary is considered in two aspects: the systemic relations between lexical units and the stratification of the vocabulary. Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language as a system of systems. The groups of words that form a system can differ in volume, in what lies at the basis of their generality (form or content), in the degree of similarity of forms or meanings of lexical units, in the characteristics of relations (paradigmatic or syntagmatic) between lexical units. The minimal groupings of individual lexical units, based on the similarity of form, form homonyms (see Homonymy) or paronyms (with incomplete similarity; see Paronymy); when relying on the content, groupings of words are distinguished based on conceptual logical relations or paradigmatic type - equivalence (synonyms), opposition (antonyms, conversions: "give" - "receive"), juxtaposition (semantic series: "pine" - "birch" - "Oak", "warm" - "hot"), inclusions (hyper-hyponymic relations: "tree" - "birch"; see Hyponymy), or syntagmatic type (object - sign, part - whole, etc.) ...
Lexicology also explores larger groupings of words - fields, which are also formed on the basis of form (for example, a nest of words) or content and are built on the basis of paradigmatic or syntagmatic relations. The totality of paradigmatic and syntagmatic fields forms a thematic field that reflects a certain sphere of extra-linguistic reality (for example, means of transport, animal husbandry, art, etc.). When taking into account the form and content (polysemy, synonymy, word-formative connections, etc.), not a single part of the vocabulary is isolated, relations are established between any lexical units.
The lexical composition of the language is heterogeneous and stratified. It distinguishes categories of lexical units for various reasons: according to the sphere of use - common (interstyle) and stylistically marked vocabulary, used in certain conditions and spheres of communication (poetic, colloquial, scientific, professional vocabulary, vernacular, argotisms, regionalisms, dialectisms); in connection with the study of variants of literary languages - their specific vocabulary; for emotional coloring - neutral and emotionally colored (expressive) vocabulary; from a historical perspective - neologisms, archaisms (see Obsolete words); by the origin of words or the realities they denote - borrowings, xenisms (designations of other people's realities), barbarism, internationalism; in relation to the language system and functioning - active and passive vocabulary, potential words, occasionalisms. The lexical system is the least rigid of all the subsystems of the language, the boundaries between the groupings of words are fuzzy, the same word can, in different meanings and uses, refer to different categories of lexical units.
When studying vocabulary in its functioning, the following problems are considered: frequency of vocabulary in texts; vocabulary in speech, in the text, its nominative function, contextual shifts in meanings and features of use (many of the lexicological categories are refracted in a peculiar way in speech, in connection with which they distinguish between linguistic and speech synonyms, antonyms; lexical polysemy and homonymy in speech is usually eliminated or takes the form puns or semantic syncretism); the compatibility of words, which is considered at the semantic levels (compatibility of the concepts denoted by these lexical units: "stone house", "fish swims") and lexical (compatibility of lexemes: "give a lecture", but "make a report"). There are free and connected combinations, and within the latter - idiomatic, which is the subject of the study of phraseology.
Lexicology explores the ways of replenishing and developing the vocabulary of the language, distinguishing 4 ways of creating nominations, three of which are based on the use of the internal resources of the language - the creation of new words (see Word formation), the formation of new meanings (polysemy, transfer of meanings, and the patterns of filiation of meanings are studied) , the formation of word combinations, and the fourth - on attracting the resources of other languages - borrowings (lexical borrowings and tracing papers). The factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are investigated.
An important aspect of lexicology is the study of words in their relation to reality, since it is in words, in their meanings that the life experience of a collective in a certain era is directly fixed. In this regard, such problems as vocabulary and culture, the problem of linguistic relativity (the influence of vocabulary on the “vision of the world”), linguistic and extralinguistic components in the meaning of a word, background vocabulary, etc. are considered.
There are general, specific, historical, comparative and applied lexicology. General lexicology establishes general patterns of structure, functioning and development of vocabulary, private lexicology examines the vocabulary of one language.
Historical lexicology examines the history of words in connection with the history of objects, concepts, institutions designated by them. Historical lexicology data are widely used in historical science. Historical lexicology provides a description of the dynamics of the vocabulary (or part of it) or a static description of a slice of the historical state of the language. The subject of research can be a single word or a lexical system (conceptual field), the history of words as such, or the forms of semantic changes (for example, a narrowing of meaning), processes in the semantic structure of words (for example, the study of the development of words with an abstract meaning, the process of synonymization, the emergence of proper names etc.). In its direction, historical and lexicological research can be semasiological (changes in the meanings of words or groups of words are studied) or onomasiological (changing the method of naming an object). In view of the systemic relations within the lexicon, when studying a group of words, both aspects are present at the same time, since the study of changes in the meaning of one word is impossible without studying the evolution of the designation of a concept common to a group of words.
Comparative lexicology examines the vocabulary in order to identify the genetic relationship of languages, structural and semantic similarities and differences between them (regardless of relationship), or in order to derive common lexicological (more often semantic) patterns. Matching can concern any aspect of the vocabulary. Individual words can be compared, but of greater importance is the comparison of groups of words (or fields), for example, verbs of motion, terms of kinship, etc., which shows how the designation field (objective reality) is differently segmented by lexical means of different languages, which aspects of objects are recorded in the meanings of words in different languages. Of great interest for comparative lexicology is the comparison of the functioning of broad lexicological categories in two languages: synonymy, antonymy, types of polysemy, phraseology, the ratio in the meaning of general and particular words, logical and emotional, etc. The data of comparative lexicology are widely used in applied sections of linguistics ( lexicography, translation), as well as in ethnography.
Applied lexicology covers mainly 4 areas: lexicography, translation, linguopedagogy and speech culture. Each of these areas enriches the theory of lexicology. For example, lexicography encourages to deepen the problem of the meaning of a word, improve its description, highlighting meanings, study compatibility, etc. Translation provides a great deal of material for comparative lexicology, word problems in teaching a native and non-native language sharpen a number of general scientific issues (word and context, collocation, synonymy - word choice, vocabulary and culture). At the same time, each of them uses the provisions and conclusions of lexicology, however, lexicological categories receive specific refractions in them; for example, the problems of highlighting the meanings of a word, phraseology in lexicography are solved in different ways depending on the type of dictionary.
Lexicology uses general linguistic research methods (see. Method in linguistics). The most common methods are: distributive (determining the boundaries of a word, its morphological structure, differentiating meanings, etc.), substitutions (studying synonymy, word meanings), component-positive (determining the structure of the meaning of lexical units, the semantic structure of a word as a whole, analysis of semantic fields, changing the meanings of lexical units, updating the value of a unit in the context), transformational (in word formation, when identifying the semantic load of a word in a context by folding or expanding syntactic structures, when determining the meaning of a lexical unit). Quantitative-statistical methods are added to the qualitative methods (determining the frequency of a lexical unit, its syntagmatic connections, etc.; see Quantitative methods in linguistics).
These lexicology are used in many related disciplines: psycholinguistics (the study of word associations, etc.), neurolinguistics (types of aphasia), sociolinguistics (the study of the linguistic behavior of a group), etc. Some aspects and types of lexical units are studied in special sections of linguistics (see Onomastics, Phraseology, Culture of speech, Stylistics, Word formation, etc.).
[History of lexicology]
Lexicology emerged as a separate branch of linguistics later than some others, such as grammar. Even in the 20th century. some early trends in structuralism denied the need to isolate lexicology, either on the grounds that vocabulary was allegedly poorly structured, or because linguistics should not be concerned with semantics at all, which is the core of lexicology (L. Bloomfield's school).
A number of problems of lexicology were discussed long before its formation as a special branch of linguistics. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, questions of semantics and word structure were considered. Ancient rhetoric also paid attention to the artistic function of the word. The development of lexicography in Europe in the 16-18 centuries. stimulated the development of lexicology. In the prefaces to explanatory dictionaries (for example, the Dictionary of the French Academy, 1694, the English dictionary of S. Johnson, 1755), a number of lexicological categories were noted (synonymy, collocation, primary and derived words, etc.). The term "lexicology" was first introduced by the French encyclopedia of D. Diderot and J.L. D'Alembert in 1765, where lexicology is defined as one of two (along with syntax) sections of the teaching of language. The authors saw the task of lexicology in the study of words outside their specific use in speech, in the study of the general principles of the organization of the vocabulary of the language. They distinguished in lexicology the study of the external form, meanings and etymology of words (by which word formation was also understood). In treatises on the style of the 18th century. the ways of forming figurative meanings of words were outlined in more detail. The first works on comparative historical linguistics (RK Rask, F. Bopp) laid the foundations of comparative lexicology. In the 19th century. The main area of lexicological research in Europe was semantics: the internal form of the word (W. von Humboldt), the general patterns of the formation and evolution of word meanings (A. Dharmsteter, G. Paul) were studied, historical lexicology was greatly developed. The achievements of semasiology were generalized and developed in the work of M. Breal (1897), where semasiology appeared as a special section of the science of language. Lasted into the 20th century. the development of semasiology was aimed, on the one hand, at identifying the general semantic laws of the evolution of word meanings with the involvement of data from logic or psychology (E. Cassirer, H. Cronasser, S. Ullman, G. Stern and others), which subsequently led to the development of semantic universals , on the other hand, on the study of the history of words in connection with the history of objects (the school of Words and Things, characteristic, in particular, of dialectology). The onomasiological direction in lexicology, which contributed to the study of word groups, was described in the book by B. Cuadri (1952).
The idea of the consistency of linguistic phenomena, more and more penetrating into lexicology, was reflected primarily in the theory of lexical fields, built on paradigmatic (J. Trier) and syntagmatic (W. Porzig) principles. Completion of field theory is the thesaurus representation of the organization of the dictionary (C. Bally, R. Hallig, W. von Wartburg). The problem of the general theory of the word as a unit of language was developed, discussions continued regarding the distinguishability of the word and its criteria (Bally, A. Martinet, J. H. Greenberg and others), its semantics (C. K. Ogden, A. Richards, K. Baldinger) ... The study of the correlation of vocabulary with the non-linguistic world, the history of words in the history of society (P. Lafargue; French sociological school: A. Meillet, E. Benveniste, J. Matore, M. Cohen), vocabulary and structure of consciousness of speakers (E. Sapir , B. Wharf, L. Weisgerber). Linguists of the Prague school have identified functional differentiation of vocabulary.
[Lexicology in Russia and the USSR]
Soviet linguists, proceeding from the position that the word is the basic unit of language, made a great contribution to the general theory of the word, to the definition of its boundaries, its relationship with the concept (A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherba, Vinogradov, A. I. Smirnitsky, R. O. Shor, S. D. Katsnelson, O. S. Akhmanova, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky); special attention is paid to the semantic aspect of the word (L. A. Bulakhovsky, V. A. Zvegintsev, D. N. Shmelev, B. Yu. Gorodetsky, A. E. Suprun and others). The achievement of Soviet lexicology is the development of a typology of word meanings (Vinogradov), the doctrine of lexical and semantic variants of a word (Smirnitsky), and an intermediate link in the development of word meanings (Budagov). Thanks to these studies, the problem of word polysemy received a reliable theoretical basis,
Exploring the word as a unit of language and the vocabulary in its synchronicity, Soviet linguists conduct research in the field of etymology (ON Trubachev), historical lexicology (Filin), and the history of the vocabulary of the literary language (Yu.S. Sorokin). There are numerous monographic studies on many categories of lexicology: synonymy, antonymy, internationalism, terminology, phraseological units, etc. Exploring all layers and aspects of the vocabulary of different languages, Soviet linguists in the 70-80s. special attention is paid to the problems of vocabulary consistency, including lexical paradigmatics (Shmelev, A.A. Ufimtseva, Yu.N. Karaulov), lexical semantics in connection with the general theory of nomination and reference, the interaction of vocabulary with other levels of language, primarily with syntax (Y.D. Apresyan), psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary (study of lexical associations, etc.), comparative study of vocabulary of different languages (Budagov, V.G. Gak). Of great practical and theoretical importance is the study of interaction in the vocabulary of the languages of the peoples of the USSR (Yu. D. Desheriev, IF Protchenko). The methodology of lexicological research is being actively developed (M. D. Stepanova, N. I. Tolstoy, E. M. Mednikova and others).
- Smirnitsky A.I., Lexicology of the English language, M., 1956;
- Akhmanova OS, Essays on general and Russian lexicology, M., 1957;
- Zvegintsev V.A., Semasiology, M., 1957;
- Budagov RA, Comparative semasiological studies. (Romance languages), M., 1963;
- Katsnelson S. D., Content of the word, meaning and designation, M.-L., 1965;
- Stepanova M. D., Methods of synchronous analysis of vocabulary, M., 1968;
- Weinreich U., On the semantic structure of language, trans. from English, in the book: "New in linguistics", v. 5, M., 1970;
- Makovsky M. M., Theory of lexical attraction, M., 1971;
- Shansky N. M., Lexicology of the modern Russian language, 2nd ed., M., 1972;
- Doroshevsky V., Elements of lexicology and semiotics, M., 1973;
- Apresyan Yu. D., Lexical semantics, M., 1974;
- Stepanova M. D., Chernysheva I.I., Lexicology of the modern German language, M., 1975;
- Karaulov Yu. N., General and Russian ideography, M., 1976;
- Vinogradov V.V., Selected works, t. 3, Lexicology and lexicography, M., 1977;
- Hack V.G., Comparative lexicology, M., 1977;
- Lopatnikova N. N., Movshovich NA, Lexicology of modern French, M., 1982;
- Quadri B., Aufgaben und Methoden der onomasiologischen Forschung, Bern, 1952;
- Ullman S., The principles of semantics, 2nd ed., Glasgow-L.-Oxf., 1959;
- Weinreich U., Lexicology, "Current Trends in Linguistics", The Hague, 1963, v. 1;
- Rey A., La lexicologie. Lectures, P., 1970;
- Lyons J., Semantics, v. 1-2 Camb. 1977;
- see also literature under articles
1. Lexicology as a branch of the science of language. Subject, tasks and aspects of lexicology. Lexicology and related sciences.
Lexicology
(from the Greek λεξικός - relating to the word and λόγος - teaching) - a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary, vocabulary of the language. Lexicology examines the ways of replenishing and developing the vocabulary of the language, distinguishing 4 ways of creating nominations, three of which are based on the use of internal resources of the language - the creation of new words (see Word formation), the formation of new meanings (polysemy, transfer of meanings, and the patterns of filiation of meanings are studied) , the formation of word-combinations, and the fourth - by attracting the resources of other languages - borrowings (lexical borrowings and tracing papers). The factors and forms of integration of borrowed words are being investigated.
The subject of lexicological studies are the following aspects of the vocabulary of the language: the problem of the word as the basic unit of the language, types of lexical units; the structure of the vocabulary of the language; functioning of lexical units; ways to replenish and develop vocabulary; vocabulary and extra-linguistic reality. Features of lexical units and the relationship between them are displayed in lexical-logical-categories. The problem of the word as the basic unit of language is studied in the general theory of the word. The category of lexical units includes not only individual words (whole-formed units), but also stable phrases (analytical, or compound, units), but the main lexical unit is the word. Since a word is a unit characterized by the correlation of form and content, the problem of a word as a unit of language is considered in three aspects: structural (highlighting a word, its structure), semantic (lexical meaning of a word) and functional (the role of a word in structure of language and in speech).
In the structural aspect, the main task of the lexicological theory of the word is to establish the criteria for its separateness and identity. In the first case, the word is compared with the word-combination, the signs of its whole-formedness and separateness are revealed, the problem of the analytical form of the word is being developed; in the second case, we are talking about establishing the invariant of the word underlying both its grammatical forms (in this regard, the category of word forms is determined), and its variants - phonetic, morpho-logical, lexico-semantic (in connection with this, the problem of the word variant is being developed).
The semantic aspect of lexical units is the subject of study of lexical semantics, or semasiology, which investigates the correlation of a word with the concept expressed by it (significatum) and the object (denotatum) designated by it in speech. Semasiology, closely intertwined with vocabulary, is usually included in the framework of semantics. Lexical ¬logy studies the semantic types of words, highlighting lexical ¬ logical categories that reflect the semantic features of lexical units, such as monosemy and polysemy, general and special, abstract and concrete, broad and narrow (hyperonym and hyponym ), logical and expressive, direct and figurative meanings of lexical units.
In the functional aspect, the word as a unit of language is considered from the point of view of its role in the structure and functioning of the language as a whole, as well as from the point of view of its relationship with units of other levels. The interaction of vocabulary and grammar is especially significant: vocabulary imposes restrictions on the use of grammatical categories, grammatical forms contribute to the differentiation of the meanings of words. Lexical and grammatical means with a common meaning form lexical-grammatical fields (expression of quantity, time, etc.).
Lexicology and related disciplines: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, stylistics, culture of speech, history.
