“, “Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia”, on the history of serfdom, estates, finance, historiography.

The human personality, human society, the nature of the country - these are the three main historical forces "which build the human community ...".

There were few events in Klyuchevsky's life. One of the historian's aphorisms: "The main biographical facts are books, the most important events are thoughts."

He studied at the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University. CM. Solovyov was his supervisor. Klyuchevsky was the best lecturer for the entire period of history education in Russia.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, Klyuchevsky gradually retired from teaching and devoted all his strength to the creation of his main work, which put his name on a par with the names of Karamzin and Solovyov. The "Course of Russian History" was the result of all his scientific and teaching activities. The author set himself the task of covering the gigantic period from ancient times to the eve of the reform of 1861.

This essay presents the view of Klyuchevsky V.O. on one of the key periods of Russian history - the period of the reign of Catherine II.

1. Position of Catherine II on the throne

The century of our history, begun by the tsar-carpenter, ended with the empress-writer. Catherine had to smooth out the impression of the coup by which she ascended the throne, to justify the misappropriation of power.

Catherine made a double capture: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of her father. In the guards, rumors, disturbing for Catherine, were circulating about the enthronement of Ivanushka, as the former emperor Ivan VI was called, and also about why Tsarevich Pavel was not crowned. It was even said in society that Catherine, in order to strengthen herself on the throne, would not hurt to marry the former emperor. Catherine saw him shortly after her accession and ordered him to be persuaded to be tonsured a monk. Circles were formed in the guard, "parties", however, which did not have time to form a conspiracy (not everyone, even the participants in the coup, were satisfied with it, as they were not sufficiently awarded). Catherine was especially alarmed in 1764 by the half-witted attempt of the army lieutenant Mirovich to free Ivanushka from the Shlisselburg fortress and proclaim him emperor - an attempt that ended in the murder of a prisoner mad in confinement, a terrible victim of lawlessness, the nursery of which was the Russian throne after the death of Peter I.

Catherine was not so much the culprit as the instrument of the coup: weak, young, alone in a foreign land, on the eve of divorce and imprisonment, she gave herself into the hands of people who wanted to save her, and after the coup she still could not control anything. These people, now surrounding Catherine, with five of the Orlov brothers at the head, were in a hurry to reap the fruits of the “great incident,” as they called the June affair. They were struck by the lack of education. They were not satisfied with the awards they received, with the fact that Catherine gave them up to 18 thousand souls of peasants and up to 200 thousand rubles (at least 1 million with our money) of one-time dachas, not counting life pensions. They besieged the empress, imposed their opinions and interests on her, sometimes directly asked for money. Catherine had to get along with these people. It was unpleasant and untidy, but not particularly tricky. She used her usual means, an inimitable ability to patiently listen and respond kindly, to find herself in a difficult case, Catherine needs a little time and patience so that her supporters have time to come to their senses and become in a proper relationship with her. It was much more difficult to justify the new government in the eyes of the people. Far from the capital, the deep masses of the people did not experience the personal charm of the empress, being content with dark rumors and a simple fact that could be understood from popular manifestos: there was Emperor Peter III, but his wife, the empress, overthrew him and put him in prison, where he soon died.

These masses, which had long been in a state of ferment, could only be appeased by measures of justice and common good that were tangible for all.

2. The program of Catherine II

The popular activity of the new government was to simultaneously follow the direction of the national, liberal and class-noble. But this triple task suffered from an internal contradiction. After the law of February 18, the nobility became contrary to all popular interests and even the reforming needs of the state. Whether for reasons of flexible thought or for the guidance of experience and observation, Catherine found a way out of the inconveniences of her program. She divided the tasks and each one was carried out in a special area of ​​​​government activity.

National interests and feelings gained wide scope in foreign policy, which was given full swing. A broad reform of the regional administration and court was undertaken according to the plans of the then advanced publicists of Western Europe, but mainly with the native goal of occupying the idle nobility and strengthening its position in the state and society. . The liberal ideas of the century were assigned their own area. The triple task developed into such a practical program: a strictly national, boldly patriotic foreign policy, complacently liberal, perhaps humane methods of government, complex and harmonious regional institutions with the participation of the three estates, salon, literary and pedagogical propaganda of the enlightening ideas of the time, and cautiously but consistently conservative legislation with special attention to the interests of one estate.

The main idea of ​​the program can be expressed as follows: the permissive dissemination of the ideas of the century and the legislative consolidation of the facts of the place.

3. Foreign policy of Catherine II

Foreign policy is the most brilliant side of Catherine's state activity, which made the strongest impression on contemporaries and immediate offspring. When they want to say the best that can be said about this reign, they talk about the victorious wars with Turkey, about the Polish divisions, about the imperative voice of Catherine in the international relations of Europe.

After the Treaty of Nystadt, when Russia took a firm foot on the Baltic Sea, two foreign policy issues remained in the queue, one territorial, the other national. The first was to push the southern border of the state to its natural limits, to the northern coastline of the Black Sea with the Crimea and the Sea of ​​Azov, and to the Caucasus Range. it eastern question in its then historical setting. Then it was necessary to complete the political unification of the Russian people, reuniting with Russia the western part torn off from it. it Western Russian question.

Count Panin N.I. and his system

They were waiting for the imminent death of the Polish king Augustus III. For Russia, it was all the same who would be king, but Catherine had a candidate whom she wanted to hold, no matter what. It was Stanislav Poniatowski, a veil born for the boudoir, not for any throne. This candidacy brought with it a string of temptations and difficulties... Finally, the whole course of foreign policy had to be turned sharply. Until then, Russia had maintained an alliance with Austria, which France had joined in the Seven Years' War.

At first, upon accession, still poorly understanding matters, Catherine asked the opinions of her advisers about the peace with Prussia concluded under Peter III. The advisers did not recognize this peace as useful for Russia and spoke in favor of resuming the alliance with Austria. A.P. also stood for this. Bestuzhev - Ryumin, whose opinion she then especially appreciated. But a diplomat younger than him, a student and opponent of his system, Count N.I., became near him. Panin, tutor of Grand Duke Paul.

He was not only for peace, but directly for an alliance with Frederick, proving that nothing could be achieved in Poland without his assistance. Catherine for some time strengthened herself: she did not want to be an ally of the king, whom she publicly called the villain of Russia in the July manifesto, but Panin overcame and for a long time became Catherine's closest collaborator in foreign policy. The treaty of alliance with Prussia was signed on March 31, 1764, when in Poland, after the death of King August III, there was an election campaign. But this union was only an integral part of the planned complex system of international relations. After Panin's death, Catherine complained that she had suffered enough with him, as with a lazy person, in the first Turkish war. It was a diplomat - a white hand, a diplomat - an idyllic. Panin became the conductor of an international combination unprecedented in Europe. According to his project, the northern non-Catholic states, however, with the inclusion of Catholic Poland, united for mutual support, to protect the weak by the strong. Its "active" members are Russia, Prussia and England. "Passive" - ​​Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Saxony and other small states that had a desire to join the union. The combat purpose of the union is direct opposition to the southern union (Austria-Franco-Spanish). All that was required of the "passive" states was that, in the event of clashes between the two alliances, they should not stick to the southern one, but remain neutral. This was the northern system, which was sensational in its time. It is easy to see her inconvenience. It was difficult to act together and amicably for states so diversely structured as autocratic Russia, constitutionally aristocratic England, soldier-monarchist Prussia and republican-anarchist Poland. In addition, the members of the union had too few common interests and the northern system was not clothed in any international act.

The reign of Catherine II the Great is one of the most complex topics in history. This is probably because it occupies most of the second half of the 18th century. This post will briefly describe the domestic policy of Catherine 2. This topic simply needs to be studied in order to be well versed in history when completing exam tasks.

The most important

Few people understand why historical events are poorly remembered. In fact, everything is perfectly remembered, if you keep in mind the most important thing. The most important thing is the concept of this or that government or the driving contradiction. Having marked these things, it is easy to remember them, as well as the entire outline of events.

The concept of the reign of Catherine the Great was Enlightened absolutism - a European concept popular in the 18th century, which, in a nutshell, consisted in recognizing the leading role in the history and development of states for an enlightened monarch. Such a monarch, a sage on the throne, a philosopher will be able to lead society to progress and enlightenment. The main ideas of the Enlightenment can be found in the work of Charles Louis Monetskyo "On the Spirit of the Laws" and in the writings of other enlighteners.

These ideas are generally simple: they included observance of laws by the people, the idea that people are naturally good, and the state should awaken this goodness in people through enlightenment.

Sophia Augusta Frederica Anhalt of Zerbskaya (real name of the Empress) learned these principles as a young educated girl. And when she became empress, she tried to implement them in Russia.

However, the main contradiction of her reign was that this was not possible. The first blow was dealt to her mood by the Legislative Commission, in which the entire color of society gathered. And not a single estate wanted to put an end to serfdom. On the contrary, everyone was looking for benefits for themselves in the slave position of 90 percent of the population of the state.

Nevertheless, something was realized, at least in the first half of the reign of the empress - before the uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev. His uprising became, as it were, a watershed between the empress of liberal views and the conservative ruler.

reforms

Within the framework of one post, it is impossible to consider in detail the entire domestic policy of Catherine, but it can be done briefly. I’ll tell you where to find out everything in detail at the end of the post.

Secularization of church lands in 1764

This reform was actually started by Peter the Third. But it was already Catherine the Great who realized it. All church and monastery lands were now transferred to the state, and the peasants were transferred to the category of economic peasants. The state could give these lands to whoever it wanted.

The secularization of the lands meant the end of the centuries-old rivalry between ecclesiastical and secular authorities, which peaked during the reigns of Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great.

Convocation of the Legislative Commission

• Reason: the need to adopt a new code of laws, a new Code, because the Cathedral Code of 1649 has long been outdated.
• Dates of the meeting: from June 1767 to December 1768
• Results: the new code of laws was never adopted. The task of codifying Russian legislation will only be realized under Nicholas the First. The reason for the dissolution is the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war.

The uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev

A serious event in the field of domestic politics, since it showed all the inconsistency of serfdom, on the one hand, and the crisis in relations between the authorities and the Cossacks, on the other.

Results: the suppression of the uprising. The consequences of this uprising was the provincial reform of Catherine the Great.

Provincial reform

In November 1775, the Empress publishes the "Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire". The main goal: to change the state-territorial structure in favor of better tax collection, as well as to strengthen the power of governors so that they can more effectively resist peasant uprisings.

As a result, the provinces began to be divided only into counties (previously they were divided into provinces), and they themselves were disaggregated: there were more of them.

The entire structure of state authorities has also changed. You can see the most important of these changes in this table:

As you can see, the empress, despite the fact that the entire reform was pro-noble, tried to implement the principle of separation of powers, albeit in a truncated version. This system of authorities will continue until the bourgeois reforms of Alexander the Second Liberator

A charter to the nobility and cities of 1785

Parsing letters of commendation is a serious educational task. It cannot be solved within the scope of this post. But I enclose links to the full texts of these important documents:

• Complaint to the nobility
• Complaint letter to cities

Results

The main question for the results: why do we put this empress on a par with Ivan the Third, Peter the Great and call it great? Because this empress completed most of the domestic and foreign policy processes.

In the field of domestic policy, the process of formation of the authorities of the absolute monarchy was completed, the system of state administration was put in order; the nobility reached the peak of its rights and its power, the “third estate” was more or less formed - the townspeople, who were given excellent rights under the Charter to the cities. The only trouble is that this layer was very small and could not become the backbone of the state.

In the field of foreign policy: Russia annexed the Crimea (1783), Eastern Georgia (1783), all the old Russian lands during the three partitions of Poland, reached its natural boundaries. The issue of access to the Black Sea was resolved. Actually a lot has been done.

But the main thing has not been done: a new code of laws has not been adopted, and serfdom has not been abolished. Could this have been achieved? I think no.

Domestic policy of Catherine II

Catherine II ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. The power of the monarch went to her as a result of a palace coup, the result of which was the overthrow of her husband Peter III. During the reign, Catherine became famous as an imperious and active woman who was able to finally strengthen the cultural status of the Russian Empire in the European arena.

In her domestic policy, the empress adhered to a dual system. Praising the ideas of enlightenment and humanism, she enslaved the peasant people to the maximum, and also comprehensively expanded the already not small privileges of the nobility. Historians consider the most important reforms of the domestic policy of Catherine II to be:

1. Provincial reform, according to which the administrative division of the empire was completely reorganized. After all, now instead of a three-stage division (province-province-county), a two-stage division (province-county) was introduced.

2. A prescribed commission was formed, which pursued the goal of clarifying people's needs for the subsequent implementation of other reforms.

3. Senate reform, which significantly reduced the powers of the Senate to executive and judicial authorities. All legislative power was henceforth transferred to the Cabinet of Secretaries of State and the Empress personally.

4. The abolition of the Zaporozhian Sich in 1775.

5. The economic reforms of Catherine II led to the establishment of fixed prices for the products necessary for every person, as well as the rise of the country's economy, the development of its trade relations and the elimination of monopolies.

6. Favorites and corruption have been the consequences and causes of some domestic policy reforms. Due to the expanded privileges of the ruling elite, the level of abuse of rights has increased. At the same time, the favorites of Catherine II accepted rich gifts from the treasury of the Russian Empire.

7. Religious reform, according to the decree, the ROC was forbidden to interfere in any affairs of other faiths.

8. Class transformations, beneficial primarily only to representatives of the nobility.

9. The national policy, as a result of which the so-called Pale of Settlement was established for the Jews, the German population of Russia was exempted from duties and taxes, and the indigenous population became the most disenfranchised layer in the country.

10. Scientific and educational reforms. It was during the reign of Empress Catherine II that public schools (small and main) began to open, which became the foundation for the formation of general education schools. At the same time, the level of education in comparison with other states was extremely low.

V. Eriksen "Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great"

“Catherine made a double seizure: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of her father” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Having ascended the Russian throne in this way, Catherine II began her reign by formulating the primary tasks for her activities:

1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which should govern.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.

Let us now consider how Catherine II implemented these tasks.

The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine II. Yes, under it the autocracy was strengthened, there was a strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus. But the ideas of Diderot and Voltaire that every person is born free, that all people are equal, that despotic forms of government should be abolished - this did not correspond to her internal policy. Under Catherine, the situation of the peasants worsened, and the nobles received more and more privileges.

Domestic politics

Reformation of the Senate and Statutory Commission

According to the project of the statesman N.I. Panin in 1763 the Senate was reorganized. It was divided into six departments: the first was headed by the Prosecutor General, who was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department.

As for the Legislative Commission, it was created to systematize laws. But the meetings were held for only six months, after which the commission was dissolved. The main result of her activities was the approval of the title "Great" for the Empress (others were also proposed: "The Wisest", "Mother of the Fatherland" and others). Thus, it was not as a result of merit that she received such a title - it was ordinary court flattery.

D. Levitsky "Portrait of Catherine II"

Provincial reform

In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Its essence was that three levels of administrative division were eliminated: province, province, county, and two were introduced: province and county. 50 provinces were formed (instead of 23). The provinces were divided into 10-12 counties. Governor General(viceroy) obeyed 2-3 provinces. He had administrative, financial and judicial powers. Governor ruled the province and reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Treasury Chamber headed by the vice-governor was engaged in finance in the province. Land management - provincial surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. Order of public charity oversaw schools, hospitals and orphanages, as well as estate judicial institutions: Upper Zemsky Court for Nobles, provincial magistrate, who considered litigation between townspeople, and Top violence for the trial of the state peasants. Criminal and Civil Chamber judged all classes, they were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

At the head of the county was police captain, leader of the nobility, elected for three years.

Was created conscientious court, called to reconcile those who argue and quarrel, he was classless. The Senate is the highest judicial body in the country..

216 new cities were formed (mostly large rural settlements renamed into cities). The population of the cities began to be called philistines and merchants. The main administrative unit was the city. At its head was mayor, he was endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) that were under supervision private bailiff, and parts were divided into quarters controlled by quarter supervisor.

According to historians, provincial reform led to a significant increase in the cost of maintaining the bureaucracy.

Founding of the Kuban and annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

In 1771, Catherine II issued a decree on the liquidation of the Kalmyk Khanate and the annexation of the Kalmyk state to Russia. A special Expedition of Kalmyk affairs was established under the office of the Astrakhan governor, which began to take charge of the affairs of the Kalmyks. But this accession did not happen immediately: Catherine, since the 60s, consistently limited the khan's power, until a conspiracy to leave for their historical homeland, Dzungaria (a region of Central Asia in northwestern China. A region with a semi-desert and steppe landscape) matured within the khanate . This turned out to be a great disaster for the people, who lost about 100 thousand people.

Other provincial reforms

The territory of Estonia and Livonia was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel. Three provinces were created in Siberia: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Economy

A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established.

State regulation of prices for salt was introduced - it was one of the most valuable goods. But the state monopoly was not introduced, so the price of salt increased.

Exports have grown: sailing cloth, cast iron, iron, timber, hemp, bristle, bread - mainly raw materials and semi-finished products. And industrial products accounted for 80% of imports. Russian merchant ships began to enter the Mediterranean Sea.

Catherine II did not understand the significance of the development of industry, because. believed that this would reduce the number of employees.

Industry and agriculture developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land). During her reign, famines were not uncommon in the countryside, which was explained by crop failures, but some historians believe that this was the result of massive grain exports.

During the reign of Catherine II, bribery and other forms of arbitrariness of officials flourished (what we now call corruption), she knew about it herself and tried to fight, but to no avail. As the historian V. Bilbasov writes, “Ekaterina soon became convinced herself that “bribery in state affairs” was not eradicated by decrees and manifestos, that this required a radical reform of the entire state system - a task ... that turned out to be beyond the reach of either that time or later.”

Historians note the exorbitant growth of favoritism under Catherine II, which did not contribute to the well-being of the state, but increased costs. They also received awards without any measure. For example, her favorite Platon Zubov had so many awards that he looked like "a seller of ribbons and hardware." During her reign, she gave away a total of more than 800 thousand peasants. For the maintenance of Grigory Potemkin's niece, she gave out about 100 thousand rubles annually, and for the wedding she gave her and her fiancé 1 million rubles. Near her was a crowd of French courtiers, whom she generously endowed. Large sums were paid to representatives of the Polish aristocracy, including King Stanislaw Poniatowski (in the past - her favorite).

Education and science

Catherine II paid special attention to women's education. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened.

Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens

Hood. Galaktionov "Smolny Institute"

This is the first women's educational institution in Russia. It was founded on the initiative of I. I. Betsky and in accordance with the decree of Catherine II in 1764 and was originally called the Imperial Educational Society for Noble Maidens. It was created to "give the state educated women, good mothers, useful members of the family and society."

Catherine, a fan of the progressive ideas of the French Enlightenment, wanted to establish an educational institution, which had no equal then in Europe. According to the charter, children entered the institution no older than six years of age and remained there for 12 years. Parents had to give a receipt that before the expiration of this period they would not pick up their children from the educational institution. The empress expected that the children would be removed from the ignorant environment and formed into educated people, thus, they would create a "new breed of people" in the future. The decree provided for the education of two hundred noble maidens in the newly built Novodevichy Convent. At first it was a closed institution for noble children, and in 1765 a department was opened at the institute “for petty-bourgeois girls” (non-noble estates, except for serfs). The building for the Meshchansky School was erected by the architect Y. Felten.

K.D. Ushinsky

In 1859-1862. K. D. Ushinsky was the inspector of classes at the institute, who carried out a number of progressive transformations in it (a new seven-year curriculum with a large number of hours devoted to the Russian language, geography, history, natural science, etc.). After Ushinsky's forced departure from the institute, all of its major transformations were eliminated.

Pupils of the institute wore uniform dresses of a certain color: at a younger age - coffee, at the second - dark blue, at the third - blue and at an older age - white. Lighter colors symbolized increasing education and accuracy.

The program included teaching Russian literature, geography, arithmetic, history, foreign languages, music, dancing, drawing, secular manners, various types of housekeeping, etc.

The emperor and members of his family attended the final public examination. At the end of the institute, the six best graduates received a "cipher" - a gold monogram in the form of the initial of Empress Catherine II, which was worn on a white bow with gold stripes.

Some pupils of the institute became ladies-in-waiting of the court (the ladies-in-waiting made up the retinue of empresses and grand duchesses).

The training course of the institute was equated to the course of women's gymnasiums.

In October 1917, the Institute, headed by Princess V.V. Golitsyna, moved to Novocherkassk.

The last Russian issue took place in February 1919 in Novocherkassk. Already in the summer of 1919, the institute left Russia and continued to work in Serbia.

"Cipher" of the best graduates of the Smolny Institute

Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences became one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics office, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. In 1783 the Russian Academy was founded. Russian Academy(also Imperial Russian Academy, Russian Academy) was created by Catherine II and Princess E. R. Dashkova on the model of the French Academy for the Study of the Russian Language and Literature in St. Petersburg. The main result of this product of the Russian Enlightenment was the publication of the Russian Academic Dictionary. In 1841 the academy was transformed into the 2nd Department of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

But historians do not appreciate the successes in the field of education and science under Catherine II: educational institutions have always experienced a shortage of students, many students could not pass exams, and studies were not well organized.

Under Catherine, Orphanages for homeless children were organized, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created. The fight against epidemics during her reign began to take on the character of state events.

National politics

Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement for Jews: on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated territories east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on residence. The Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762, Catherine II issued a manifesto "On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in which provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them." There was a list of benefits for immigrants. So arose German settlements in the Volga region reserved for migrants. The influx of German colonists was very large, already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. During the reign of Catherine, Russia included Northern Black Sea region, Sea of ​​Azov, Crimea, Right-bank Ukraine, lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

Monument to Catherine II in the city of Marx, Saratov region

But this seemingly positive phenomenon turned out to be incidental - the "strife of interests" intensified when the indigenous population turned out to be in a worse situation and when some Russian nobles in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “record as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

Under Catherine, the privileges of the nobility were further strengthened. Peasants made up about 95% of the population, and serfs - more than 50% of the population. According to the general opinion of historians, the position of this largest group of the population in the era of Catherine was the worst in the history of Russia. Trade in peasants reached a wide scale: they were sold in the markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given, forcibly married. She adopted a number of laws that worsened the situation of the peasants. During her reign, she gave away more than 800,000 peasants to the landowners and nobles. The result of this policy was the Peasants' War of 1773-1775.

Catherine pursued a policy of religious tolerance; in the first years of her reign, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased. She even supported the initiative of Peter III to return the Old Believers from abroad. But on the other hand, the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) increased due to the mass migration of Germans to Russia.

pretenders to the throne

Catherine's coming to power illegally gave rise to a series of contenders for the Russian throne: from 1764 to 1773. seven False Peters III appeared in the country (who claimed that they were “the resurrected Peter”), Emelyan Pugachev became the eighth. And in 1774-1775. the “case of Princess Tarakanova” was added, posing as the daughter of Elizabeth Petrovna.

During her reign, 3 conspiracies against her were uncovered, two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI), who at the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

Freemasonry is gaining more and more popularity in the circles of the educated nobility. Catherine II tried to control Freemasonry and allow only such activities that did not contradict her interests.

Literature

Russian literature in the era of Catherine, as well as in the 18th century as a whole, according to a number of historians, was mainly engaged in "processing foreign elements." The "official" literature of the era of Catherine is represented by several well-known names: Fonvizin (read about him on our website:, Sumarokov, Derzhavin (read about him on our website:). There was also "unofficial" literature: Radishchev, Novikov, Krechetov, - which was subjected to a ban, and the authors - severe repressions.For example, Knyaznin, whose historical drama ("Vadim Novgorodsky") was banned, and the entire edition was burned.

Novikov's journal "Truten" was closed by the authorities in 1770 due to the fact that it raised acute social issues - the arbitrariness of the landowners against the peasants, corruption among officials, etc. The St. Petersburg Bulletin, which existed only a little over two years, and other magazines. In A. Radishchev's book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" there are no calls for the overthrow of the existing system and the abolition of serfdom. But the author was sentenced to death by quartering (after a pardon, it was replaced by a 10-year exile in Tobolsk) because his book "is filled with harmful philosophies that destroy public peace, detract from the respect due to the authorities ...". Catherine loved flattery and could not stand people who dared to express their critical judgments that ran counter to her own.

Culture and art under Catherine

Foundation of the Hermitage

Hall of the Hermitage

State Hermitage in St. Petersburg - the largest in Russia and one of the world's largest art and cultural-historical museums. The history of the museum begins in 1764, with collections of works of art that Catherine II began to acquire privately. Initially, this collection was housed in a special palace wing - the Small Hermitage (from fr. ermitage- a place of solitude), hence the common name of the future museum was fixed. In 1852, from a greatly expanded collection, it was formed and opened to the public. Imperial Hermitage.

To date, the museum's collection includes about three million works of art and monuments of world culture, from the Stone Age to the present day.

Founding of the Public Library

Old library building, early 19th century

In 1795, by the highest order of Empress Catherine II, Imperial Public Library. The basis of the Imperial Public Library is the Załuski Library (400,000 volumes), which was declared the property of the Russian government as a war trophy after the suppression in 1794 of the uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko and the capture of Warsaw by A. Suvorov. At present, it is a particularly valuable object of national heritage and constitutes the historical and cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation. One of the largest libraries in the world.

Catherine II patronized various areas of art - architecture, music, painting.

The palaces of the era of Catherine II (Winter, Bolshoi Catherine, Catherine in Moscow) and the parks around them in their luxury and splendor were not inferior to the palaces and parks of the French kings and had no other equal in Europe. Everyone competes in the luxury of carriages, thoroughbred horses, brilliance of teams, the main goal is to appear no worse than others.

Catherine's foreign policyII

V. Borovikovsky "Catherine on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park"

Foreign policy under Catherine was aimed at strengthening the role of Russia in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was: One must be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker ... to keep one's hands free ... not to drag one's tail behind anyone.

Under Catherine, the growth of Russia was as follows: after the first Turkish war in 1744, Russia acquires Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale. Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join. The second Turkish war ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Russia stands firmly on the Black Sea.

At the same time, the Polish sections give back Western Russia to Russia: in 1773, Russia receives part of Belarus (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces); in 1793 - Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; in 1795-1797 - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Russia, the upper reaches of the Pripyat and the western part of Volhynia. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.

An important direction of the foreign policy of Catherine II was also the accession as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule. The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories for Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, and Ushakov.

In 1790, the Verel peace treaty with Sweden was signed, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of the monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." But in reality, she abstained from participating in hostilities against France.

During the reign of Catherine the Russian Empire acquired the status great power. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in the three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During the reign of Catherine, the Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.

During the long reign of Catherine II (34 years) there was a lot of good and bad. But we agree with the words of Catherine's contemporary, Russian historian and publicist Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, who wrote that the favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline in the morals of the nobility of that era.

Synopsis on the history of Russia

Catherine II spent a very vigorous foreign policy, which eventually turned out to be successful for the Russian Empire. Her government dealt with several major foreign policy tasks.

The first one was to go to the shores of the Black Sea and gain a foothold there, secure the southern borders of the state from Turkey and the Crimea. The growth of the marketability of the country's agricultural production dictated the need to own the mouth of the Dnieper, through which it was possible to export agricultural products.

The second task required continuing reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands.

In the 60s of the 18th century, a complex diplomatic game took place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement of certain countries depended on the strength of the contradictions between them.

Nowhere did the interests of Russia clash so sharply with the position of Britain and France as in the Turkish question. In September 1768, spurred on by France and Austria, Turkey declared war on Russia. Attempts by the Turkish army to break through deep into Russia were paralyzed by troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev. The campaign of 1768-1769 ended in failure for the Turks, but did not bring much success to the Russian army either. The turning point came only in 1770, when hostilities unfolded on the lower Danube. P.A. Rumyantsev, with a difference of several days, won two brilliant victories over the numerically superior enemy forces at Larga and Cahul (in the summer of 1770). Success was also achieved in the Caucasus: the Turks were thrown back to the Black Sea coast.

In the summer of 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of Alexei Orlov inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks in the Chesme Bay. In 1771, Russian troops occupied the Crimea.

An attempt by Catherine II to conclude peace in 1772 was unsuccessful (the conditions of Turkey did not suit).

In 1773, the Russian army resumed hostilities. A.V. Suvorov took the Turtukai fortress on the southern bank of the Danube and in 1774 won a victory at Kozludzha. Rumyantsev crossed the Danube and moved to the Balkans. Turkey capitulated. In 1774, a peace treaty was signed in Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi, according to which the lands between the Bug and the Dnieper, including the sea coast, fortresses in the Crimea, were ceded to Russia, and the Crimean Khanate was declared independent. On the Black Sea, freedom of navigation was established for Russian merchant ships with the right to enter the Mediterranean Sea. Kabarda was annexed to Russia.

The liberated army was transferred to suppress the Pugachev uprising.

The fact that the peace treaty was only a respite was understood both in Russia and in Turkey. The question of Crimea remained controversial. The diplomatic struggle around him did not stop. In response to the intrigues of the Turkish government, Russian troops occupied the peninsula in 1783. Turkey, in an ultimatum form, demanded to return Crimea to it, to recognize Georgia as a vassal possession and to grant the right to inspect Russian merchant ships.

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791 years began with an attempt by Turkey to land troops on the Kinburn Spit, but the attack was repulsed by troops under the command A.V. Suvorova. Then, in 1788, he takes the powerful fortress of Ochakov, after which the Russian army launched an offensive in the Danube direction, which resulted in two victories, at Rymnik and Focsani. The capture of the impregnable fortress of Izmail by Suvorov in 1790 significantly brought the conclusion of peace closer.

At the same time, the Russian fleet, under the command of one of the most prominent Russian naval commanders, Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov, inflicted several defeats on the Turks in the Kerch Strait and near the islands of Tendra and Kaliakria. The Turkish fleet was forced to capitulate.

In December 1791, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, which established the border between Russia and Turkey along the Dniester. Russia received Ochakov and Crimea, but withdrew its troops from Georgia.

The second foreign policy task is annexation of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia- was decided by the government of Catherine II through the so-called partitions of Poland, which were carried out jointly with Prussia and Austria.

In October 1763, the Polish King August III died. Russia took an active part in the election of a new king in order to prevent Poland from joining the coalition along with France, Turkey and Sweden. The situation was in favor of Russia, since England expected the conclusion of a profitable Russian-English trade agreement, Prussia was not inclined to quarrel with Russia after the end of the Seven Years' War, France was in a difficult economic situation. In Poland itself, the struggle of different groups for the throne unfolded. After a long struggle, on August 26, 1764, at the coronation Sejm, S. Poniatowski was elected the Polish king, with the support of Russia. The activity of Russia caused the displeasure of Prussia and Austria, who sought to increase their territories at the expense of Poland. This led to the partition of Poland, which began with the occupation of part of Polish territory by the Austrians.

The Prussian king Frederick II, who dreamed of increasing his lands at the expense of his neighbors, turned to Catherine II with a proposal for a joint division of Poland between Prussia, Austria and Russia. Since the forces of Russia were busy in the south in the war against Turkey, to refuse the proposal of Frederick II meant to transfer the initiative into the hands of Prussia. Therefore, in August 1772, the first agreement on the division of Poland between the three states was signed in St. Petersburg. Part of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands went to Russia, to Austria - Galicia with a large trading city of Lvov, to Prussia - Pomerania and part of Greater Poland.

Second Partition of Poland preceded by an increase in connection with the revolution in France, revolutionary sentiment in Europe and, in particular, in Poland. In 1791, a constitution was introduced there, which, despite a number of shortcomings, was progressive, strengthened the Polish statehood, which was contrary to the interests of Russia, Prussia and Austria. In 1793, Russia and Prussia made a second partition: Russia received the central part of Belarus and the Right-Bank Ukraine; Prussia - the indigenous Polish lands of Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. Austria did not receive its share under the second title. The constitution of 1791 was repealed. The second partition practically made the country completely dependent on Prussia and Russia. The patriotic forces of society in March 1794 revolted.

The movement was led by one of the heroes of the war for the independence of North America T. Kosciuszko. After several victories won by the rebels, a significant part of the Russian troops left Poland. T. Kosciuszko promised to abolish serfdom and reduce duties. This attracted a significant part of the peasantry to his army. However, there was no clear program of action, the enthusiasm of the rebels was not enough for a long time.