They are the main element of this system. Elements of automatic systems

3.1 Process approach to management.

3.2 A systematic approach to the study of management problems.

3.3 Situational approach in the management process.

4. Research of control systems and their design.

1. Vesnin V. R. Management: a textbook for universities / V. R. Vesnin. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Velby. - 2006. - 504 p.

2. Meskon M. Kh. Fundamentals of management / M. Kh. Meskon, M. Albert, F. Hedouri; per. from English. - M.: Delo, 2005. - 720 p.

3. Fundamentals of management theory: a textbook for universities / ed. V. N. Parakhina, L. I. Ushvitsky. - M.: Finance and statistics. - 2004. - 560 p.

4. Roy O. M. Control theory: a tutorial / O. M. Roy. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2008. - 256 p.

5. Management theory: textbook for universities / ed. A. L. Gaponenko, A. P. Pankrukhina. - 2nd ed. - M. : Publishing House of the RAGS, 2005. - 558 p.

Management has the property consistency, therefore, we begin its study with an acquaintance with the basic provisions of systems theory.

Under system refers to a set of interconnected parts - components combined to achieve a common goal (the effect of the system) into a single whole, the interaction between which is characterized by orderliness and regularity in a specific period of time.

The main components of the system include: element of the system, relationships between elements, subsystem, structure of the system.

The first component of the system is element- the minimum integral part of the system, which is functionally capable of reflecting some general patterns of the system as a whole.

There are two types of elements: workers(the main function is to transform the input factors into a certain result) and protective.

Each system has a main backbone element(quality, attitude), which to one degree or another ensures the unity of all the others. If it is determined by the nature of the system, then it is called internal, otherwise - external. In social systems, this element can be either explicit or implicit.

For example, in the USSR, the CPSU and its constitutionally enshrined leadership role were the system-forming element. Failure to understand this circumstance led to the deprivation of the CPSU of this role without assigning it to another institution. As a result, not only the political and ideological system, but also the state itself collapsed.

As a result of the impact of the system-forming element, the remaining elements form overall quality, i.e., signs characteristic of each of them individually and the system as a whole.

The unity of the elements of the system arises as a result of the fact that between them are established connections, i.e., real interactions that are characterized by: type (they are sequential, convergent, divergent); by force; character (can be subordinate, equal, indifferent); character (unilateral or mutual); degree of constancy (episodic, regular, etc.).

That is, the second component of the system is the relationship between elements or connections. Relationships can be neutral when both elements do not undergo any structural or functional changes, or functional when one element, acting on another, leads to structural or functional changes in this element.

The third component of the system is subsystem, consisting of a number of system elements that can be combined according to similar functional manifestations. A system can have a different number of subsystems. It depends on the main functions of the subsystem: internal and external.

The fourth component of the system is system-theme structure- a certain structure, the mutual arrangement of elements and the connections existing between them, way of organizing whole made up of parts. Links, as well as a system-forming element, ensure the integrity of the system, its unity.

The nature of the relationship between the elements depends not only on the relative position of the latter, but also on their characteristics (for example, relations in the same size women's, men's and mixed teams will be different).

The structure is determined by the goals and functions of the system, but there is no moment of interaction in its characteristics.

In a broad sense, the structure can be viewed as a set of rules and regulations that regulate the operation of the system.

The structure of the system can be classified according to the following criteria:

By the number of hierarchy levels (single-level and multi-level);

According to the principles of subordination (centralization - decentralization);

For the intended purpose;

According to the functions performed;

According to the principles of breaking down elements into subsystems (such can be functional and object).

In general, the structure of the system is described by two main groups of characteristics:

Associated with hierarchy (number of subsystems, levels, connections; principles
breakdowns into subsystems; degree of centralization);

Reflecting the efficiency of functioning (reliability, survivability, speed, throughput, flexibility, variability, etc.).

The structure gives the system integrity and internal organization, within which the interaction of elements obeys certain laws. If such organization is minimal, the systems are called disordered, like a crowd on the street.

Since the elements and connections are not homogeneous within the same structural set of them, the system will have modifications. For example, the teams of two organizations with the same staffing will be completely different, since the people themselves and their personal relationships are different.

The system is characterized by a number of properties:

The system has borders, separating her from external environment. They can be "transparent", allowing the penetration of external impulses into it, and "opaque", tightly separating it from the rest of the world.

The system is inherent emergence, i.e., the appearance of qualitatively new properties that are absent or uncharacteristic of its elements. At the same time, elements combined into a system may lose their properties that are inherent to them outside the system. Thus, the properties of the whole are not equal to the sum of the properties of the parts, although they depend on them.

The system has feedback, which is understood as a certain reaction of it as a whole (individual elements) to each other's impulses and external influences. Feedback provides them with information about the real situation, compensates for the influence of interference. For example, in the system of relationships "leader - subordinate" the form of feedback may be a letter of resignation.

The system is characterized adaptability, those. the ability to maintain qualitative certainty in changing conditions. Adaptability is ensured by the simplicity of the structure, flexibility, redundancy of resources.

The system is characterized reduction, manifested in the fact that under certain conditions it behaves more simply than its individual elements. This is explained by the fact that such elements in the system impose restrictions on each other that do not allow them to independently choose their states. Therefore, the behavior of the system as a whole is subject not to particular, but to general laws, which are usually simpler in themselves.

The system can be destroyed over time under the influence of both the external environment and internal processes.

· The system can be controlled in order to ensure that it follows a given trajectory of development and functioning. There are the following ways to do this:

1) regulation and correction in case of unpredictable influences causing deviations;

2) change in system parameters based on prediction, applied
in case of impossibility to set a reference development trajectory for the entire period or significant deviations that do not allow returning to it;

3) a radical restructuring, if the goals are unattainable in principle
and we need to find a new system that can do this.

Let's take a look at what systems are.

By direction of connections between the elements of the system are divided into centralized (all communications are carried out through one central element) and decentralized (direct contacts between elements predominate). An example of a centralized system is a ministry and its local bodies; decentralized - association.

Systems where the connection of elements goes only along one line are called partial, and for many full. A system where each element is connected along one line only with the previous and subsequent ones is called chain. Its example is the pipeline.

According to the composition of the elements systems are homogeneous(homogeneous) and heterogeneous(diverse). For example, according to age, a school class is usually a homogeneous system, and according to gender, it is heterogeneous.

Systems characterized by the predominance of internal links compared to external ones, where centripetal is greater than centrifugal, and common characteristics are inherent in individual elements, are called holistic. An example of an integral system today is the NATO bloc.

A system that is preserved as a whole when one or more elements change or disappear is called sustainable, such as any biological organism. If at the same time it is possible to restore the lost elements, then it is regenerative(for example, lizards).

Systems can be changing (dynamic) and immutable (static). The former include living organisms, the latter - most of the technical devices. Dynamic systems are subdivided into primary, initial, and secondary, already undergone certain changes.

If changes are carried out linearly, unidirectionally, there will be observed growth systems. Non-linear, multidirectional changes occurring with unequal intensity, as a result of which connections, the ratio of elements change, characterize the process of its development .

Incompleteness happens substrate(transformations occur in the elements themselves) and structural(their composition and ratio changes). If the system retains its characteristics when the substrate changes, it is called stationary. For example, the replacement of rolling stock gives the urban transport system a substratum incompleteness, while a change in routes and the number of cars on the line gives it a structural one. Since the possibility of the normal functioning of this system does not depend on which brands of vehicles are used, it is stationary.

A system consisting of a number of heterogeneous elements is called difficult. The complexity of the system is due to their large number, diversity, interconnectedness, uncertainty of behavior and reactions. Such systems are usually multi-level and hierarchical (the highest level controls the lower level and at the same time is itself subordinate to the higher one). The introduction of an additional element into them (even similar to the existing ones) generates new and changes existing relations within the system.

Systems are divided into mechanistic and organic.

mechanistic systems they have a constant set of unchanging elements, clear boundaries, unambiguous connections, they are not able to change and develop, they function under the influence of external impulses. In a mechanistic system, the connections between elements are external in nature, do not affect the internal essence of each of them. Therefore, the elements are less dependent on the system and retain their independent existence outside of it (the wheel of a watch can play the role of a spare part for a long time). But the loss of at least one element by such a system leads to a violation of the entire mechanism of functioning. The most obvious example of this is the same clock.

organic systems have opposite qualities. In them, the dependence of the part on the whole increases, and the whole on the part, on the contrary, decreases. For example, a person with the loss of many organs can continue his life. The deeper the connection of the elements of an organic system, the greater the role of the whole in relation to them. Such systems have properties that mechanistic ones do not have, for example, the ability to self-organize and self-reproduce.

The specific form of an organic system is social(society, company, team, etc.).

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

System: Definition and classification

The concept of a system is one of the fundamental ones and is used in various scientific disciplines and spheres of human activity. The well-known phrases "information system", "man-machine system", "economic system", "biological system" and many others illustrate the prevalence of this term in various subject areas.

There are many definitions in the literature of what a “system” is. Despite the differences in wording, they all rely to some extent on the original translation of the Greek word systema - a whole made up of parts, connected. We will use the following rather general definition.

System- a set of objects united by links so that they exist (function) as a single whole, acquiring new properties that these objects do not have separately.

The remark about the new properties of the system in this definition is a very important feature of the system, which distinguishes it from a simple collection of unrelated elements. The presence of new properties in a system that are not the sum of the properties of its elements is called emergence (for example, the performance of the "collective" system is not reduced to the sum of the performance of its elements - members of this team).

Objects in systems can be both material and abstract. In the first case, one speaks of material (empirical) systems; in the second - about abstract systems. Abstract systems include theories, formal languages, mathematical models, algorithms, etc.

Systems. Principles of consistency

To identify systems in the surrounding world, you can use the following principles of consistency.

The principle of external integrity - isolation systems from the environment. The system interacts with the environment as a whole, its behavior is determined by the state of the environment and the state of the entire system, and not by some separate part of it.

System isolation in the environment has its purpose, i.e. the system is characterized by purpose. Other characteristics of the system in the surrounding world are its input, output and internal state.

The input of an abstract system, for example, some mathematical theory, is the statement of the problem; the output is the result of solving this problem, and the destination will be the class of problems solved within the framework of this theory.

The principle of internal integrity is the stability of links between parts of the system. The state of systems depends not only on the state of its parts - elements, but also on the state of the connections between them. That is why the properties of the system are not reduced to a simple sum of the properties of its elements; those properties appear in the system that are absent from the elements separately.

The presence of stable links between the elements of the system determines its functionality. Violation of these links can lead to the fact that the system will not be able to perform its assigned functions.

The principle of hierarchy - in the system, subsystems can be distinguished, defining for each of them its own input, output, purpose. In turn, the system itself can be seen as part of a larger systems.

Further division of subsystems into parts will lead to the level at which these subsystems are called elements of the original system. Theoretically, the system can be divided into small parts, apparently indefinitely. However, in practice this will lead to the appearance of elements whose connection with the original system, with its functions, will be difficult to grasp. Therefore, an element of the system is considered to be such smaller parts of it that have some qualities inherent in the system itself.

Important in the study, design and development of systems is the concept of its structure. System structure- the totality of its elements and stable links between them. To display the structure of the system, graphic notations (languages), block diagrams are most often used. In this case, as a rule, the representation of the system structure is performed at several levels of detail: first, the system's connections with the external environment are described; then a diagram is drawn with the selection of the largest subsystems, then their own diagrams are built for the subsystems, etc.

Such detailing is the result of a consistent structural analysis of the system. Method structural systems analysis is a subset of system analysis methods in general and is used, in particular, in programming engineering, in the development and implementation of complex information systems. The main idea of ​​structural system analysis is a step-by-step detailing of the studied (simulated) system or process, which begins with a general overview of the object of study, and then involves its consistent refinement.

AT systems approach to the solution of research, design, production and other theoretical and practical problems, the analysis stage together with the synthesis stage form the methodological concept of the solution. In the study (design, development) of systems, at the stage of analysis, the initial (developed) system is divided into parts in order to simplify it and solve the problem sequentially. At the stage of synthesis, the results obtained, individual subsystems are connected together by establishing links between the inputs and outputs of the subsystems.

It is important to note that the split systems into parts will give different results depending on who and for what purpose performs this partitioning. Here we are talking only about such partitions, the synthesis after which allows us to obtain the original or conceived system. These do not include, for example, the "analysis" of the "computer" system with a hammer and chisel. So, for a specialist implementing an automated information system at an enterprise, information links between enterprise departments will be important; for a specialist in the supply department - links that display the movement of material resources in the enterprise. As a result, you can get various options for the structural diagrams of the system, which will contain various connections between its elements, reflecting a particular point of view and the purpose of the study.

Performance systems, in which the main thing is the display and study of its relations with the external environment, with external systems, is called a representation at the macro level. The representation of the internal structure of the system is a representation at the micro level.

System classification

Classification systems involves the division of the entire set of systems into different groups - classes that have common features. The classification of systems can be based on various features.

In the most general case, two large classes of systems can be distinguished: abstract (symbolic) and material (empirical).

According to the origin of the system, they are divided on natural systems(created by nature), artificial, as well as systems of mixed origin, in which there are both natural elements and elements made by man. Systems, which are artificial or mixed, are created by man to achieve his goals and needs.

Let us give brief characteristics of some general types of systems.

Technical system is an interconnected, interdependent complex of material elements that provide a solution to a certain problem. Such systems include a car, a building, a computer, a radio communication system, etc. A person is not an element of such a system, and the technical system itself belongs to the class of artificial ones.

Technological system- a system of rules, norms that determine the sequence of operations in the production process.

Organizational system in general, it is a set of people (collectives) interconnected by certain relationships in the process of some activity, created and managed by people. Known combinations of "organizational-technical, organizational-technological system" expand the understanding of the organizational system by means and methods of professional activity of members of organizations.

Other name - organizational and economic the system is used to designate systems (organizations, enterprises) participating in the economic processes of creating, distributing, exchanging material goods.

economic system- a system of productive forces and production relations that develop in the process of production, consumption, distribution of material goods. A more general socio-economic system additionally reflects social ties and elements, including relations between people and teams, working conditions, recreation, etc. Organizational and economic systems operate in the field of production of goods and / or services, i.e. within an economic system. These systems are of the greatest interest as objects of implementation. economic information systems(EIS), which are computerized systems for collecting, storing, processing and disseminating economic information. A private interpretation of the EIS are systems designed to automate the tasks of managing enterprises (organizations).

According to the degree of complexity, simple, complex and very complex (large) systems are distinguished. Simple systems are characterized by a small number of internal connections and the relative ease of mathematical description. Characteristic for them is the presence of only two possible states of operability: in the event of failure of the elements, the system either completely loses its operability (the ability to fulfill its purpose), or continues to perform the specified functions in full.

Complex systems have a branched structure, a wide variety of elements and relationships, and many health states (more than two). These systems lend themselves to mathematical description, as a rule, with the help of complex mathematical relationships (deterministic or probabilistic). Complex systems include almost all modern technical systems (TV set, machine tool, spacecraft, etc.).

Modern organizational and economic systems (large enterprises, holdings, manufacturing, transport, energy companies) are among the very complex (large) systems. The following features are typical for such systems:

the complexity of the appointment and the variety of functions performed;

large system sizes in terms of the number of elements, their interconnections, inputs and outputs;

a complex hierarchical structure of the system, which makes it possible to single out several levels in it with fairly independent elements at each level, with their own goals for the elements and features of functioning;

the presence of a common goal of the system and, as a result, centralized control, subordination between elements of different levels with their relative autonomy;

the presence in the system of active elements - people and their teams with their own goals (which, generally speaking, may not coincide with the goals of the system itself) and behavior;

the variety of types of relationships between the elements of the system (material, informational, energy connections) and the system with the external environment.

Due to the complexity of the purpose and functioning processes, the construction of adequate mathematical models that characterize the dependences of the output, input and internal parameters for large systems is impossible.

According to the degree of interaction with the external environment, there are open systems and closed systems. A system is called a closed system, any element of which has connections only with the elements of the system itself, i.e. a closed system does not interact with the external environment. Open systems interact with the external environment, exchanging matter, energy, information. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment and are open.

By the nature of the behavior of the system is divided into deterministic and non-deterministic. Deterministic systems are those systems in which the components interact with each other in a precisely defined way. The behavior and state of such a system can be unambiguously predicted. When non-deterministic systems such an unambiguous prediction cannot be made.

If the behavior of the system obeys probabilistic laws, then it is called probabilistic. In this case, the prediction of the system behavior is performed using probabilistic mathematical models. We can say that probabilistic models are a certain idealization that allows you to describe the behavior of non-deterministic systems. In practice, the classification of a system as deterministic or non-deterministic often depends on the objectives of the study and the details of the consideration of the system.

Lecture 1: Basic concepts of systems theory

The terms systems theory and system analysis, despite the period of more than 25 years of their use, still have not found a generally accepted, standard interpretation.

The reason for this fact lies in the dynamism of processes in the field of human activity and in the fundamental possibility of using a systematic approach in almost any task solved by a person.

General systems theory (GTS) is a scientific discipline that studies the most fundamental concepts and aspects of systems. It studies various phenomena, abstracting from their specific nature and based only on the formal relationships between the various factors that make them up and on the nature of their change under the influence of external conditions, while the results of all observations are explained only by the interaction of their components, for example, the nature of their organization and functioning, and not by directly addressing the nature of the mechanisms involved (whether physical, biological, ecological, sociological, or conceptual)

For GTS, the object of study is not a "physical reality", but a "system", i.e. abstract formal relationship between the main features and properties.

With a systematic approach, the object of study is presented as a system. The very concept of a system can be related to one of the methodological concepts, since the consideration of an object is investigated as a system or the refusal of such consideration depends on the research task and the researcher himself.

There are many definitions of a system.

1. A system is a complex of elements that interact.
2. A system is a set of objects together with the relations of these objects.
3. System - a set of elements that are in relationships or connections with each other, forming integrity or organic unity (explanatory dictionary)

The terms "relationship" and "interaction" are used in the broadest sense, including the whole set of related concepts such as restriction, structure, organizational connection, connection, dependence, etc.

Thus, the system S is an ordered pair S=(A, R), where A is a set of elements; R is the set of relationships between A.

A system is a complete, integral set of elements (components) that are interconnected and interact with each other so that the function of the system can be realized.

The study of an object as a system involves the use of a number of representation systems (categories), among which the main ones are:

1. Structural representation is associated with the selection of the elements of the system and the links between them.
2. Functional representation of systems - the allocation of a set of functions (purposeful actions) of the system and its components aimed at achieving a specific goal.
3. Macroscopic representation is the understanding of the system as an indivisible whole interacting with the external environment.
4. The microscopic representation is based on the consideration of the system as a set of interrelated elements. It involves the disclosure of the structure of the system.
5. The hierarchical representation is based on the concept of a subsystem, obtained by decomposing (decomposing) a system that has system properties that should be distinguished from its element, which is indivisible into smaller parts (from the point of view of the problem being solved). The system can be represented as a set of subsystems of different levels, constituting a system hierarchy, which is closed from below only by elements.
6. The procedural representation involves the understanding of a system object as a dynamic object, characterized by a sequence of its states in time.

Let us consider the definitions of other concepts closely related to the system and its characteristics.

An object.

The object of knowledge is a part of the real world, which stands out and is perceived as a whole for a long time. The object can be material and abstract, natural and artificial. In reality, an object has an infinite set of properties of various nature. In practice, in the process of cognition, interaction is carried out with a limited set of properties that lie in the aisles of the possibility of their perception and necessity for the purpose of cognition. Therefore, the system as an image of an object is defined on a finite set of properties selected for observation.

External environment.

The concept of "system" arises there and then, where and when we materially or speculatively draw a closed boundary between an unlimited or some limited set of elements. Those elements with their respective mutual conditioning that fall inside form a system.

Those elements that remained outside the boundary form a set, called in systems theory "system environment" or simply "environment", or "external environment".

It follows from these considerations that it is unthinkable to consider a system without its external environment. The system forms and manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment, while being the leading component of this impact.

Depending on the impact on the environment and the nature of interaction with other systems, the functions of systems can be arranged in ascending rank as follows:

• passive existence;
• material for other systems;
• maintenance of higher order systems;
• opposition to other systems (survival);
• absorption of other systems (expansion);
• transformation of other systems and environments (active role).

Any system can be considered, on the one hand, as a subsystem of a higher order (supersystem), and on the other hand, as a supersystem of a system of a lower order (subsystem). For example, the system "production shop" is included as a subsystem in a system of a higher rank - "firm". In turn, the "firm" supersystem can be a "corporation" subsystem.

Usually, more or less independent parts of systems appear as subsystems, distinguished according to certain characteristics, possessing relative independence, a certain degree of freedom.

Component- any part of the system that enters into certain relations with other parts (subsystems, elements).

element system is a part of a system with uniquely defined properties that perform certain functions and are not subject to further division within the framework of the problem being solved (from the point of view of the researcher).

The concepts of element, subsystem, system are mutually transformable, the system can be considered as an element of a system of a higher order (metasystem), and an element, in in-depth analysis, as a system. The fact that any subsystem is simultaneously and relatively independent system leads to 2 aspects of the study of systems: at the macro- and micro-levels.

When studying at the macro level, the main attention is paid to the interaction of the system with the external environment. Moreover, higher-level systems can be considered as part of the external environment. With this approach, the main factors are the target function of the system (goal), the conditions for its functioning. At the same time, the elements of the system are studied from the point of view of their organization into a single whole, the impact on the functions of the system as a whole.

At the micro level, the internal characteristics of the system, the nature of the interaction of elements among themselves, their properties and operating conditions become the main ones.

Both components are combined to study the system.

System structure.

The structure of the system is understood as a stable set of relations that remains unchanged for a long time, at least during the observation interval. The structure of the system is ahead of a certain level of complexity in terms of the composition of relations on the set of elements of the system, or equivalently, the level of diversity of the manifestations of the object.

Connections- these are elements that carry out direct interaction between elements (or subsystems) of the system, as well as with elements and subsystems of the environment.

Communication is one of the fundamental concepts in the systems approach. The system as a whole exists precisely due to the presence of connections between its elements, i.e., in other words, the connections express the laws of the system's functioning. Relations are distinguished by the nature of the relationship as direct and reverse, and by the type of manifestation (description) as deterministic and probabilistic.

Direct connections are intended for a given functional transfer of matter, energy, information or their combinations - from one element to another in the direction of the main process.

Feedback, mainly perform informing functions, reflecting a change in the state of the system as a result of a control action on it. The discovery of the feedback principle was an outstanding event in the development of technology and had extremely important consequences. The processes of management, adaptation, self-regulation, self-organization, development are impossible without the use of feedback.

Rice. — Feedback example

With the help of feedback, the signal (information) from the output of the system (control object) is transmitted to the control body. Here, this signal, containing information about the work performed by the control object, is compared with a signal that specifies the content and amount of work (for example, a plan). In the event of a discrepancy between the actual and planned state of work, measures are taken to eliminate it.

The main feedback functions are:

1. counteracting what the system itself does when it goes beyond the established limits (for example, responding to quality degradation);
2. compensation of disturbances and maintenance of a state of stable equilibrium of the system (for example, equipment malfunctions);
3. synthesizing external and internal disturbances that seek to bring the system out of a state of stable equilibrium, reducing these disturbances to deviations of one or more controlled variables (for example, the development of control commands for the simultaneous emergence of a new competitor and a decrease in the quality of products);
4. development of control actions on the control object according to a poorly formalized law. For example, the establishment of a higher price for energy carriers causes complex changes in the activities of various organizations, changes the final results of their functioning, requires changes in the production and economic process through impacts that cannot be described using analytical expressions.

Violation of feedback in socio-economic systems for various reasons leads to serious consequences. Separate local systems lose the ability to evolve and perceive emerging new trends, long-term development and scientifically based forecasting of their activities for a long period of time, effective adaptation to constantly changing environmental conditions.

A feature of socio-economic systems is the fact that it is not always possible to clearly express the feedback, which in them, as a rule, is long, passes through a number of intermediate links, and it is difficult to see them clearly. The controlled variables themselves often do not lend themselves to a clear definition, and it is difficult to establish many restrictions on the parameters of the controlled variables. The real reasons for the controlled variables to go beyond the established limits are also not always known.

A deterministic (hard) connection, as a rule, unambiguously determines the cause and effect, gives a clearly defined formula for the interaction of elements. A probabilistic (flexible) connection defines an implicit, indirect relationship between the elements of the system. Probability theory offers a mathematical apparatus for the study of these relationships, called "correlation dependencies."

Criteria- signs by which the assessment of the compliance of the functioning of the system with the desired result (goal) is carried out under given restrictions.

System efficiency- the ratio between the given (target) indicator of the result of the functioning of the system and actually implemented.

Functioning of any arbitrarily chosen system consists in processing the input (known) parameters and known parameters of the environmental impact into the values ​​of the output (unknown) parameters, taking into account feedback factors.

Rice. — System operation

Entrance- everything that changes during the course of the process (functioning) of the system.

Exit is the result of the final state of the process.

CPU— transfer of input to output.

The system communicates with the environment in the following way.

The input of a given system is at the same time the output of the previous one, and the output of this system is the input of the next one. Thus, the input and output are located on the boundary of the system and simultaneously perform the functions of the input and output of the previous and subsequent systems.

System management is associated with the concepts of direct and feedback, restrictions.

Feedback- designed to perform the following operations:

• comparison of input data with output results with the identification of their qualitative and quantitative differences;
• assessment of the content and meaning of the difference;
• working out a solution arising from the difference;
• impact on input.

Limitation- provides a correspondence between the output of the system and the requirement for it, as for the input to the subsequent system - the consumer. If the specified requirement is not met, the constraint does not allow it to pass through itself. The restriction, therefore, plays the role of coordinating the functioning of this system with the goals (needs) of the consumer.

The definition of the functioning of the system is associated with the concept of a “problem situation”, which occurs if there is a difference between the necessary (desired) output and the existing (real) input.

Problem is the difference between the existing system and the desired system. If there is no difference, then there is no problem.

Solving a problem means correcting an old system or designing a new, desirable one.

System status is the set of essential properties that the system possesses at any given time.

The system (in its most general form) can be characterized as something whole, consisting of interrelated and interdependent parts, the interaction of which generates new integrative qualities that are not inherent in individual components.

Any system has two main content characteristics.

First, integrity: the system is a set of concrete, with their inherent properties and the nature of the relationship of parts.

Secondly, divisibility: the system consists of subsystems that also have system properties, that is, they can be represented as systems of a lower level.

A management (management) system is a system in which management (management) functions are implemented.

The control system can be represented as an interaction of three elements. The first element is the subject of control. As the second element of control (management) or the control part of the system that has a managerial impact, the third element of the system is the control object.

Control subsystem is a set of management bodies of the enterprise, managed - a set of shops, sections, teams and jobs. The control and managed subsystems are interconnected by command flows and reverse information flows, reflecting the reaction of the managed subsystem to incoming commands.

The control subsystem includes a number of elements, the simultaneous operation of which allows you to effectively manage the enterprise.

These include:

Organization management (management functions and management structures);

Management methods (economic, administrative-legal, organizational, socio-psychological);

Control technology;

Control technique.

The object of management is an employee, a group of persons, a labor collective. The objects of management can also be: resources, processes, results, all types of human activity.

Organizations in the course of their activities use material, labor, financial, information, technological and other resources. Accordingly, as objects of control - resources can be:
- commodity stocks;

Financial resources;

Information array;

Organization staff.

In any organization, there are many processes, from the management process to the production process. The most important parts of the production process are the supply, production and marketing of products. In accordance with this, the following can act as objects of control - processes:

Manufacturing process;

Trade and technological process;

Marketing activity of the enterprise;

Logistics of the enterprise, etc.

The results (outputs of the system) include: profit, profitability, production and sales volumes, costs, product quality, etc. Accordingly, the following can serve as management objects - results:
- the quality of goods produced or services rendered;

Results of management or production activities;

labor productivity;

Production or management costs, etc.

An enterprise as an open system can be represented as follows:

The management system of a modern organization (enterprise) must meet the following basic requirements:

Have high flexibility;

Be adequate to a complex production technology that requires appropriate forms of control, organization and division of labor;

Promptly respond to changes in the factors of the external and internal environment of the enterprise, market conditions;

Take into account competition in the relevant market of goods (services);

Take into account the requirements for the quality of customer service and the fulfillment of contracts;

Ensure high efficiency of enterprise management;

Contribute to the development of the organization;

Ensure the implementation of scientific achievements and best practices;

Have the ability to self-regulate so that any deviations from the norm (in terms of cost, quality, timing, etc.) are quickly fixed (ideally, automatically) and countermeasures are immediately developed and taken to return the control system to its previous normal state.

Communication is an indispensable element of any control system. Communication can be defined as an important for the purposes of management, interaction, the channel of exchange between the subjects of matter, energy, information. The single act of communication is the impact.

Links can be direct, reverse, vertical, horizontal, etc.

Direct connection is the impact of the subject of management on the object in the form of management commands, decisions, recommendations, etc.

Feedback is information coming from the control object to the control subject. The existence of feedback means that the result of the functioning of the control object in a certain way affects the impacts that come to it. As a rule, feedback acts as an important regulator in the control system.

The given direct and feedback links are classified as vertical. In addition to them, there are also horizontal connections that make it possible to implement informal relations that contribute to the transfer of knowledge and skills, ensuring the coordination of actions of subjects of the same level to achieve the goals set by the management system.

Thus, management is a management system that ensures the effective functioning and development of an organization in a competitive environment.

5. Organization: concept, features, classification

Company - it is an independent economic entity created by an entrepreneur or an association of entrepreneurs to produce products, perform work and provide services in order to meet public needs and make a profit.

Enterprises specializing in the production of homogeneous products form the corresponding branches of material production: industry, agriculture, transport, construction, etc. They make up the structure of the industry, determine their profile and scope. In addition, enterprises and organizations form the territorial specialization of cities and regions in which they are located. Thus, enterprises and their teams are the main elements from which branch and territorial complexes are formed at the same time. Therefore, enterprises act as the main links of the national economic complex.

Currently, in domestic practice, the concept of "firm" is becoming more widespread. The latter is often used as a synonym for the enterprise, which contradicts its semantic purpose. So, if an enterprise plays the role of a direct commodity producer, then the firm is called upon to play the role of an entrepreneur creating or transforming an enterprise that provides financing for their activities. The very name of the company, its trademark, used when concluding business contracts for goods, their packaging, allows you to individualize a particular enterprise and the activity of the company, unlike other manufacturers of homogeneous products.

The economic role of the enterprise is to meet the needs of consumers and provide income to its employees, owner and suppliers.

Operating in a certain territory (city, district, region, republic), enterprises ensure its well-being, on which they themselves depend. The enterprise must organize its activities, focus on the person, that is, it also plays social role.

Consider the economic and social functions of the enterprise in three aspects:

The role of the company in relation to its customers,

The role of the company in relation to its employees,

The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the property of the enterprise.

Most of the company's products are intended for sale on the market to meet the needs of their clients. For this, it makes a profit, so the company needs a stable clientele. For its part, the consumer needs goods of a certain quality at affordable prices. Strong relationships are created between them, which can only exist and intensify if both parties are satisfied with their ties. Only by serving customers, an enterprise can actually satisfy its needs and thereby realize profits. Thus, the role of the enterprise in relation to its customers is to serve them.

Enterprises, ultimately, ensure the harmonious development of the economy, focused on meeting the needs that are recognized as the most useful for the individual and society.

In relation to to their employees the company must provide them:

1) the necessary technical means to enable personnel to achieve the highest productivity,

2) the best working conditions, an environment in which employees work with pleasure,

3) appropriate wages,

4) employment protection.

The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the property comes down to making a profit necessary to:

1) to ensure the stability necessary for the enterprise itself and its staff,

2) not cause damage to its employees, as well as creditors, society in the event of a violation of the normal functioning of the enterprise,

3) ensure self-financing of the enterprise.

Enterprise goal:

1) satisfaction of social needs,

2) making a profit.

The following can be distinguished signs of the enterprise.

1. An enterprise is, first of all, organization- those. harmonious combination of material elements of production and labor force.

For the functioning of such an organization, a complex is required, including a land plot, buildings, structures, and equipment. In addition to the means of labor for production and economic activities, labor is also needed.

2. Any enterprise manufactures products or provides services. This product is used as:

consumable item,

Means of production in new production cycles.

The enterprise is obliged to produce high-quality products at optimal costs in order to better meet social needs and increase the well-being of the enterprise team.

3. The enterprise is legal entity, owning, managing or managing separate property and liable for its obligations with this property.

4. The enterprise carries out any types of activities that are provided for by its charter and not prohibited by the current legislation.

5. Enterprise:

Independently organizes production in accordance with its goals,

Independently chooses business partners,

Independently disposes of finished products,

Independently sells finished products through the most profitable channels and at affordable prices,

Independently manages their income.

6. Each enterprise, as an independent economic entity with the rights of a legal entity, finds all the means for its activities on market(money, goods, labor, information). In the market, the company sells its products. An enterprise can function stably only under the condition of normal uninterrupted interaction with the market environment. Market functions: informational, pricing.

7. The indispensable features of a modern enterprise should be dynamism, aspiration to the future. It must develop, produce and market new products, introduce new methods of production and its organization, distribution, find new markets for its products, develop new sources of raw materials and energy. The successful operation of an enterprise in the era of scientific and technological progress largely depends on the accuracy of forecasts - both short-term and long-term. The activities of the enterprise, its concerns should be turned to the future. The enterprise must know the future needs for its products and prepare in a timely manner to meet them. This increases the importance of conducting research, scientific market research, the use of forecasting methods, the implementation of training programs, retraining and advanced training of personnel.

Classification of enterprises. Organizational and legal forms of enterprises

Enterprises can be classified according to:

Sector of the economy;

Object of activity;

Organizational and legal form;

The goals of the activity;

Dimensions;

Type of production processes;

Degrees of specialization.

By sector of the economy distinguish enterprises in the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.

Primary sector enterprises- directly exploit natural resources (for example, oil production) and provide raw materials for the manufacturing industry (for example, fish production).

Secondary sector enterprises- enterprises that convert raw materials into means of production and consumer goods (for example, NP and NCP).

Tertiary sector enterprises (service sector)– provide various services (e.g. transport, education, banks, medical facilities).

By object of activity distinguish enterprises: agriculture, transport, construction, trade, enterprises providing services, industrial.

According to the goals of the activity distinguish:

Enterprises pursuing, in addition to satisfying the needs of members of society, making a profit - commercial;

Enterprises that satisfy the personal or collective needs of members of society and do not set goals in making a profit - non-commercial.

By size distinguish: small, medium, large and extra large enterprises.

By type of production processes distinguish between enterprises mass, serial and single production.

By degree of specialization distinguish: specialized, diversified and combined.

In accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, the following enterprises are created and carry out their production and economic activities, depending on the form of ownership: organizational and legal forms enterprises:

State;

Municipal;

customized;

Business partnerships;

Business companies;

consumer cooperatives;

institutions;

Public and religious organizations (associations);

Joint-stock companies (CJSC, OJSC);

Enterprises created on the basis of rent, etc.

According to Russian law company - an independent economic entity (legal entity), created to conduct economic activities, which is carried out in order to make a profit and meet public needs.

The enterprise acts as a legal entity, which is determined by a combination of features:

1. Isolation of their property;

2. Responsible for obligations with this property;

3. Availability of a bank account;

4. Acts on his own behalf.

The isolation of property is expressed by the presence of an independent balance sheet, which lists the property of the enterprise.

Let us consider in more detail the classification of enterprises according to the organizational and legal form.

The concept of a system element

By definition, an element is an integral part of a complex whole. In our concept, a complex whole is a system that is an integral complex of interrelated elements.

An element is an indivisible part of a system. An element is a part of a system that is independent in relation to the entire system and is indivisible with this method of separating parts. The indivisibility of an element is perceived as the inexpediency of taking into account its internal structure within the model of a given system.

The element itself is characterized only by its external manifestations in the form of connections and relationships with other elements and the external environment.

The set A of system elements can be described as:

BUT = {a i}, i = 1, ..., n, (1.1)

where a i ― i-th element of the system;

n is the number of elements in the system.

Each a i the element is characterized m specific properties Z i 1 , ..., Zim(weight, temperature, etc.), which uniquely determine it in a given system.

The totality of all m properties of element a i will be called the state of the element Z i:

Z i = (Z i 1 , Z i 2 , Z i 3 , ..., Z i k , ..., Zim) (1.2)

The state of an element, based on various factors (time, space, environment, etc.), may change.

Successive changes in the state of an element will be called element movement.

Communication concept

Connection is a set of dependencies of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system. To establish a relationship between two elements means to identify the presence of dependencies of their properties.

Lots of Q links between elements a i and a j can be represented as:

Q = {q ij}, i, j = 1 ... n. (1.3)

The dependence of the properties of elements can be one-sided and two-sided.

Relationships is a set of bilateral dependences of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system.

Interaction— a set of interrelations and relationships between the properties of elements when they acquire the character cooperation each other.

The concept of system structure

System structure is a set of elements of the system and links between them in the form of a set .

D = {A, Q}. (1.4)

The structure is a static model of the system and characterizes only the structure of the system and does not take into account the set of properties (states) of its elements.

The concept of the external environment

The system exists among other material objects that are not included in the system and which are united by the concept of ʼʼenvironmentʼʼ - objects of the external environment.

The input characterizes the impact of the environment on the system, the output characterizes the impact of the system on the environment.

In essence, the delineation or identification of a system is the division of a certain area of ​​the material world into two parts, one of which is perceived as a system - an object of analysis (synthesis), and the other - as an external environment.

The external environment is a set of natural and artificial systems for which this system is not a functional subsystem.

The lecture was developed by:

Professor V.I. Mukhin

The concept of an element of the system - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The concept of an element of the system" 2017, 2018.