The term sociology comes from two words: the Latin “societes” - “society” and the Greek “logos” - “word”, “concept”, “teaching”. Thus, sociology can be defined as the science of society.

The same definition of this term is given by the famous American scientist J. Smelser. However, this definition is rather abstract, since society is studied in various aspects by many other sciences.

In order to understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to determine the subject and object of this science, as well as its functions and research methods.

The object of any science is a part of external reality chosen for study, which has a certain completeness and integrity. As already noted, the object of sociology is society, however, science does not study its individual elements, but the entire society as an integral system. The object of sociology is a set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. The concept of social can be considered in two senses: in a broad sense it is similar to the concept of “social”; in a narrow sense, the social represents only an aspect of social relations. Social relations develop between members of society when they occupy a certain place in its structure and are endowed with social status.

Consequently, the object of sociology is social connections, social interaction, social relationships and the way they are organized.

The subject of science is the result of a theoretical study of a selected part of external reality. The subject of sociology cannot be defined as unambiguously as the object. This is due to the fact that throughout the historical development of sociology, views on the subject of this science have undergone significant changes.

Today we can distinguish the following approaches to defining the subject of sociology: 1) society as a special entity, distinct from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws (O. Comte); 2) social facts, which should be understood as collective in all manifestations (E. Durkheim );3) social behavior as a person’s attitude, i.e. an internally or externally manifested position focused on action or abstinence from it (M. Weber); 4) the scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements (base and superstructure ) (Marxism).

In modern domestic scientific literature, the Marxist understanding of the subject of sociology is preserved. It should be noted that this is fraught with a certain danger, since the representation of society in the form of a base and a superstructure leads to ignoring the individual and universal values, denying the world of culture.

Therefore, a more rational subject of sociology should be considered society as a set of social communities, layers, groups, individuals interacting with each other. Moreover, the main mechanism of this interaction is goal setting.

So, taking into account all these features, we can determine that sociology is the science of general and specific social patterns of organization, functioning and development of society, ways, forms and methods of their implementation, in the actions and interactions of members of society.

Sociology, which actively uses subjective assessments, especially in empirical research, is not interested in the relationship of these assessments with the personal characteristics of the respondents. The main thing for a sociologist is to identify patterns of formation and change in the subjective opinions of respondents and their connection with indicators characterizing their belonging to one or another social, professional, etc. group. For example: satisfaction (with work, quality of life, etc.) of representatives of various strata and groups - a subjective psychological evaluative attitude - is one of the most popular indicators in empirical sociological research

2 .Sociology is a differentiated and structured system of knowledge. A system is an ordered set of elements that are interconnected and form a certain integrity. It is in the clear structuring and integrity of the system of sociology that the internal institutionalization of science is manifested, characterizing it as independent. Sociology as a system includes the following elements: 1) social facts - scientifically based knowledge obtained during the study of any fragment of reality. Social facts are established through other elements of the sociological system; 2) general and special sociological theories - systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at resolving the issue of the possibilities and limits of knowledge of society in certain aspects and developing within certain theoretical and methodological directions; 3) sectoral sociological theories – systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at describing individual spheres of social life, substantiating a program of specific sociological research, ensuring the interpretation of empirical data; 4) methods of data collection and analysis – technologies for obtaining empirical material and its primary generalization.

However, in addition to the horizontal structure, systems of sociological knowledge are clearly differentiated along three independent levels.

1. Theoretical sociology (level of fundamental research). The task is to consider society as an integral organism, reveal the place and role of social connections in it, formulate the basic principles of sociological knowledge, the main methodological approaches to the analysis of social phenomena.

At this level, the essence and nature of the social phenomenon, its historical specificity, and its connection with various aspects of social life are revealed.

2. Special sociological theories. At this level there are branches of social knowledge whose subject is the study of relatively independent, specific subsystems of the social whole and social processes.

Types of special social theories: 1) theories that study the laws of development of individual social communities; 2) theories that reveal the patterns and mechanisms of functioning of communities in certain spheres of social life; 3) theories that analyze individual elements of the social mechanism.

3. Social engineering. The level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge for the purpose of designing various technical means and improving existing technologies.

In addition to the indicated levels, macro-, meso- and microsociology are distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge.

Within the framework of macrosociology, society is studied as an integral system, as a single organism, complex, self-governing, self-regulating, consisting of many parts and elements. Macrosociology primarily studies: the structure of society (which elements make up the structure of early society and which - modern), the nature of changes in society.

Within the framework of mesosociology, groups of people (classes, nations, generations) existing in society are studied, as well as stable forms of organization of life created by people, called institutions: the institution of marriage, family, church, education, state, etc.

At the level of microsociology, the goal is to understand the activities of an individual person, motives, nature of actions, incentives and obstacles.

However, these levels cannot be considered separately from each other as independently existing elements of social knowledge. On the contrary, these levels must be considered in close relationship, since understanding the overall social picture and social patterns is possible only on the basis of the behavior of individual subjects of society and interpersonal communication.

In turn, social forecasts about this or that development of social processes and phenomena, the behavior of members of society are possible only on the basis of the disclosure of universal social patterns.

In the structure of sociological knowledge, theoretical and empirical sociology are also distinguished. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it is based on empirical research, but theoretical knowledge prevails over empirical knowledge, since it is theoretical knowledge that ultimately determines progress in any science and in sociology too. Theoretical sociology is a set of diverse concepts that develop aspects of the social development of society and provide their interpretation.

Empirical sociology is more of an applied nature and is aimed at solving current practical issues of social life.

Empirical sociology, unlike theoretical sociology, is not aimed at creating a comprehensive picture of social reality.

Theoretical sociology solves this problem by creating universal sociological theories. Theoretical sociology lacks a core that has remained stable since its founding.

There are many concepts and theories in theoretical sociology: the materialist concept of the development of society by K. Marx is based on the priority of economic factors in the development of society (historical materialism); there are various concepts of stratification, industrial development of societies; convergence, etc.

However, it must be remembered that certain social theories are not confirmed in the course of the historical development of society. Some of them are not implemented at one or another stage of social development, others do not stand the test of time.

The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it solves the problems of studying society on the basis of scientific methods of understanding reality.

In each of these levels of knowledge, the subject of research is specified.

This allows us to consider sociology as a system of scientific knowledge.

The functioning of this system is aimed at obtaining scientific knowledge both about the entire social organism and about its individual elements that play different roles in the process of its existence.

Thus, sociology is a multidimensional and multi-level system of scientific knowledge, which consists of elements that concretize general knowledge about the subject of science, research methods and methods of its presentation

3.Method– the main method of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique is a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Methodology is a concept that denotes a set of technical techniques associated with a given method, including private operations, their sequence and interrelation. Procedure – the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study.

The main methods used in social empirical research can be identified as follows.

Observation is the purposeful perception of phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge regarding the external aspects, states and relationships of the objects being studied. The forms and methods of recording observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera and other technical means. The peculiarity of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze diverse impressions about the object under study.

It is possible to record the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, and expressions of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-participated.

If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participant observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he conducts non-participant observation.

The main object of observation is both the behavior of individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activities.

An experiment is a method whose purpose is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice.

The logic of its implementation is to, by selecting a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor), to trace the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher.

There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting experimental participants, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used.

The planning and logic of an experiment include the following procedures: 1) selection of an object used as an experimental and control group; 2) selection of control, factor and neutral characteristics; 3) determination of experimental conditions and creation of an experimental situation; 4) formulation of hypotheses and definition of tasks; 5 ) selection of indicators and method of monitoring the progress of the experiment.

Document analysis is one of the widely used and effective methods for collecting primary information.

The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in a document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows us to identify the trend and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes.

The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc.

A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process being studied.

An important feature of information is its aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole.

The selection of information sources depends on the research program, and specific or random sampling methods may be used.

There are: 1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the origin of documents are studied; their historical and social context; 2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, everything that the source text testifies to, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports.

The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative-quantitative analysis (content analysis).

A survey - a method of collecting sociological information - involves: 1) an oral or written appeal by a researcher to a certain population of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study at the level of empirical indicators; 2) registration and statistical processing of the responses received, their theoretical interpretation.

In each case, the survey involves addressing directly the participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation. This method of sociological research is the most popular and widespread.

The main types of surveys, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which constitute an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or questionnaire.

An interview is a focused conversation, the purpose of which is to obtain answers to questions provided for in the research program. The advantages of an interview over a questionnaire survey: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the survey topic and individual problems, expressed intonation, flexibly change the wording of questions taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, and pose the necessary additional questions.

Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, which records all the main questions and options for additional questions.

The following types of interviews can be distinguished: 1) by content (documentary, opinion interviews); 2) by technique (free and standardized); 3) by procedure (intensive, focused).

Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. There are open questions when respondents express themselves in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answer options are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures.

When preparing and conducting a sociological survey, there are three main stages.

At the first stage, the theoretical prerequisites of the survey are determined: 1) goals and objectives; 2) problem; 3) object and subject; 4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators.

During the second stage, the sample is justified, the following is determined: 1) the general population (those layers and groups of the population to which the survey results are expected to be extended); 2) the rules for searching and selecting respondents at the last stage of sampling.

At the third stage, the questionnaire is justified: 1) meaningful representation of the research problem in the formulation of questions intended for respondents; 2) justification of the questionnaire regarding the capabilities of the population being surveyed as a source of the information sought; 3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organization and maintenance survey, establishing contact with the respondent, registering responses; 4) providing preconditions for processing the results on a computer; 5) providing organizational requirements for the survey.

Depending on the source (media) of primary information, mass and specialized surveys differ. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are usually called respondents.

In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent individuals whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow them to draw authoritative conclusions.

The participants in such surveys are experts who can give a balanced assessment on issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments.

4. Specific sociological research (CSI) is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that allows one to obtain new knowledge about a social object (process, phenomenon) to solve fundamental and applied problems. Sociological research consists of four interrelated stages: 1) preparation of research; 2) collection of primary sociological information; 3) preparation of collected information for processing and its processing on a computer; 4) analysis of processed information, preparation of a report on the results of the study, formulation of conclusions and recommendations.

There are three main types of sociological research: exploratory, descriptive and analytical.

Reconnaissance is the simplest type, solving limited problems and studying small survey populations. It has a simplified program and is used in the case of unexplored problems, to obtain additional information about an object, to clarify hypotheses and tasks, to obtain operational data.

Descriptive research is a more complex type that involves obtaining empirical information for a holistic understanding of the phenomenon being studied, has a complete program and is applied to a large community with diverse characteristics.

Analytical research is the most complex type, which aims not only to describe the phenomenon being studied, but also to find out the reasons that underlie it and determine the nature, prevalence, severity and other features characteristic of it. It is of the greatest value and requires considerable time and a carefully crafted program.

Based on the dynamics of an object, a point (one-time) study and a repeated study (several studies of the same object at certain intervals according to a single program) are distinguished. A specific sociological study can be large-scale or local. This is mainly social work to order.

Direct preparation of the study involves the development of its program, work plan and supporting documents. The program is the language of communication between the sociologist and the customer; it is a strategic research document. It is a thesis statement of the concept of the organizers of the work, their plans and intentions. It is also considered a comprehensive theoretical justification of methodological approaches and methodological techniques for studying social facts.

The program consists of two parts - methodological and methodological. The first includes the formulation and justification of the problem, indication of the goal, definition of the object and subject of research, logical analysis of basic concepts, formulation of hypotheses and tasks; the second is the definition of the population being surveyed, the characteristics of the methods used for collecting primary sociological information, the logical structure of the tools for collecting this information and the logical schemes for its processing on a computer.

Brief commentary on the structural elements of the KSI program.

A social problem is a contradictory situation created by life itself. Problems are classified by purpose, medium, extent of prevalence, duration of the contradiction and its depth.

The goal should always be result-oriented and, through implementation, should help to identify ways and means of solving the problem.

The object of KSI is a social fact, i.e. any social phenomenon or process. The subject of KSI is the sides or properties of an object that most fully express the problem.

Logical analysis of basic concepts implies the identification of concepts that define the subject, an accurate and comprehensive explanation of their content and structure.

A hypothesis is a preliminary assumption that explains a social fact with the aim of its subsequent confirmation or refutation.

Objectives are formulated in accordance with the goal and hypotheses.

The general population (N) is all the people geographically and temporally involved in the object being studied. Sample population (n) - micromodel of the general population. It consists of respondents selected for the survey using one or another sampling method. The selection of respondents is carried out according to social formulas, using a table of random numbers, mechanical, serial, cluster, spontaneous sampling, snowball and main array methods. The most accurate method is quota sampling.

The program substantiates the need to use specific methods for collecting sociological information (questioning, interviewing, document analysis, observation, etc.).

The logical structure of the toolkit reveals the focus of a particular block of questions on certain characteristics and properties of the object, as well as the order in which the questions are arranged.

Logical schemes for processing the collected information show the expected range and depth of analysis of sociological data.

5.At the beginning of XX V. Significant changes were taking place in social life, which could not but affect the development of sociological knowledge.

Capitalism entered its developed stage, which was characterized by revolutions, world wars, and unrest in society. All this required the development of new concepts of social development.

One of the most prominent representatives of sociology who influenced the creation of classical sociology was E. Durkheim (1858–1917). The French sociologist largely relied on the positivist concept of O. Comte, but went much further and put forward the principles of a new methodology: 1) naturalism - the establishment of the laws of society is similar to the establishment of the laws of nature; 2) sociologism - social reality does not depend on individuals, it is autonomous.

Durkheim also argued that sociology should study objective social reality, in particular that sociology should study social facts. A social fact is an element of social life that does not depend on the individual and has a “coercive force” in relation to him (way of thinking, laws, customs, language, beliefs, monetary system). Thus, three principles of social facts can be distinguished: 1) Social facts are fundamental, observable, impersonal phenomena of social life; 2) the study of social facts must be independent of “all innate ideas,” i.e., the subjective predisposition of individuals; 3) the source of social facts lies in society itself, and not in the thinking and behavior of individuals.

He also proposed the use of functional analysis, which made it possible to establish a correspondence between a social phenomenon, a social institution and a specific need of society as a whole. Here another term put forward by the French sociologist finds its expression - social function.

Social function is the establishment of a connection between an institution and the need of society as a whole determined by it. A function represents the contribution of a social institution to the stable functioning of society.

Another element of Durkheim's social theory, which unites it with Comte's concept, is the doctrine of consent and solidarity as the fundamental principles of social order. Durkheim, following his predecessor, puts forward consensus as the basis of society. He identifies two types of solidarity, the first of which historically replaces the second:

1) mechanical solidarity inherent in undeveloped, archaic societies in which the actions and actions of people are homogeneous;

2) organic solidarity, based on the division of labor, professional specialization, and economic interconnection of individuals.

An important condition for the solidarity of people is the correspondence of the professional functions they perform to their abilities and inclinations.

Another prominent theorist of sociological thought, M. Weber (1864–1920), lived at the same time as Durkheim. However, his views on society differed significantly from the French thinker.

While the latter gave undivided priority to society, Weber believed that only the individual has motives, goals, interests and consciousness; the term “collective consciousness” is more of a metaphor than a precise concept. Society consists of a collection of acting individuals, each of whom strives to achieve their own, rather than social, goals, since achieving a specific goal is always faster and requires less costs. To achieve individual goals, people unite in groups.

For Weber, the tool of sociological knowledge is the ideal type. An ideal type is a mental logical construct created by a researcher.

They provide the basis for understanding human actions and historical events. Society is precisely such an ideal type. It is intended to denote in one term a huge collection of social institutions and connections. Another method of research for Weber is the search for the motives of human behavior.

It was he who first introduced this method into the category of sociological ones and clearly developed the mechanism for its application. Thus, to understand the motivation of a person's action, the researcher needs to put himself in the shoes of that person. Knowledge of the entire chain of events and how most people act in certain cases allows the researcher to determine exactly what motives guided a person when he performed a specific social action.

Only in conjunction with it can social statistics become the core of the methodological base of sociology. It was the method of studying the motives of human activity that formed the basis of the theory of social action.

Within the framework of this theory, Weber identified four types: goal-rational, value-rational, traditional, affective.

An important element of Weber's social teaching is also the theory of values. Values ​​are any statement that is associated with a moral, political or some other assessment.

Weber calls the process of value formation the attribution to values.

Attribution to values ​​is a procedure of both selection and organization of empirical material.

Weber also paid considerable attention to the study of issues of the sociology of power. In his opinion, organized behavior of people, the creation and functioning of any social institutions is impossible without effective social control and management. He considered the ideal mechanism for implementing power relations to be bureaucracy - a specially created management apparatus.

Weber developed theories of ideal bureaucracy, which, according to the thinker, should have the following characteristics: 1) division of labor and specialization; 2) clearly defined hierarchy of power; 3) high formalization; 4) impersonal character; 5) career planning; 6) division of organizational and personal life of members of the organization; 7) discipline.

One of the patriarchs of world sociology, Robert Merton, once said: “Sociology is a very young science about a very ancient subject of study.” You can't say it more precisely. People became interested in what we call society today in ancient times. For 2,500 years, thinkers analyzed and described society without, however, calling the resulting knowledge sociology. The first sociologists of antiquity are called social philosophers.

Sociology has long been identified with social philosophy. One of the interpretations: “sociology is the science of the laws and driving forces of the development of society.” Sociology, in fact, was identified with historical materialism.

K. Marx analyzed the process of human development and came to the conclusion that civil society was born only at a certain stage of the historical process, K. Marx defined civil society as a certain facet and stage in the development of human society, which covers “a certain social system, a certain organization of the family, estates or classes." According to him, if you take a certain civil society, you can get a certain political system, which is only the official expression of civil society.

For a long time in Russian sociology, society as a whole was considered as the object of sociology. The emergence of a person as a citizen is associated only with a certain stage in the development of society. “Civil society is a set of historically established forms of joint life activity, certain universal human values ​​that guide people and every person in all spheres of society.”

For a long time, no major differences were made between the object and the subject of sociology; it took years to formulate that the subject of science is that facet of its object that determines its substantive, essential side.

In the early 1990s, new concepts were put forward that claim to deeply comprehend, describe and characterize the ongoing changes in society.

The so-called globalists - sociologists - have gained weight. They claimed to explain everything that was happening in the world from geo-economic, geopolitical, and transcultural positions. Scientists argued the need to study the social field, social space and the logic of their development.

Sociologists pay special attention to man, his consciousness, his attitude to social changes, not only as an individual, but also as a member of a certain social group, social stratum, institution. Attention is also paid to the motives of a person’s behavior in a specific social situation, his needs, interests, and life orientation. Statistics are important for sociology as an indicator by which one can judge the state of people’s inner world. This becomes the object of sociological study.

The subject of sociology is the consciousness and behavior of a person in a specific socio-economic situation, which determine the emergence of various socio-demographic, national, socio-professional structures.

The term “sociology” appeared only at the beginning of the 19th century, between 1838 and 1840. Its creator was a man who had never conducted a single survey in his life. The Frenchman Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was a philosopher, not particularly outstanding, like, say, Kant or Hegel, but very insightful.

Like any other science, sociology has its own subject and specific research methods. It is included in the general system of scientific knowledge and occupies a strictly defined place in it. Sociology is one of the sciences that studies not only society as a whole, but also its individual parts, spheres, and elements. Society is such a complex object that science alone cannot study it. Only by combining the efforts of many sciences can we fully and consistently describe and study the most complex formation that exists in this world - human society. Sciences that study the same object, especially such a large one as society, are united by logical connections, general concepts and methods, and therefore represent a certain system.

Three sciences that study the behavior of people everywhere, and not in some narrow area, say political or economic, are psychology, social psychology and sociology. Psychology studies the individual and his inner world. Social psychology studies small groups (family, group of friends, sports team), and sociology studies large groups.

Functions of sociology:

Sociology performs theoretical-cognitive and managerial functions. These functions can form derived functions, called independent ones.

These include:

ideological,

educational, 31

prognostic,

preventive,

practical.

The theoretical foundations and conceptual apparatus of sociology make it possible to analyze social processes in detail.

The theoretical-cognitive function of sociology is aimed at clarifying the essence of human consciousness. Sociology is based on systematized and constantly updated facts of social reality. The increase in new knowledge is achieved with a clearly formulated social problem, registered as a contradiction between the needs of social development and the subjective activities of people. Nowadays there is increasing interest in information that characterizes the inner world of people, their intentions, orientation, motives, values ​​and readiness to act in order to implement them.

The managerial function of sociology is to find reasonable ways to solve social problems that may arise as a result of managerial influences.

Gradually, issues of national and interethnic relations occupy a special place. The surge in conflicts and ethnic tensions have stimulated the work of sociologists to find ways out of the crisis, and their data are actively used in solving the problems of small nations and in determining the limits of national sovereignty.

The central place is given to the political and social consequences of people’s entry into new economic realities. Specialists in industrial sociology were faced with questions about the presence of mountain-like forms of private property.

The participation of sociology in the consideration of such problems as violence and crime in society is becoming important.

The management function of sociology can be aimed at solving real situations. Their study has sharply increased the importance of environmental, spiritual and moral problems. Moreover, the economic crisis has only intensified the importance of spiritual and moral problems, and their role in transforming people’s lives has increased.

Analysis of the state of social consciousness and behavior of people, trends in their change in the conditions of the functioning of economic, social, political and spiritual relations - all this has become the subject of research tasks of sociological science. This science is intended to enrich theoretical views about the current stage of development of modern society, as well as to help practice with recommendations on the possibilities of optimal influence on social processes.

Structure of Sociology:

Theoretical and empirical sociology. Within the framework of theoretical knowledge, sociological theories are developed, typologization and classification of available sociological information is carried out, which includes hypothetical knowledge, which must subsequently be confirmed or refuted. Theoretical knowledge reveals patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the processes and phenomena being studied and sociological science itself. In sociological theory, a significant place is occupied by the conceptual apparatus. Within the framework of theoretical knowledge, we can distinguish the theory of sociology and metasociology. The object of sociological science is social reality itself in all the diversity of its manifestations, and the object of metasociology is the cognitive capabilities of sociology, the patterns of its development.

Empirical knowledge is predetermined by all types and forms of specific information, which include a set of statistical and documentary data. Without empirical knowledge organized in a certain way, the realities of human consciousness and behavior in demographic, national, socio-legal and other aspects cannot be comprehended.

Fundamental and applied sociology. This division of sociology answers the question of whether it solves only scientific or practical problems.

Macrosociology is interested in society as an integral social organism, its structure, social institutions, their functioning and change. Microsociology is addressed to social behavior, interpersonal communication, motivation of action, socialization and individualization of the individual, incentives for group actions.

The object and subject of special sociological theories are individual social phenomena, their specific connections with other phenomena and processes that form civil society. They consider the characteristic connections that exist between all social phenomena. There are economic, political sociology, sociology of the spiritual sphere, sociology of management. As for economic sociology, it should be noted that this approach also has great practical significance.

This is due to the fact that he challenges the prevailing ideas that economic life does not contain ideal moments and that the economy is a complex of problems related only to the development of productive forces and the production relations determined by them.

The sociology of management is associated with the use of a special class of tasks - the mechanism for regulating social processes and is therefore considered independently.

Levels of sociological theory:

General theory is a set of logically interconnected theoretical concepts and judgments that explain a large fragment of reality, which is studied by this science.

A particular theory is a logically interconnected system of specific scientific concepts and judgments that describe a separate phenomenon (group of phenomena) or process (set of processes), which has received empirical confirmation on the basis of fundamental research.

Empirical research is fundamental research conducted in accordance with the requirements of the scientific method and aimed at confirming a particular theory. The main goal is to increase scientific knowledge, discover new patterns and discover known social trends. It takes from 3 to 10 years to prepare an empirical study.

METHODOLOGICAL MATERIALS

to prepare for seminars in the discipline “Sociology”

(for full-time students of non-sociological specialties)

Seminar1. Sociology as a science

1. Object, subject and method of sociology.

2. System, structure, levels and functions of sociology.

3. Sociology in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge.

4. The emergence and main stages of development of sociology (individual speaker)

Glossary:sociology, object of sociology, subject of sociology, social, social relations, theoretical sociology, applied sociology, empirical sociology, social law, functions of sociology, microsociology, mesosociology, macrosociology, Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Pitirim Sorokin, Talcott Parsons.

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Object, subject and method of sociology.

« Subject and object of knowledge of sociology.

The concept of social.

Each of us has come across the term “sociology” more than once. In modern life, as they say, it is “on everyone’s lips.” Television, radio, and newspapers report the results of sociological surveys of the population on a wide variety of issues. Sociological services of the Parliament, the President, and various research centers study public opinion on the most important socio-political and economic issues: rating of the most influential persons in the state, problems of pricing policy, satisfaction with the standard of living, etc. Enterprises and regions conduct their own specific sociological studies , which determine the state of social tension in teams, the population’s satisfaction with transport services, the work of various organizations, and the service sector. At institutes, students evaluate the work of teachers by filling out the questionnaire “A teacher through the eyes of a student.” All this is an external, lying on the surface level of sociological research, which creates the image of sociology as an applied empirical science that serves to satisfy some current, momentary needs of society. But can we say that this exhausts the subject and tasks of sociology? What is sociology as a science? This is exactly what we need to deal with.

Let's start with etymology. The term “sociology” is derived from two words: the Latin word societas - society and the Greek logos - word, concept, doctrine. Consequently, etymologically, sociology is the science of society. This is how the American sociologist J. Smelser characterizes it in his textbook “Sociology”. But this is a rather abstract definition, since society in its various aspects is studied by a significant number of humanitarian and social disciplines: social philosophy, political economy, history, demography, etc. In order to understand the features of sociology, the sociological approach to the study of society, it is necessary to isolate own area of ​​sociological research, as well as to determine the methods with which sociology operates. To do this, first of all, a strict distinction should be made between the object and the subject of sociology.

The object of a particular science is always a certain sphere of the objective or subjective world, while the subject of any science is the result of theoretical abstraction, allowing researchers to highlight those aspects and patterns of development and functioning of the object being studied that are specific to this science. Thus, the object of a particular science is a part of objective and subjective reality, which has its own properties that are studied only by this science, and the subject of science is the result of research activities.

It is generally accepted that the object of sociological knowledge is the entire set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. What is social? The social, from the point of view of the Russian sociologist G.V. Osipov, is a set of certain properties and features of social relations, integrated by individuals or communities in the process of joint activity in specific conditions, and manifested in their attitude towards each other, towards their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life. A social phenomenon or process arises when the behavior of even one individual is influenced by another individual or their group (community) - regardless of whether this individual or community is present. It is in the process of interaction with each other that individuals influence each other, thereby contributing to the fact that each of them becomes a bearer and exponent of any social qualities. Thus, social connections, social interaction, social relationships and the way they are organized are objects of sociological research.

The subject of sociology, since it is the result of research activities, cannot be defined as unambiguously. The understanding of the subject of sociology has changed throughout the history of this science. Representatives of various schools and directions have expressed and are expressing different understandings of the subject of sociology. And this is natural, since the subject of science is in close connection with the research activities of scientists.

The founder of sociology, the French thinker O. Comte believed that sociology is a positive science about society. The outstanding French sociologist E. Durkheim called social facts the subject of sociology. Moreover, social, according to Durkheim, means collective. Therefore, the subject of sociology, in his opinion, is the collective in all its manifestations.

From the point of view of the German sociologist M. Weber, sociology is the science of social behavior, which it seeks to understand and interpret. Social behavior, according to M. Weber, is a person’s attitude, in other words, an internal or externally manifested position focused on action or abstinence from it. This attitude is behavior when the subject associates it with a certain meaning. Behavior is considered social when, according to the meaning that the subject gives it, it is correlated with the behavior of other individuals.

In Marxism, the subject of sociological research is the scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements - individuals, social communities, social institutions. The following definition of sociology is widespread in our domestic literature. Sociology is the science of society as a social system as a whole, the functioning and development of this system through its constituent elements: individuals, social communities, institutions. In the textbook “Sociology” (Moscow, Mysl, 1990 p. 25) by G. V. Osipov, written from a Marxist methodological position, sociology is defined as the science of general and specific social laws and patterns of development and functioning of historically defined social systems, the science about the mechanisms of action and forms of manifestation of these laws and patterns in the activities of individuals, social communities, classes, and peoples.”

SOCIOLOGY

EDUCATIONAL MANUAL

For independent study of the discipline

(For vocational education and training students)

KHARKIV

INTRODUCTION

The current stage of development of higher professional education in Ukrainian universities is characterized by fundamental changes in the system of humanitarian training of students. Humanitarianization of education is aimed at the intellectual, aesthetic and moral development of the individual, increasing the level of education of a specialist, which is an important condition for his professional self-determination in work. Solving these problems involves updating the organizational and methodological forms of activating the heuristic potential of students.

The proposed methodological manual serves this purpose to a certain extent. This manual includes a short course of lectures on sociology, a dictionary-reference book of main categories and concepts, test tasks and methodological recommendations for independent work, general and additional literature on the topics of the course, as well as an algorithm for organizing independent work in the study of sociology.

The topics of lectures offered in the manual correspond to the normative standards of sociology courses for higher educational institutions of Ukraine. In the brief lecture notes, students are offered topics that make up the framework of the course, revealing the logic of the academic discipline and science “sociology”; each lecture covers several topics of the course. These are a kind of response patterns. However, these models should not be perceived as finished and complete; when answering tests and exams, it is necessary to turn to the analysis of real events and processes, to be able to apply theory, a system of sociological concepts. After all, social knowledge is important not in itself, but primarily as a means of ensuring a more conscious and active participation of the individual in the life of society.

The student selects the topic of the test according to the last digit (one or two) of the grade book number.

This teaching guide offers students a special kind of help. It focuses not only on preparing and passing a test task (this is a tactic), but also on obtaining ordered, concentrated knowledge necessary for a specialist (strategy).

In the system of scientific knowledge, sociology has a special place: it is the only science that studies society as a whole, and society in its socio-human dimension. This means not just society for a person, but a person in society - this is the essence of sociology, and this determined the logic of presentation of the material in this manual.

Concept, subject, object and method of sociology

Object of sociology

Any scientific discipline has its own object and its own subject of research. An object, as a rule, is understood as a range of phenomena (phenomena) that are subject to its study. The more general a science is, the wider this range of phenomena. The object of sociological knowledge is society. The term “sociology” comes from the Latin societas - “society” and the Greek logos - “study”, meaning literally “the study of society”. This term was introduced into wide scientific circulation in the middle of the 19th century. French philosopher Auguste Comte. But even before that, the great scientists and philosophers of mankind were engaged in research and understanding of the problems of society, various aspects of its functioning, leaving the world a rich heritage in this area. Comte's project of sociology implied that society was a special entity, distinct from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws. The practical meaning of sociology is participation in the improvement of society, which, in principle, lends itself to such improvement. Social life is closely connected with the life of an individual and influences the behavior of each person. Thus, the object of study of sociology is social reality, the person himself and everything that surrounds him. Human society is a unique phenomenon. It is directly or indirectly the object of many sciences (history, philosophy, economics, psychology, jurisprudence, etc.), each of which has its own perspective on the study of society, i.e. your subject.

Subject of Sociology

The subject of research is usually understood as a set of characteristics, qualities, and properties of an object that are of particular interest to a given science. The subject of sociology is the life of society, i.e. a complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities. The concept of “social” is deciphered as relating to the lives of people in the process of their relationships. The life activity of people is realized in society in three traditional spheres (economic, political, spiritual) and one non-traditional - social. The first three provide a horizontal cross-section of society, the fourth - a vertical one, implying division by subjects of social relations (ethnic groups, families, etc.). These elements of the social structure, in the process of their interaction in traditional spheres, form the basis of social life, which in all its diversity exists, is recreated and changes only in the activities of people.

People interact by uniting into various communities and social groups. Their activities are predominantly organized. Society can be represented as a system of interacting and interconnected communities and institutions, forms and methods of social control. A personality manifests itself through a set of social roles and statuses that it plays or occupies in these social communities and institutions.

In this case, status refers to a person’s position in society, which determines access to education, wealth, power, etc. A role can be defined as the behavior expected of a person, determined by his status. Thus, sociology studies social life, i.e. interaction of social actors on issues related to their social status.

Based on this, the key concept of sociology is mutual change. It consists of individual changes, but this is not any action, but a social action. In such an action there is a subject or a group of people, they can be observed empirically, in such an action there is always a goal, a process and a result. It is the totality of such actions that forms the social process as a whole, and in it it is possible to identify some general trends that are sociological laws. The difference between sociological laws and mathematical, physical, and chemical laws is that the former are approximate and imprecise; they may or may not happen, because completely depend on the will and actions of people and are probabilistic in nature. If we know for sure that two and two will always be four, and the path is speed multiplied by time, then social phenomena and processes do not fit into such a clear framework and may or may not be realized depending on the moods and activities of people in combination with many objective and subjective factors. It is still possible to predict events in advance, manage them and calculate possible alternatives, choosing the preferred option. Of course, the role of sociology and sociological research increases immeasurably in crisis situations, when it becomes important to take into account public opinion, its reorientation and change of ideals and paradigms.

Sociology studies the social structure of society, social groups, cultural system, personality types, recurring social processes, changes occurring in people, while focusing on identifying development alternatives.

Sociological knowledge acts as a unity of theory and practice, empirics.

Theoretical research is an explanation of social reality based on laws, empirical research is specific detailed information about the processes occurring in society (observations, surveys, comparisons).

Sociology as a science

From the designation of an object and subject, the definition of sociology as a science is formed. Its numerous variants, with different formulations, have substantive identity and similarity.

Sociology is defined in a variety of ways:

1) as a scientific study of society and social relations (N. Smelser, USA);

2) as a science that studies almost all social processes and phenomena (E. Giddens, USA);

3) as a study of the phenomena of interaction between people and the phenomena arising from this interaction (P. Sorokin, Russia - USA);

4) as a science about social communities, the mechanisms of their formation, functioning and development, etc. The variety of definitions of sociology reflects the complexity and versatility of its object and subject.

Concept of society

Concept of social

Social is a set of certain properties and characteristics (social relations) of social communities (classes, groups of people) in the process of their joint activities in specific conditions, manifested in their relationships to each other, to their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life. A social phenomenon or process occurs when the behavior of even one individual is influenced by another individual or social group. It is in the process of interaction with each other that people influence each other and thereby contribute to the fact that each of them becomes a bearer and exponent of any social qualities. Thus, social connections, social interaction, social relationships and the way they are organized are objects of sociological research. We can highlight the following main features that characterize the specifics of the social.

Firstly, it is a common property that is inherent in different groups of people and is the result of their relationships. Secondly, this is the nature and content of relations between different groups of people, depending on the place they occupy and the role they play in various social structures. Thirdly, this is the result of the joint activity of various individuals, manifested in communication and in their interaction. The social arises precisely in the course of interaction between people and is determined by differences in their place and role in specific social structures

Tasks of sociology

Sociology as an independent science has its own tasks. Sociology, studying social life in various forms and spheres, firstly, solves scientific problems that are associated with the formation of knowledge about social reality and the development of methods of sociological research. Secondly, sociology studies problems that are associated with the transformation of social reality, the analysis of ways and means of purposeful influence on social processes.

An equally important task of sociology is to provide reliable “feedback” to the management of society.

Functions of sociology

Sociology performs many different functions in society. The main ones are:

1) theoretical-cognitive - provides new knowledge about society, social groups, individuals and the patterns of their behavior. Of particular importance are special sociological theories that reveal patterns and prospects for the social development of society. Sociological theories provide scientific answers to pressing problems of our time, indicate real ways and methods of social transformation of the world;

2) applied - presents specific sociological information for solving practical scientific and social problems. Revealing the patterns of development of various spheres of society, sociological research provides specific information necessary for exercising control over social processes;

3) social forecast and control - warns about deviations in the development of society, predicts and models trends in social development. Based on sociological research, sociology puts forward scientifically based forecasts regarding the development of society in the future, which are the theoretical basis for constructing long-term plans for social development, and also provides practical recommendations.

4) humanistic - develops social ideals, programs for scientific, technical, socio-economic and socio-cultural development of society.

Structure of sociology

In modern sociology, three approaches to the structure of this science coexist.

1)empirics, i.e. a complex of sociological research focused on the collection and analysis of real facts of social life using a special methodology;

2) theories - a set of judgments, views, models, hypotheses that explain the processes of development of the social system as a whole and its elements;

3) methodology - a system of principles underlying the accumulation, construction and application of sociological knowledge.

The second approach is targeted. Fundamental sociology (basic, academic) is focused on the growth of knowledge and scientific contribution to fundamental discoveries. It solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development.

Applied sociology is focused on practical benefits. This is a set of theoretical models, methods, research procedures, social technologies, specific programs and recommendations aimed at achieving real social effect.

As a rule, fundamental and applied sociology incorporates empirics, theory, and methodology.

The third approach (large-scale) divides science into macro- and micro-sociology. The first studies large-scale social phenomena (ethnicities, states, social institutions, groups, etc.); the second is the spheres of direct social interaction (interpersonal relationships, communication processes in groups, the sphere of everyday reality).

In sociology, content-structural elements of different levels are also distinguished: general sociological knowledge; sectoral sociology (economic, industrial, political, leisure, management, etc.); independent sociological schools, directions, concepts, theories.

Any science operates with certain concepts and categories. Categories are the most important, most essential concepts that reflect the essence of a given science. These are the building blocks that make up this science.

Thus, the categories of sociology can be called the following: social equality, social communities (classes, groups, nations, gender, age and professional groups), sociological research, social management, social policy, social sphere, social goals, social ideal, social phenomena, social institutions, social relationships, etc., i.e. those most essential concepts that reflect the subject of the science of sociology.

5. HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY

For a long time, thinkers have sought to discover the secret springs that control global social processes and the subtle mechanisms of interaction between two or more people. However, sociology as an independent science appeared only in the middle of the 19th century.

True, the late emergence can be explained by the extreme complexity of the subject of study - human society. After all, we don’t really know when exactly it arose. Historians say: 40 thousand years ago, although the human race arose more than 2 million years ago.

Whatever historians say, we know for sure that ancient philosophers gave the first and fairly complete idea of ​​the structure of society Plato and Aristotle. Then came a very long historical pause, stretching over two thousand years, before outstanding scientists and thinkers appeared N. Machiavelli, T. Hobbes, F. Bacon, J.-J. Rousseau, A. Helvetius, I. Kant and many others), which seriously enriched our knowledge about society and human behavior. Finally, in the 19th century, sociology itself was born, which absorbed the best achievements of human thought about society and, through the use of concrete scientific methods, advanced our knowledge further. Among the creators of scientific sociology are: O. Comte, K. Marx, E. Durkheim and M. Weber. With them the actual scientific period of the history of sociology opens.

We include antiquity and modern times as prehistory. Four figures stand out here: Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli and Hobbes. The actual history of sociology includes the period from the mid-19th to the beginning of the 20th century, when the founders of modern sociology Comte, Marx, Durkheim and Weber lived and worked.

Only in the modern period does sociology emerge as an exact science based on empirical facts, scientific method and theory. The two preceding periods characterize its pre-scientific stage, when a set of ideas that explained man and society were formed within the framework of social philosophy.

ANTIQUITY

In Plato's social philosophy(427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) we find the provisions of sociology - the study of traditions, customs, morals and relationships between people; they summarized facts, built concepts that culminated in practical recommendations on how to improve society. Since in antiquity “society” and “state” were not distinguished, both concepts were used as synonyms.

Plato. The first work in history on “general sociology” is considered to be Plato’s “Republic”. He emphasized the special role of the division of labor and created the world's first theory of stratification, according to which any society is divided into three classes: the highest, consisting of wise men who govern the state; middle, including warriors protecting it from unrest and disorder; the lowest, where artisans and peasants were listed. The upper class is endowed with enormous privileges, but they constantly abuse their power. To prevent this from happening, the nobility must be deprived of private property, which, according to Plato, corrupts the morals of people. People who had reached 50 years of age, were highly educated and talented should have been allowed to manage society. They must lead a harsh lifestyle and not indulge in earthly pleasures.

Aristotle. For him, the backbone of order was the middle class. Besides him, there are two more classes - the rich plutocracy and the propertyless proletariat. A state is best governed when:

1) the mass of the poor are not excluded from participation in management;

2) the selfish interests of the rich are limited;

3) the middle class is larger and stronger than the other two.

The imperfections of society, Aristotle taught, are corrected not by equal distribution, but by the moral improvement of people. The legislator should strive not for general equality, but for equalizing life chances. Anyone can own private property; it does not harm people's morals and develops healthy selfish interests. A person is driven by many aspirations, but the main one among them is the love of money. Under collective ownership, everyone or the majority is poor and angry. On the other hand, excessive inequality among people is no less dangerous for the state. Aristotle praises a society in which the middle class is stronger than all others.

NEW TIME (XV-XVII CENTURIES)

Nicolo Machiavelli(1469-1527). He was the first of the modern thinkers to turn to the ideas of Plato and Aristotle and based on them he created an original theory of society and the state. His main work, “The Prince,” seems to continue the main line of reasoning in Plato’s “Republic,” but the emphasis is not on the structure of society, but on the behavior of the political leader. In the person of Machiavelli, sociology and political science acquired a new dimension; they became the science of human behavior in society.

Machiavelli said that a ruler who wants to succeed must know the laws of human behavior. The first law states that our actions are governed by ambition and the power motive. Wealthy people are driven by the fear of losing what they have accumulated, while poor people are driven by the desire to acquire what they have been deprived of. The second law says: a smart ruler should not keep all his promises. After all, subjects are not in a hurry to fulfill their obligations. When seeking power, you can lavish promises, but once you get there, you don’t have to fulfill them, otherwise you will become dependent on your subordinates. And where there is dependence, there is indecision, cowardice and frivolity. The third law: evil must be done immediately, and good must be done gradually. People value rewards when they are rare, but punishments must be carried out immediately and in large doses. One-time harshness is tolerated with less irritation and is considered fairer than one extended over time. Punishment does not require evaluation and reciprocal gratitude (like encouragement).

The next step has been taken Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679). He developed the theory of the social contract, which served as the basis for the doctrine of civil society. Animals do not fight for honors and titles, so they do not have hatred and envy - the causes of rebellions and wars. People have it all. It is wrong to think that people are innately inclined to cooperate. If a person loved another out of natural impulse, then he would seek communication with everyone equally. But each of us prefers the company of those who are more profitable for him. It is our nature that pushes us to seek not friends, but honor and benefits.

What motivates people to create a society? Mutual fear. It brings people into groups, helping them survive in competition. But, having united, people do not pursue the public good at all, but even strive to benefit from this, or to achieve respect and honor. Therefore, human society will be neither very large nor very stable. It is stable if glory and honor are given to everyone. But that doesn't happen. The majority is always bypassed, the few are honored, therefore, society will inevitably disintegrate over time. Fear does not separate, but unites people and forces them to care about mutual safety. The state is the best way to satisfy this need. Therefore, the reason for the emergence of a stable, long-lasting society is mutual fear, and not love and affection.

The natural state is a war of all against all or a social struggle for survival. It characterizes the everyday life of people in pre-civil society. Civil society is a different matter - the highest stage of development. It rests on the social contract and legal laws. It has three forms of government: democracy, aristocracy, monarchy. Only with the advent of the state do property in the true sense of the word and the corresponding institutions (court, government, army, police) arise that protect it. As a result, the war of all against all ends.

The concept of "society"

“Society” is a fundamental category of modern sociology, which interprets it in a broad sense as a part of the material world isolated from nature, which is a historically developing set of all methods of interaction and forms of association of people, which express their comprehensive dependence on each other, and in a narrow sense - as a structurally or genetically determined genus, type, subspecies of communication. In other words, society is a historically developing set of relations between people that takes shape in the process of their life.

Sociological thought of the past explained the category “society” in different ways. In ancient times, it was identified with the concept of “state”. This can be seen, for example, in the judgments of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. The only exception was Aristotle, who believed that the family and the village, as special types of communication, are different from the state and that there is a different structure of social connections, in which friendship relations, the highest type of mutual communication, come to the fore.

In the Middle Ages, the idea of ​​identifying society and the state reigned again. Only in modern times in the 16th century. In the works of the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli, the idea of ​​the state as one of the states of society was expressed. In the 17th century English philosopher T. Hobbes forms the theory of the “social contract”, the essence of which was that members of society give up part of their freedoms to the state, which is the guarantor of compliance with this contract. XVIII century was characterized by a clash of two approaches to the definition of society: one approach interpreted society as an artificial formation that contradicts the natural inclinations of people, the other - as the development and expression of human natural inclinations and feelings. At the same time, economists A. Smith and D. Hume defined society as a labor union of people connected by the division of labor, and the philosopher I. Kant - as humanity taken in historical development.

Beginning of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of the idea of ​​civil society. It was expressed by G. Hegel, who called civil society the sphere of private interests distinct from state ones. The founder of sociology, O. Comte, viewed society as a natural phenomenon, and its evolution as a natural process of growth and differentiation of parts and functions.

According to E. Durkheim, society is a supra-individual spiritual reality based on collective ideas. M. Weber defined society as the interaction of people, which is a product of social, i.e. actions oriented towards other people. According to K. Marx, society is a historically developing set of relations between people that develop in the process of their joint activities.

Concept of culture

The study of human societies, social groups and the lives of individuals is possible from the point of view of analyzing the social characteristics of human communities, which is necessary for the implementation of all types of joint activities. With this approach, the subject of sociological research will be human knowledge, skills, and general norms of mutual understanding between people, which are necessary to streamline human relations, create social institutions and a system of control over the distribution of material goods. In this case we are talking about the study of human culture.

Culture is an extremely diverse concept. This scientific term appeared in Ancient Rome, where it meant “cultivation of the land,” “upbringing,” “education.” Having entered everyday human speech, during frequent use this word lost its original meaning and began to designate a variety of aspects of human behavior, as well as types of activity.

The sociological dictionary gives the following definitions of the concept “culture”: “Culture is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people’s relationships to nature, among themselves and to ourselves."

Culture is the phenomena, properties, elements of human life that qualitatively distinguish man from nature. This qualitative difference is associated with the conscious transformative activity of man. The concept of “culture” captures the general differences between human life and biological forms of life; reflects qualitatively unique forms of human life within historical eras or various communities.

The concept of “culture” can be used to characterize the characteristics of behavior, consciousness and activity of people in certain areas of life (work culture, political culture). The concept of “culture” can capture the way of life of an individual (personal culture), a social group (national culture) and society as a whole.

Culture can be divided into the following types:

1) by subject - bearer of culture - social, national, class, group, personal;

2) by functional role - into general (for example, in the general education system) and special (professional);

3) by genesis - into folk and elite;

4) by type - material and spiritual;

5) by nature - religious and secular.

Functions of culture

1. Communicative. Associated with the accumulation and transmission of social experience (including intergenerational), with the transmission of messages in the course of joint activities. The existence of such a function makes it possible to define culture as a special way of inheriting social information.

2. Regulatory. It manifests itself in the creation of guidelines for human actions and a system for monitoring these actions.

3. Integrating. Associated with the creation of a system of meanings, values ​​and norms as the most important condition for the stability of social systems.

Consideration of the functions of culture makes it possible to define culture as a mechanism of value-normative integration of social systems.

Socialization of personality

The most important type of social interaction, during which the formation of any person as a full-fledged and full-fledged member of society takes place, is socialization. Sociologists use this term to describe the process by which and by which people learn to conform to social norms.

Socialization as a process makes possible the continuation of society and the transmission of its culture from generation to generation. This process is conceptualized in two ways.

1. Socialization can be understood as the internalization of social norms: social norms become mandatory for the individual in the sense that they are established by him for himself rather than imposed on him by means of external regulation and are thus part of the individual’s own individuality. Thanks to this, the individual feels an internal need to adapt to the social environment around him.

2. Socialization can be conceptualized as an essential element of social interaction based on the assumption that people want to increase the value of their own image by seeking approval and increased status in the eyes of others; in this case, individuals are socialized to the extent that they measure their actions in accordance with the expectations of others.

Consequently, socialization is understood as the process of an individual’s assimilation of behavior patterns of society and groups, their values, norms, and attitudes. In the process of socialization, the most general stable personality traits are formed, manifested in socially organized activities regulated by the role structure of society.

The main agents of socialization are: family. school, peer groups, media, literature and art, social environment, etc.

During socialization the following goals are realized:

1) interaction between people based on the development of social roles;

2) preservation of society due to the assimilation by its new members of the values ​​and behavior patterns that have developed in it.

Stages of socialization

The stages of socialization coincide (conditionally) with the stages of age-related development of the individual:

1) early (primary) socialization. It is associated with the acquisition of general cultural knowledge, with the development of initial ideas about the world and the nature of human relationships. A special stage of early socialization is adolescence. The particular conflict potential of this age is due to the fact that the child’s capabilities and abilities significantly exceed the rules and limits of behavior prescribed for him;

2) secondary socialization:

a) professional socialization, which is associated with the acquisition of special knowledge and skills, with familiarization with a certain subculture. At this stage, the individual’s social contacts expand and the range of social roles expands;

b) inclusion of the individual in the system of social division of labor. This assumes adaptation to the professional subculture, as well as belonging to other subcultures. The speed of social change in modern societies leads to the need for resocialization, the assimilation of new knowledge, values, roles, and skills instead of old, insufficiently mastered or outdated ones. Resocialization covers many phenomena (from correction of reading and speech to vocational training or changing values ​​of behavior);

c) retirement age or loss of ability to work. Characterized by a change in lifestyle due to exclusion from the production environment.

Consequently, the socialization of the individual begins at birth and lasts throughout life; this process is carried out at each stage by special institutions. These include: family, kindergartens, schools, universities, work collectives, etc. Each stage of socialization is associated with the action of certain agents. Agents of socialization are people and institutions associated with it and responsible for its results.

Social institutions

Types of social institutions

There are five fundamental needs and five basic social institutions:

1) needs for obtaining a means of subsistence (institution of production);

2) the need for security and order (state institution);

3) needs for reproduction of the family (family institution);

4) needs for the transfer of knowledge, socialization of the younger generation (educational institutions);

5) needs for solving spiritual problems (institute of religion).

table 2

Social institutions

Consequently, social institutions are classified according to public spheres:

1) economic (property, money, regulation of monetary circulation, organization and division of labor), which serve the production and distribution of values ​​and services. Economic social institutions provide the entire set of production connections in society, connecting economic life with other spheres of social life. These institutions are formed on the material basis of society;

2) political (parliament, army, police, parties) regulate the use of these values ​​and services and are associated with power. Politics in the narrow sense of the word is a set of means and functions based mainly on the manipulation of elements of force to establish, exercise and maintain power. Political institutions (state, parties, public organizations, courts, army, parliament, police) express in a concentrated form the political interests and relations existing in a given society;

3) kinship institutions (marriage and family) are associated with the regulation of childbirth, relations between spouses and children, and the socialization of youth;

4) educational and cultural institutions (museums, clubs) are associated with science, education, etc. Their task is to strengthen, create and develop the culture of society, to transfer it to next generations. These include: the family as an educational institution, schools, institutes, artistic institutions, creative unions;

5) religious institutions, i.e. those that organize a person’s relationship to transcendental forces, i.e. to supersensitive forces acting outside the empirical control of man, and the attitude towards sacred objects and forces. Religious institutions in some societies have a strong influence on the course of interactions and interpersonal relations, creating a system of dominant values ​​and becoming dominant institutions (the influence of Islam on all aspects of public life in some countries of the Middle East).

LECTURE No. 1. Sociology as a science

Subject, object, functions and methods of sociology

Sociology in the system of humanities

Structure of sociology

Basic paradigms of sociology

1. Subject, object, functions and methods of sociology

Term sociology comes from two words: Latin “societes” - “society” and Greek “logos” - “word”, “concept”, “teaching”. Thus, sociology can be defined as the science of society.

The same definition of this term is given by the famous American scientist J. Smelser. However, this definition is rather abstract, since society is studied in various aspects by many other sciences.

In order to understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to determine the subject and object of this science, as well as its functions and research methods.

Object of any science is a part of external reality chosen for study, which has a certain completeness and integrity. As already noted, the object of sociology is society, however, science does not study its individual elements, but the entire society as an integral system. The object of sociology is a set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. Concept social can be considered in two senses: in a broad sense it is similar to the concept of “public”; in a narrow sense, the social represents only an aspect of social relations. Social relations develop between members of society when they occupy a certain place in its structure and are endowed with social status.

Consequently, the object of sociology is social connections, social interaction, social relationships and the way they are organized.

Subject science is the result of a theoretical study of a selected part of external reality. The subject of sociology cannot be defined as unambiguously as the object. This is due to the fact that throughout the historical development of sociology, views on the subject of this science have undergone significant changes.

Today we can distinguish the following approaches to defining the subject of sociology:

1) society as a special entity, distinct from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws (O. Comte ) ;

2) social facts, which should be understood as collective in all manifestations (E. Durkheim ) ;

3) social behavior as a person’s attitude, i.e. an internally or externally manifested position focused on action or abstinence from it (M. Weber ) ;

4) scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements (base and superstructure) ( Marxism).

In modern domestic scientific literature, the Marxist understanding of the subject of sociology is preserved. It should be noted that this is fraught with a certain danger, since the representation of society in the form of a base and a superstructure leads to ignoring the individual and universal values, denying the world of culture.

Therefore, a more rational subject of sociology should be considered society as a set of social communities, layers, groups, individuals interacting with each other. Moreover, the main mechanism of this interaction is goal setting.

So, taking into account all these features, we can determine that sociology is the science of general and specific social patterns of organization, functioning and development of society, ways, forms and methods of their implementation, in the actions and interactions of members of society.

Like any science, sociology performs certain functions in society, among which are the following:

1) cognitive(cognitive) – sociological research contributes to the accumulation of theoretical material about various spheres of social life;

2) critical– sociological research data allows us to test and evaluate social ideas and practical actions;

3) applied– sociological research is always aimed at solving practical problems and can always be used to optimize society;

4) regulatory– theoretical material of sociology can be used by the state to ensure social order and exercise control;

5) prognostic– based on sociological research data, it is possible to make forecasts for the development of society and prevent the negative consequences of social actions;

6) ideological– sociological developments can be used by various social forces to form their position;

7) humanitarian– sociology can contribute to the improvement of social relations.

Another distinctive feature of sociology as a science is its range of research methods. In sociology method is a way of constructing and justifying sociological knowledge, a set of techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge of social reality.

Three levels of methods for studying social phenomena and processes can be distinguished.

First level covers general scientific methods used in all humanities fields of knowledge (dialectical, systemic, structural-functional).

Second level reflects the methods of related sociology of the humanities (normative, comparative, historical, etc.).

Methods of the first and second levels are based on universal principles of cognition. These include the principles of historicism, objectivism and systematicity.

The principle of historicism involves the study of social phenomena in the context of historical development, their comparison with various historical events.

The principle of objectivism means the study of social phenomena in all their contradictions; It is unacceptable to study only positive or only negative facts. The principle of systematicity implies the need to study social phenomena in inextricable unity and identify cause-and-effect relationships.

TO third level Methods that characterize applied sociology can be included (survey, observation, document analysis, etc.).

The actual sociological methods of the third level are based on the use of complex mathematical apparatus (probability theory, mathematical statistics).