What concerns the operations of thinking. Mental operations, their characteristics

mental activity of a person is a solution to various mental problems aimed at revealing the essence of something. Thinking operation- this is one of the ways of mental activity, through which a person solves mental problems.

mental operations diverse: analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, classification. Which of the logical operations a person will use will depend on the task and on the nature of the information that he subjects to mental processing.

Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of the whole into parts or a mental separation from the whole of its sides, actions, relations. Synthesis- the reverse process of thought to analysis, it is the unification of parts, properties, actions, relations into one whole. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental. Analysis and synthesis were formed in the practical activity of man. In labor activity, people constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Practical development of them led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis.

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to select one or more of their features, according to which the comparison will be made. The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multi-sided, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be of different levels - superficial and deeper. In this case, a person's thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence.

abstraction- this is a process of mental abstraction from some signs, aspects of the concrete in order to better know it. A person mentally highlights some feature of an object and considers it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracted from them. An isolated study of individual features of an object, while simultaneously abstracting from all the others, helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Specification- a process that is inverse to abstraction and is inextricably linked with it. Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content.

Thinking activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to reveal what is common in them, in order to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them.

Generalization, thus, there is a selection in objects and phenomena of the general, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.

Stages of formation of mental actions (according to P.Ya. Galperin).

According to Galperin, any new mental action, for example, imagination, understanding, thinking comes after the corresponding external activity.

This process goes through several stages, causing the transition from external activity to psychological. Effective training must take these steps into account. According to Galperin, training can be conditionally called any activity, since the one who performs it receives new information and skills, and at the same time the information he receives receives a new quality.

The theory of gradual formation of mental actions P.Ya. Galperina is well known in domestic psychology and has received wide international recognition.

The process of formation of mental actions according to P.Ya. Galperin is done in stages:

1. Identification of the orienting basis of action. At this stage, orientation in the task occurs, initially what is striking itself is highlighted.

2. The formation of an action in a material form takes place. At this stage, the student of mental actions receives a complete system of indications and a system of external signs that he needs to focus on. The action is automated, made expedient, it is possible to transfer it to similar tasks.

3. The stage of external speech. Here the action is further generalized due to its complete verbalization in oral or written speech. Thus, the action is assimilated in a form divorced from specifics, i.e. generalized. It is important not only to know the conditions, but also to understand them.

4. The stage of formation of actions in external speech to oneself. Stage of internal activity. As in the previous stage, the action is manifested in a generalized form, but its verbal assimilation occurs without the participation of external speech. After receiving a mental form, the action begins to quickly reduce, acquiring a form identical to the model, and undergoing automation.

5. Formation of actions in inner speech. The stage of internalization of action. The action here becomes an internal process, maximally automated, it becomes an act of thought, the course of which is closed, and only the final "product" of this process is known.

The transition from the first of these stages to all subsequent ones is a consistent internalization of actions. This is a transition from outside to inside.

All activity is not an end in itself, but is caused by a certain motive of this activity, of which it is a part. When the purpose of the task coincides with the motive, the action becomes an activity.

Those. activity is the process of solving problems, caused by the desire to achieve the goal, which can be achieved through this process.

Galperin appreciates the role of motivation so highly that, along with 5 main stages in the process of mastering new actions, in his latest works he recommends taking into account one more stage - the formation of appropriate motivation in students.

The psychological law of the assimilation of knowledge is that they are formed in the mind not before, but in the process of applying them to practice.

A person best of all remembers the knowledge that he used in some of his own actions, applied to the solution of some real problems. Knowledge that has not found practical application is usually gradually forgotten.

The assimilation of knowledge is not the goal of learning, but a means. Knowledge is acquired in order to learn how to do something with its help, and not to be stored in memory.

Any well-mastered action (motor, perceptual, verbal) is an action fully represented in the mind. A person who knows how to act correctly is able to mentally perform this action from beginning to end.

Theories of the development of thinking.

In the formation of the development of thinking, several stages can be conventionally distinguished. The boundaries and content of these stages may vary by different authors. This is due to the position of the author on this issue. Currently, there are several of the most well-known classifications of stages in the development of human thinking.

Visual-active thinking.

Depending on the content of the problem being solved, visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking (consecutive stages of intellectual development) are distinguished. Genetically, the earliest form of thinking is visual-effective thinking, the first manifestations of which in a child can be observed at the end of the first - beginning of the second year of life, even before mastering active speech. Features of visual-effective thinking are manifested in the fact that problems are solved with the help of a real, physical transformation of the situation, testing the properties of objects. The initial stage in the development of human thinking is associated with generalizations. At the same time, the first generalizations of the child are inseparable from practical activity, which finds expression in the same actions that he performs with objects similar to each other. Primitive sensory abstraction, in which the child singles out some aspects and is distracted from others, leads to the first elementary generalization. As a result, the first, unstable groupings of objects into classes and bizarre classifications are created. An important basis for the mental activity of the child is observation. Cogitative activity is expressed, first of all, in comparison and comparison. At the same time, the differences between such concepts as a thing and the properties of a thing are assimilated. The child learns to make inferences. A visual-effective type of thinking is also found in adults, it is found in everyday life (used when rearranging furniture) and when it is impossible to fully foresee the results of any actions in advance (the work of a tester, designer).

Visual-figurative thinking.

Visual-figurative thinking is connected with the operation of images. This type of thinking is clearly manifested in preschoolers aged 4-6 years. The connection between thinking and practical actions, although they retain, is not as close, direct and immediate as before. In the course of the analysis and synthesis of a cognizable object, the child does not necessarily and by no means always have to touch the object that interests him with his hands. In many cases, no practical manipulation of the object is required, but in all cases it is necessary to clearly perceive and visualize this object. In other words, preschoolers think only in visual images and do not yet master concepts (in the strict sense), although they widely use words (but words still play the role of denoting objects, and not as a reflection of the essential properties of objects). The visual-figurative thinking of children is still directly and completely subordinated to their perception. Adults also use visual-figurative thinking, it allows you to give the form of an image to such things and their relationships that are not visible by themselves (the image of an atomic nucleus, the internal structure of the globe).

Verbal-logical thinking.

Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts. Verbal-logical thinking functions on the basis of linguistic means and represents the latest stage in the historical and ontogenetic development of thinking. This type of thinking is characterized by the use of concepts, logical constructions, which sometimes do not have a direct figurative expression (cost, honesty, pride). Thanks to verbal-logical thinking, a person can establish the most general patterns, foresee the development of processes in nature and society, and generalize various visual material. At the same time, even the most abstract thinking never completely breaks away from visual-sensory experience. Any abstract concept has for each person its own specific sensual support, which cannot reflect the entire depth of the concept, but allows you not to break away from the real world.

Pre-conceptual and conceptual thinking.

In its formation, thinking goes through two stages: pre-conceptual and conceptual. Pre-conceptual thinking is the initial stage in the development of thinking in a child, when his thinking has a different organization than that of adults; children's judgments are single, about this particular subject. When explaining something, everything is reduced by them to the particular, the familiar. Most judgments are judgments by similarity, since memory plays the main role in thinking during this period. The central feature of pre-conceptual thinking is egocentrism. A child under 5 years old cannot look at himself from the outside, cannot correctly understand situations that require some detachment from his own point of view and acceptance of someone else's position. Egocentrism causes such features of children's logic as insensitivity to contradictions, syncretism (the tendency to connect everything with everything), transduction (the transition from the particular to the particular, bypassing the general), and the lack of an idea of ​​the conservation of quantity. During normal development, there is a regular replacement of pre-conceptual thinking, where concrete images serve as components, by conceptual (abstract) thinking, where concepts serve as components and formal operations are applied.

Conceptual thinking does not come all at once, but through a series of intermediate stages. Thinking develops from concrete images to perfect concepts, denoted by the word. The concept initially reflects similar, unchanged in phenomena and objects. Significant changes in the intellectual development of the child occur at school age. These shifts are expressed in the knowledge of ever deeper properties of objects, in the formation of the mental operations necessary for this. These mental operations are not yet sufficiently generalized; the thinking of children of primary school age is conceptually concrete. However, they already master some more complex forms of reasoning, realize the power of logical necessity, they develop verbal-logical thinking. In middle and senior school age, more complex cognitive tasks become available to students, mental operations are generalized, formalized, the range of their transfer and application in various new situations expands. A transition is being made from conceptual-concrete to abstract-conceptual thinking. The intellectual development of a child is characterized by a regular change of stages, where each previous stage prepares the subsequent ones.

Thinking in psychology is defined as a process of human cognitive activity, which is a mediated and generalized reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relationships.

Types of thinking are distinguished according to various criteria. The main accepted classification distinguishes the following three types: 1) visual-effective thinking; 2) visual-figurative thinking; 3) verbal-logical (or conceptual) thinking. It is in this order that the types of thinking develop in the process of phylo- and ontogenesis.

Visual and effective thinking is a kind of thinking based on the direct perception of objects. The solution of the problem within its framework is carried out in the course of a real, physical transformation of the situation, in the process of actions with objects. Through physical contact with objects, their properties are comprehended. In the process of phylogeny, people solved the problems that confronted them, at first precisely within the framework of practical, objective activity. Only then did theoretical activity stand out from it. This also applies to thinking. Only as practical activity develops does theoretical thinking activity stand out as relatively independent. A similar process is observed not only in the course of the historical development of mankind, but also in ontogeny. The formation of thinking in a child occurs gradually. First, it develops within practical activity and is largely determined by how the ability to handle objects develops.

The next type of thinking that appears in ontogeny is visual-figurative thinking. This type is already characterized by reliance on images of objects, on ideas about their properties. A person imagines a situation, imagines the changes that he wants to receive, and those properties of objects that will allow him to achieve the desired result in the course of his activity. In this kind of thinking, action with the image of objects and situations precedes real actions in terms of objects. A person, solving a problem, analyzes, compares, generalizes various images. The image can contain a versatile vision of the subject. Therefore, this type of thinking gives a more complete picture of the properties of the object than visual-effective thinking.

The transition to the conceptual stage is associated with the formation of the following type of thinking - verbal-logical. It represents the latest stage in the development of thinking in phylo- and ontogenesis. Verbal-logical thinking is a type of thinking carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts. Concepts are formed on the basis of linguistic means. The forerunner of verbal-logical thinking is inner speech.

Forms of thinking. There are three logical forms of thinking: concept, judgment, conclusion.

concept- this is a reflection in the human mind of the distinctive features of objects and phenomena, their general and specific features, expressed by a word or a group of words. The concept is the highest level of generalization, inherent only in the verbal-logical type of thinking. Concepts are concrete and abstract. Concrete concepts reflect objects, phenomena, events of the surrounding world, abstract ones reflect abstract ideas. For example, “man”, “autumn”, “holiday” are specific concepts; “truth”, “beauty”, “good” are abstract concepts.

The content of concepts is revealed in judgments which also always have a verbal form. Judgment is the establishment of links between concepts about objects and phenomena or about their properties and features. Judgments are general, particular and singular. In general, something is asserted about all objects of a certain group, for example: "All rivers flow." A private judgment applies only to some of the objects of the group: "Some rivers are mountainous." A single judgment concerns only one object: "The Volga is the largest river in Europe." Judgments can be formed in two ways. The first is a direct expression of the perceived relationship of concepts. The second is the formation of a judgment in an indirect way with the help of inferences. Thus, a conclusion is the derivation of a new proposition from two (or more) already existing propositions (premises). The simplest form of inference is a syllogism - a conclusion made on the basis of a particular and general judgment. Any process of proving, for example, a mathematical theorem, is a chain of syllogisms that sequentially follow one from the other. A more complex form of inference is inference deductive and inductive. Deductive - follow from general premises to a particular judgment and from particular to singular. Inductive ones, on the contrary, derive general judgments from single or particular premises. On the basis of such methods of reasoning, one can compare with each other certain concepts and judgments that a person uses in the course of his mental activity. Thus, for the productive flow of mental activity, logical forms of thinking are necessary. They determine the persuasiveness, consistency, and, consequently, the adequacy of thinking. The idea of ​​logical forms of thinking passed into psychology from formal logic. This science also studies the process of thinking. But if the subject of formal logic is primarily the structure and result of thinking, then psychology explores thinking as a mental process, it is interested in how and why this or that thought arises and develops, how this process depends on the individual characteristics of a person, how it is connected with others. mental processes.

mental operations. The process of thinking is carried out with the help of a number of mental operations: analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization, classification, systematization, comparison, generalization.

Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of an object into its component parts in order to isolate its various aspects, properties, relations from the whole. Through analysis, irrelevant connections given by perception are discarded.

Synthesis is the reverse process of analysis. This is the union of parts, properties, actions, relationships into one whole. This reveals significant links. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Analysis without synthesis leads to a mechanical reduction of the whole to the sum of the parts. Synthesis without analysis is also impossible, since it restores the whole from the parts selected by analysis.

Comparison- this is the establishment between objects of similarity or difference, equality or inequality, etc. Comparison is based on analysis. In order to carry out this operation, it is first necessary to select one or more characteristic features of the compared objects. Then, according to the quantitative or qualitative characteristics of these features, a comparison is made. It depends on the number of selected features whether the comparison will be one-sided, partial or complete. Comparison (like analysis and synthesis) can be of different levels - superficial and deep. In the case of a deep comparison, a person's thought moves from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence. Comparison is the basis of classification - the assignment of objects with different characteristics to different groups.

Abstraction(or abstraction) is a mental distraction from secondary, non-essential in a given situation, sides, properties or connections of an object and the allocation of one side, properties. Abstraction is possible only as a result of analysis. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Specification is the opposite process. This is the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete in order to reveal its content. Concretization is also addressed in the case when it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual.

Systematization i is the arrangement of individual objects, phenomena, thoughts in a certain order according to any one sign (for example, chemical elements in the periodic table of D. I. Mendeleev).

Generalization It is a combination of many objects according to some common feature. In this case, single signs are discarded. Only essential links remain. Abstraction and generalization are two interrelated sides of a single thought process, through which thought goes to cognition.

Similar information.

Mental tasks are solved with the help of mental operations.

mental operations- these are mental actions to transform objects (mental states, thoughts, ideas, images, etc.) presented in the form of concepts.

The thinking process includes several operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, concretization, systematization and classification.

Let's dwell on each in more detail.

Analysis is a mental operation by means of which the whole is divided into its constituent parts (properties, signs, etc.). Thus, in the cognitive activity of an individual, the processes of sensation, perception, attention, memory, thinking, representation, imagination and speech are distinguished, although these processes form a single system of knowledge of the surrounding world by a person.

It is believed that analysis is included in all acts of practical and cognitive interaction of the organism with the environment and is a necessary stage of cognition. Any research begins with it.

Analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis.

Synthesis- the process of practical or mental reunification of the whole from parts or the connection of various elements, sides of the object into a single whole. This operation is the opposite of analysis. But they complement each other. The dominance of analysis or synthesis at some stage of the thought process may be due primarily to the nature of the material. If the material, the source data of the problem is unclear, then an analysis is needed first. If all the data are clear and known, then the thought will follow the path of synthesis.

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities and differences between the objects of knowledge. The result of the comparison is a classification. For example, a personnel manager compares the personal qualities of applicants for a vacant position (by their diligence, energy, competence, etc.).

Comparison is often the primary form of knowledge: things are first known by comparison. It is also an elementary form of knowledge.

abstraction- the selection of one side of an object or phenomenon, which in reality does not exist as a separate one. For example, when considering some objects, one can highlight their shape, abstracting from their color, or, conversely, highlight their color, abstracting from their shape.

As a result of abstraction, concepts are formed. Abstraction is born first in the plan of action.

Generalization- a mental operation that combines phenomena and objects according to their essential, most common features. For example, after analyzing the sales of individual types of bread, the owner of the bakery comes to the conclusion that rich buns are in the best demand, regardless of their size and fillings.

There are 2 types of generalizations:
- syncretic - the simplest generalization, this is a grouping, a union of objects based on a separate random feature;
- complex - a group of objects is combined into a single whole for various reasons.

Specification- this is the allocation of features characteristic of an object or phenomenon that are not related to features common to a class of an object or phenomenon. This is a mental operation, the opposite of generalization.

For example, the owner of a bakery, having found out the increased demand for rich buns, decides to bake them a new kind - with poppy seeds and apple filling.

Systematization- mental activity, during which the studied objects are organized into a certain system based on the chosen principle. The most important type of systematization is classification, i.e. the distribution of objects into groups based on the establishment of similarities and differences between them (for example, the classification of animals, plants, types of temperament, etc.).

In psychology, the following operations of thinking are distinguished: analysis, comparison, abstraction, synthesis, concretization, generalization, classification and categorization. With the help of these operations of thinking, penetration into the depths of a particular problem facing a person is carried out, the properties of the elements that make up this problem are considered, and a solution to the problem is found.

Concepts and judgments are such forms of reflection of reality in our minds, which are obtained as a result of complex mental activity, consisting of a number of mental operations.

In order to reflect with the help of thinking any connections and relations between objects or phenomena of the objective world, it is necessary, first of all, in perception or representation to single out those phenomena that become the object of thinking. The isolation of the object of thought is, therefore, the initial mental operation, without which the process of thinking cannot be carried out.

For example, in order to understand the reason for the unsuccessful performance of a given physical exercise by an athlete, it is necessary to focus your thoughts on this exercise and on the conditions under which it was performed. The selection of an object from the sensory field also takes place in the processes of attention and perception. However, in the process of thinking, this selection is always associated with the awareness of the task that confronts us, it always presupposes a preliminary statement of the question, which determines the selection of the objects of interest to us.

The next thought process is comparison selected objects. Comparing phenomena with each other, we note both their similarity and difference in certain respects. For example, low and high starts are similar to each other in their purpose, being the initial moment of the exercise, but differ in the position of the athlete's body.

Comparison allows us to establish sometimes not the similarity or difference of objects, but their identity or opposite. Comparing the phenomena identified in the process of thinking, we know them more precisely and penetrate deeper into their originality than in those cases when we consider them without relation to other phenomena.

In order to make a comparison, it is necessary to mentally distinguish between the individual properties of objects and think these properties abstractly from the objects themselves. This mental operation is called abstraction. Abstraction is always combined with generalization, because we immediately begin to think of the abstracted properties of objects in their generalized form.

For example, understanding the characteristic features of a boxer's blow during a knockout, we single out such a property as sharpness; at the same time, we think of this property in its generalized form, using the concept of sharpness, which we have developed on the basis of acquaintance with this phenomenon in many other cases (not only in boxing, but also in fencing; not only when hitting, but also when hitting the ball and etc.), i.e., as a combination of force with a short-term touch on the object being struck.

Abstraction is a mental operation that allows one to think of a given phenomenon in its most general, and therefore most essential, characteristic features. This mental operation alone allows us to reflect in our minds the essence of the phenomenon: the striking power of a blow during a knockout lies precisely in its sharpness.

However, abstraction always presupposes the opposite mental operation - specification, i.e., the transition from abstraction and generalization back to concrete reality. In the educational process, concretization often acts as an example for an established general position. In conjunction with abstraction, concretization is an important condition for a correct understanding of reality, since it does not allow our thinking to break away from reality, from the living contemplation of phenomena. thinking psychology abstraction

Thanks to concretization, our abstractions become vital, behind them a directly perceived reality is always felt. This is best achieved by giving not one, but several different examples in which a given abstraction finds its concrete expression. For example, we will better understand the essence of the abstract proposition "life is a form of existence of protein bodies" if we concretize it using examples from both the plant and animal worlds, in relation to both microorganisms and more advanced creatures. The lack of concretization leads to the formalism of knowledge, which remains bare, divorced from life, and therefore useless abstractions.

From abstraction and generalization it is necessary to distinguish such mental operations as analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental decomposition of a complex object or phenomenon into its component parts. Analysis is often used in practice, when we strive to better master one or another subject in the labor process. Here it takes the form of the actual dismemberment of the object into its constituent parts. The possibility of practically performing such a division underlies the mental division of an object into elements.

For example, when thinking about the complex structure of a jump, we mentally identify the following main elements or parts in it: takeoff, push, flight phase, landing. This mental analysis is facilitated by the fact that in reality we can isolate these moments and improve in the process of training the speed of the take-off, the power of the push, the correct grouping in flight, etc. Synthesis called the reverse process of mental reunification of a complex object or phenomenon from those of its elements that were known to us in the process of its analysis.

Thanks to synthesis, we get a holistic concept of a given object or phenomenon, as consisting of naturally connected parts. As in analysis, synthesis is based on the possibility of practically performing such a reunion of an object from its elements. The relationship between analysis and synthesis in the processes of thinking cannot be understood in such a way that analysis must first be carried out, and then synthesis. All analysis presupposes synthesis, and synthesis always presupposes analysis.

In the analysis, not all parts are singled out, but only those that are essential for a given subject. For example, in such a physical exercise as a jump, many different elements can be noted: hand movement, head movement, facial expressions, etc. All these elements are related to this exercise to one degree or another, and we highlight them. However, in the process of scientific analysis, we rely not on these, but on the essential parts of the whole, without which this whole cannot exist.

Essential for the jump are not facial expressions or movements of the head and hands, but the run and push. This selection of essential elements in the analysis of a complex phenomenon does not occur mechanically, but as a result of understanding the significance of individual parts for the whole phenomenon. Before mentally isolating the essential features or parts, we must have at least a vague general synthetic concept of the entire object as a whole, in the aggregate of all its parts. Such a concept arises as a result of a preliminary, formed even before a detailed analysis of the general idea of ​​the subject on the basis of practical acquaintance with it.

These are those complex mental operations, as a result of which we get concepts about the objects and phenomena around us. However, the phenomena of the world around us do not exist in isolation, but always in connection with each other. An adequate reflection of objective objects in our thinking therefore requires not only the formation of a multitude of corresponding concepts, but also their classification and systematization.

classification is called the summing up of individual objects or phenomena - on the basis of their common features - under more general concepts denoting certain classes of certain objects or phenomena. For example, to accurately reflect objective reality, it is not enough to have separate concepts about birch, oak, pine, spruce, etc. One must have an idea about certain classes of corresponding objects or phenomena, namely, about the class of coniferous trees.

Assigning an object to a certain class not only allows us to reflect the diversity of phenomena in our minds, but also refines our knowledge of individual objects. The fact that in the classification of chemical elements we attribute sulfur to the group of metalloids, and zinc to the class of metals, deepens our understanding of these chemical elements. Without assignment to related classes on the basis of similar features, our concepts of objects would be limited, incomplete.

Classification will be valuable only when it is carried out not in general according to similar characteristics, but according to those similar characteristics that are essential for a given series of phenomena. Where such a classification is difficult or not yet complete, there is no deep understanding of the essence of phenomena. An example is the lack of an adequate classification of physical exercises, which are often divided into classes or depending on the season (winter and summer sports), or in connection with the use of certain items (gymnastic exercises on apparatuses, with apparatuses, without apparatuses, with sticks, balls, etc.).

All such attempts at classification are unsuccessful because they rely on random features. It is impossible to correctly understand the nature of physical exercises while they are reflected in our minds as a variety of species that have not yet been united into classes according to essential features.

Systematization called the arrangement of the classes of objects or phenomena established by us in a certain order, in accordance with their general laws. Thanks to the systematization of the phenomena of the objective world, they are reflected in our consciousness not separately, but in a certain system, which allows us to better understand their relationship and use this knowledge more correctly in our practical activities.

An example of a fruitful scientific systematization of phenomena is the discovery of D.I. Mendeleev of the periodic system of elements. DI. Mendeleev did not limit himself to a refined distribution of chemical elements into classes according to their essential features. He sought to understand the very classes of chemical elements not as random phenomena, but as a definite system arising from the general laws of nature. He managed to do this when he discovered the dependence of the qualitative features of chemical elements on their atomic weight.

The great importance of systematization for the knowledge of the world can be seen from the fact that it helps to discover new phenomena and clarify the understanding of the connections between them. Without the periodic system D.I. Mendeleev, the discovery of new elements would still remain spontaneous, as it was at the stage of only the classification of these phenomena. Only correct systematization made it possible to foresee the qualitative features of still unknown elements and to direct scientific thought towards their discovery.

When we are faced with the need to prove the truth of certain judgments, we resort to a mental operation called inference.

In some cases, the truth or falsity of judgments is established as a result of direct perception. Such, for example, are the judgments: "today is a hot day", "Ivanov came first to the finish line", "five more than three", etc., which are called, therefore, directly obvious. But in most cases the truth of propositions cannot be deduced from direct observation. For example, the truth of the proposition "the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles" is not obvious, but must be proved, which is carried out by a mental operation called inference.

Any inference is a reasoning in which the truth of a certain proposition is deduced from the truth of other propositions. A correctly constructed inference always creates confidence in the necessity and obligatoriness of the conclusions to which it leads. To do this, it must be based on strictly verified, completely reliable prior knowledge. The slightest mistake made in the assessment of the primary data on which the conclusion is based leads to its fallacy. However, in order to draw correct conclusions from reliable knowledge, it is also necessary that the conclusions themselves obey certain rules, considered in a special scientific discipline - logic.

Distinguish deductive and inductive reasoning(deduction and induction), as well as inferences by analogy (based on the similarity of objects or phenomena).

Deduction is called inference, in which, from previously known general provisions, a conclusion is made about certain particular truths. This type of reasoning is most often used in mathematics. For example, in order to prove that a given angle in a triangle is greater than another, the following deductive reasoning is constructed: it is known and previously proved that in a triangle there is always a larger angle opposite the larger side; this angle lies opposite the larger side; from these two reliable positions, the conclusion is drawn: therefore, this angle is greater than the other.

There is an opinion that deductive reasoning only refines our knowledge, revealing in a particular conclusion what was already contained in a hidden form in a general judgment. However, in some cases, deductive reasoning can lead to important discoveries. Such, for example, was the discovery of the planet Neptune, as well as some chemical elements.

Induction is called inference, in which, from observations of some particular cases, a general conclusion is made that extends to everything, including unobserved cases. This type of reasoning is most often used in the natural sciences. For example, observing in one or two cases the benefit of vernalization of plants, we extend this proposition to all cases of plant growth, although they have not been observed by us. The reliability of inductive reasoning is based on the unity and interconnection of the objective laws of nature and society that actually exists and is confirmed by human practice.

It follows from this that once an essential connection of phenomena has been observed, it must be repeated under similar conditions. For the truth of inductive reasoning, a comprehensive account of the conditions under which the phenomenon takes place is necessary. Without this, inductive inferences will differ only by a certain degree of probability.

by analogy is called such an inference in which the conclusion is made on the basis of partial similarities between phenomena, without a sufficient study of all conditions. For example, seeing some similarity of physical indicators characteristic of the Earth and Mars, they make a conclusion about the possibility of life on Mars. It is easy to see that conclusions by analogy differ not in reliability, but only in greater or lesser probability and need to be confirmed by other evidence. However, the usefulness of reasoning by analogy is undeniable: it consists in a guess that pushes scientific thought to further research.

In psychology, the following operations of thinking are distinguished: analysis, synthesis, generalization, comparison, classification (systematization), abstraction, concretization (Fig. 2). With the help of these operations of thinking, penetration is carried out deep into one or another problem facing a person, the properties of the elements that make up this problem are considered, and a solution to the problem is found.

Rice. .2. mental operations

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis is the selection in an object of one or another of its aspects, elements, relationships, relationships, etc. Along with highlighting the essential parts of an object, analysis allows you to mentally highlight individual properties of the object, such as color, shape of the object, speed of the process, etc. Attention should also be paid to the fact that analysis is possible not only when a person perceives an object, but also when he perceives it from memory. The analysis reveals the most significant features.

Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking.

Synthesis can be carried out both on the basis of perception and on the basis of memories and ideas. Being inherently opposite operations, analysis and synthesis are in fact closely related.

Comparison- a mental operation that reveals the identity and difference of phenomena and their properties, allowing the classification of phenomena and their generalization.

Recognition of the similarity or difference between objects depends on what properties of the compared objects are essential for a person. The comparison operation can be performed in two ways: directly and indirectly. When a person can compare two objects or phenomena, perceiving them simultaneously, he uses direct comparison. In cases where a person makes a comparison by inference, he uses an indirect comparison.

Generalization- a mental operation that allows you to mentally combine objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features. Generalization can be carried out at two levels. The first, elementary level is the combination of similar objects according to external features (generalization). But of great cognitive value is the generalization of the second, higher level, when significant common features are distinguished in a group of objects and phenomena.

abstraction- a mental operation of reflecting individual properties of phenomena that are significant in some respect.

The essence of abstraction as a mental operation is that, perceiving an object and highlighting a certain part in it, a person considers the selected part or property, regardless of other parts or properties of this object. Thus, with the help of abstraction, a person can single out a part of an object or property from the entire flow of perceived information, i.e. be distracted or abstracted from other signs of the information he receives.

Abstraction is widely used by a person in the formation and assimilation of new concepts, since concepts reflect only essential features common to a whole class of objects. Abstraction allows the investigator to single out from a huge flow of information what is directly related to the commission of a crime.

On the basis of generalization and abstraction, classification and concretization are carried out.

Specification- a mental operation of cognition of an integral object in the totality of its essential relationships, a theoretical reconstruction of an integral object. Concretization is the opposite process of abstraction. In concrete representations, a person does not seek to abstract himself from various features or properties of objects and phenomena, but, on the contrary, seeks to imagine these objects in all the variety of properties and features, in close combination of some features with others.

Classification- grouping objects according to essential features. In contrast to classification, which should be based on signs that are significant in some respect, systematization sometimes it allows the choice of signs of little significance (for example, in alphabetical catalogs), but operationally convenient, as the basis.