Vinogradov in the language of a literary work. Vinogradov, Viktor Vladimirovich - On the language of fiction

The main theses are set out in the monograph "On the Language of Fiction" (1959)

II. General problems and tasks of studying the language of Russian fiction.

The study of the "language" of fiction as a specific task of philology in our domestic science is widely distributed and receives a versatile theoretical justification only in the Soviet era. True, there is still no complete clarity in understanding the connection of this task with the history of the literary language, on the one hand, with the history of literature, on the other, with the stylistics and theory of artistic speech, on the third.

! The circle of the central problems of studying the language of fiction includes the problems of the "language" ("style") of a work of art and the "language" ("style") of the writer.

Writer's style should be studied in its historical development, in its changes and fluctuations, in the diversity of its genre manifestations. In some cases (for example, when studying the work of Karamzin, Nekrasov, partly L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, M. Gorky), one can talk about a change in the systems of verbal and artistic expression, in others (for example, when studying the work of Fonvizin, Radishchev, Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov, Chekhov, etc.) - about the interaction of several stylistic systems. Perhaps most often the writer's style has to be considered as a unity of diversity, as a kind of "system of systems" in the presence of a single style-forming core or organizational center.

The specificity of the "language" of fiction cannot be revealed in all its complexity only with the help of methods and techniques of linguistic study of the language system or structure.

The purpose and task of studying the language of a work of art“is the display of those linguistic means through which the ideological and related emotional content of literary works is expressed” (Shcherba)

A work of art can and should be studied:

1. On the one hand, as a process of embodiment and formation of the ideological and creative concept of the author 2. On the other, as a concrete historical fact, as a natural link in the general development of the verbal and artistic art of the people.

The study of a work of art, its language, content should be based on a deep understanding of the social life of the corresponding period in the development of the people, on a versatile knowledge of the culture, literature and art of this era, on a clear idea of the state of the nation's colloquial and literary language and its styles at that time, on a deep penetration into the creative method of the author and into the originality of his individual verbal and artistic skill.

The historical study of the “language of fiction” cannot be separated from the study of socially ideologically conditioned and dominant views in a given era on the attitude of the writer, his artistic system to the written and literary and popular spoken language in their varieties and interactions.

III. The language of the work of art

The main category in the field of linguistic study of fiction is usually recognized as the concept of individual style (that is, a peculiar, historically determined, complex, but representing the structural unity of the system of means and forms of verbal expression in its development).

In the style of the writer, in accordance with his artistic ideas, all the linguistic means used by the artist are united, internally connected and aesthetically justified.

However, in the style of individual artistic creativity, elements of the future system of the national literary language sometimes appear more clearly and sharply and the functional remnants of the linguistic past are more clearly reflected.. The voice of the whole people is often heard in the voice of a great artist.

It is necessary to carefully distinguish the expressive qualities of speech, which have as their source the personal properties and states of the speaker or writer, from such facts of linguistic expression, which are rooted in social psychology and are manifestations of precisely the social reaction to the language belonging to a given society.

In the language itself, and not at all in the psychology of speakers and writers, which the linguist is not directly interested in, besides sounds, forms and signs, there is something else, namely expression belonging to sounds, forms and signs. From all this it follows that one thing language style, and another thing is the style of those who write or speak.

Expressive colors are easy to mix and blend into one another. Harsh words caused by anger, hatred, irritation can acquire a softened meaning. Swear words can become affectionate, friendly.

Expressive impressiveness nearly meaningless(from a communicative and cognitive point of view) expressions(“Lebedyan” by Turgenev: “... every time they died of laughter and forced him to repeat “my reverence”; then he began to use a rather complicated expression: “no, it’s you, keskese, it came out”);

There are frequent violations of the literary and linguistic norm, deviations from it; retreating due to certain artistic tasks from these rules and regulations, the writer is obliged to internally, aesthetically justify his speech innovations, his violations of the general national-linguistic norm.

One and also expression in different stylistic environments can acquire different shades and perform various expressive and semantic functions. An example is the use of the Church Slavonic expression "the thunder of heaven will strike" or "the thunder of heaven will strike" by Pushkin in a comic style in a poem about Chisinau;

Mixing or combining expressions belonging to different styles of the literary language in the composition of a work of art must be internally justified or motivated. Otherwise, there is a comic clash or interweaving of different styles, indicating (if it is not purposeful) about the author's lack of speech culture.

In different styles of the literary language, phrasal "stamps", patterns, ossified expressions. Such expressions are often characterized by rhetoric, stiltedness, the desire to depict the content with features that are far from reality. The abuse of such patterns in the author's language of a work of art kills the simplicity and naturalness of the narrative;

The stylistics of the national language includes not only a system of its different styles, but also a set of various constructive forms and compositional structures of speech, developed in connection with the development of forms of communication. This includes not only forms and types of monologue speech typical of the era, but also speech standards of writing, business document and much more. In the language of a literary work, reflections of these compositional-speech systems of everyday communication;

Pprinciples for reproducing the socially typical character of speech cannot be naturalistic. A work of art is not a monument or document of either regional dialectology or social jargon.

A huge role in the process of creating a work of art belongs, on the one hand, to electoral, and on the other hand, combining and synthesizing work of the author, directed both at the depicted reality and at the forms of its reflection in the verbal composition of the work, in its language, in its style;

The meaning of a word in a work of art is never limited by its direct nominative-objective meaning. The literal meaning of the word here acquires new, different meanings (just as the meaning of the described empirical fact grows to the degree of a typical generalization).

Not in a work of art, and in any case there should be no unmotivated words, passing only as shadows of unnecessary objects. The choice of words is inextricably linked with the way in which reality is reflected and expressed in the word. Objects, persons, actions, phenomena, events and circumstances named and reproduced in a work of art are placed in various, internal, functional relationships, they are interconnected;

The specificity of the figurative and artistic understanding of the word is reflected even in the functions of proper names chosen and included by the writer in the composition of a literary work. They are meaningful, expressive and socially characteristic as nicknames;

It is important to study and evaluate the proportionality in the order of the images of the work. According to Professor Peshkovsky, “The more economical the writer is in images, the stronger they, ceteris paribus, act on the reader”;

At the same time, since a work of art is included in a wide context of literature - both previous and modern, the comprehension of many speech and stylistic phenomena in the structure of a work of art is impossible outside this context and its concrete historical peculiarities. An example is the tale of Saltykov-Shchedrin "The Faithful Trezor". Here, satirically - in the image of the dog Trezor - the reactionary publicist M. N. Katkov is depicted;

Sterlitamak State Pedagogical Academy. Z. Biisheva

Library

Reference and bibliographic department

Victor Vladimirovich Vinogradov:

Sterlitamak 2009

Proceedings of Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov

Vinogradov, V. V. From the history of the study of Russian syntax: (from Lomonosov to Potebnya and Fortunatov) / . - M. : Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1958. - 400 p. Vinogradov, works. Studies in Russian grammar / . – M. : Nauka, 1975. – 558 p. Vinogradov, works. History of the Russian literary language / ; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Department of lit. and yaz. - M. : Nauka, 1978. - 320 p., 1 sheet. portrait Vinogradov, works. Poetics of Russian literature / V. V. Vinogradov. - M. : Nauka, 1976. - 508 p. Vinogradov, works. Language and style of Russian writers. From Karamzin to Gogol /; resp. ed. , A. P. Chudakov. - M. : Nauka, 1990. - 386 p. Vinogradov, Russian linguistic teachings: textbook. allowance for students. philol. specialist. un-tov / . - M .: Higher. school, 1978. - 366 p. Vinogradov, words: About 1,500 words and expressions and more than 5,000 words associated with them / ; Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Rus. lang. them. V. V. Vinogadova. - M., 1999. - 1138 p. Vinogradov, and lexicography: Selected works / V. V. Vinogradov; [res. ed. and ed. foreword V. G. Kostomarov; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, One lit. and lang.]. - M. : Nauka, 1977. - 311 p., 1 sheet. portrait Vinogradov, V. V. On the theory of artistic speech: textbook. allowance for students. philol. specialist. un-tov / . - M .: Higher. school, 1971. - 238 p. Vinogradov, V. V. On the language of fiction / V. V. Vinogradov. - M. : Goslitizdat, 1959. - 655 p. Vinogradov, V. V. On the language of fiction: Selected works /; post-last . - M. : Nauka, 1980. -360 p. Vinogradov, on the history of the Russian literary language of the XVII-XIX centuries. : allowance for higher. ped. textbook establishments / . - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M. : Gospedizd, 1938. - 448 p. Vinogradov, on the history of the Russian literary language of the XVII-XIX centuries. : allowance for higher. ped. textbook establishments / . - M. : Uchpedgiz, 1934. - 287 p. Vinogradov, on the history of the Russian literary language of the XVII-XIX centuries. : studies. for stud. philological faculty. un-tov / . - 3rd ed. - M .: Higher. school, 1982. - 529 p. Vinogradov, authorship and style theory / VV Vinogradov. - M .: Art. lit., 1961. - 613 p. Vinogradov, literary languages and patterns of their formation and development / ; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Rus. lang. - M. : Nauka, 1967. - 134 p. Vinogradov, Russian style / V. V. Vinogradov; [ed. foreword and comment. , ]. - M .: Higher. school, 1981. - 320 p. Vinogradov, language: (Grammatical doctrine of the word): textbook. allowance for universities / . - M.; L.: Uchpedgiz, 1947. - 783 p. Vinogradov, language: (Grammatical doctrine of the word): textbook. allowance for philological special. un-tov / V. V. Vinogradov. - 2nd ed. - M .: Higher. school, 1972. - 614 p. Vinogradov, language: (Grammatical doctrine of the word): textbook. allowance for students. universities / . - 3rd ed., Rev. - M .: Higher. school, 1986. - 639 p. Vinogradov, language: (Grammatical doctrine of the word): [proc. allowance for students. universities] / . - 4th ed. – M. : Rus. yaz., 2001. - 717 p. Vinogradov, Russian language: Morphology: (lecture course) /; Moscow State University ; ed. . - M. : Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1952. - 519 p. Vinogradov, . Theory of poetic speech. Poetics / V. V. Vinogradov; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Department of lit. and yaz. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - 255 p. Grammar of the Russian language: [in 2 volumes]. Vol. 1: Phonetics and morphology / redol. V. V. Vinogradov and others; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Linguistics. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1953. - 720 p. Grammar of the Russian language: [in 2 volumes]. Vol. 2, part 1: Syntax / redol. V. V. Vinogradov and others; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Linguistics. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954. - 703 p. Grammar of the Russian language: [in 2 volumes]. Vol. 2, part 2: Syntax / redol. V. V. Vinogradov and others; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Linguistics. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954. - 444 p. Grammar of the Russian language: in 2 vols. Vol. 2, part 1: Syntax / redol. V. V. Vinogradov and others; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Rus. lang. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960. - 702 p. Grammar of the Russian language: in 2 vols. Vol. 2, part 2: Syntax / redol. V. V. Vinogradov and others; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Rus. lang. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960. - 440 p. Grammar of the Russian language: in 2 volumes. Vol. 1: Phonetics and morphology / redol. V. V. Vinogradov and others; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Rus. lang. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1960. - 719 p. Grammar of Russian language. T. 1: Phonetics and morphology / editorial board: V. V. Vinogradov and others; Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Linguistics. - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1952. - 720 p. Studies in Poetics and Stylistics / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Russian Literature; ed. . - L. : Nauka, 1972. - 275 p. Materials and research on the history of the Russian literary language. T.3 / otv. ed. . - M. : Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1953. - 286 p. Thoughts on the modern Russian language: Sat. Art. / ed. V. V. Vinogradova; comp. . - M. : Education, 1969. - 214 p. Review of proposals for improving Russian spelling: (XVIII-XX centuries) / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Rus. yaz; resp. ed. . - M. : Nauka, 1965. - 499 p. Essays on the historical grammar of the Russian literary language of the 19th century: in 5 volumes. Vol. 1: Changes in the system of simple and complicated sentences in the Russian literary language of the 19th century / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of the Russian Language; ed. V. V. Vinogradova,. - M. : Nauka, 1964. - 449 p. Essays on the historical grammar of the Russian literary language of the 19th century: in 5 volumes. Vol. 2: Changes in the system of phrases in the Russian literary language of the 19th century / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Russian Language; ed. V. V. Vinogradova,. - M. : Nauka, 1964. - 303 p. Essays on the historical grammar of the Russian literary language of the 19th century: in 5 volumes. Vol. 3: Changes in the structure of a complex sentence in the Russian literary language of the 19th century / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Russian Language; ed. , . - M. : Nauka, 1964. - 264 p. Essays on the historical grammar of the Russian literary language of the 19th century: in 5 volumes. Vol. 4: Changes in word formation and forms of the noun and adjective in the Russian literary language of the 19th century / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Russian Language; ed. , . - M. : Nauka, 1964. - 600 p. Essays on the historical grammar of the Russian literary language of the 19th century: in 5 vols. Vol. 5: Verb, adverb, prepositions and conjunctions in the Russian literary language of the 19th century / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Russian Language; ed. V. V. Vinogradova,. - M. : Nauka, 1964. - 320 p. Monuments of ancient Russian writing: language and textology / otv. ed. V. V. Vinogradov. - M. : Nauka, 1968. - 403 p. Languages of the peoples of the USSR: in 5 vols. Vol. 1: Indo-European languages / ch. ed. V. V. Vinogradov et al. - M .: Nauka, 1966. - 657 p. Languages of the peoples of the USSR: in 5 vols. Vol. 2: Turkic languages / ch. ed. V. V. Vinogradov et al. - M .: Nauka, 1966. - 529 p. Languages of the peoples of the USSR: in 5 vols. Vol. 3: Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages / ch. ed. etc. - M. : Nauka, 1966. - 462 p.

Publications about life, creativity, scientific activity

Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov

Alpatov, years of the journal "Questions of Linguistics" / // Questions of Linguistics. - 2002. - No. 1. - S. 4-47. Annushkin, V.I.: touches to the portrait of a scientist: on the centenary of his birth / // Rus. literature. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 40-47. Beloshapkov, his thoughts are Russian / // Rus. speech. - 1989. - No. 5. - S. 93-97. Beloshapkova, V. A. and modern syntax / , // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 42-50. Blagova, G. F. - the first editor-in-chief of the journal "Problems of Linguistics" /, O. A. Lapteva, G. V. Strokova // Rus. speech. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 13-19. Bondarenko, predicativity and the question of the linguistic representation of the idea of time / A. V. Bondarenko // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 1995. - No. 4. - S. 105-111.

7. Bulakhov, linguists: Biobibliographic Dictionary. T.2: (A-K) / . - Minsk: Publishing House of BGU, 1977. - 348 p.

Vartapetov, in stylistics as a theoretical basis for the university course "Stylistics of the Russian language" / // Rus. lang. in school - 1994. - No. 6. - S. 64-69. Yudakin, A. / A. Yudakin // Yudakin A. Leading linguists of the world: an encyclopedia. – M.: Sov. Writer, 2000. - S. 167-169. Vinogradov, V. V. "... I will be able to overcome all obstacles ...": letters - Malysheva / comp. and prepare. text, ; intro. Art. and comment. // New world. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 172-213. Guskova, A. and the case of "Russian fascists" (gg.) / // Our contemporary. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 183-192. Danilenko, about the grammatical status of lexicology // Philol. science. - 2005. - No. 5. - S. 28-35. Dobrodomov, I. G. Nonsense in the "History of Words" by V. V. Vinogradov / // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 1995. - No. 4. - S. 112-123. Zanegina, sixth Vinogradov readings / N. N. Zanegina // Vopr. linguistics. - 2005. - No. 4. - P.153-155. Zolotova, and problems of the text / G. A. Zolotova // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 1995. - No. 4. - S. 84-98. Ivanov, M. V. [Review] / // Philol. science. - 2005. - No. 1. - P. 116-119. - Rec. on the book: Belchikov (). Traditions and innovation in the science of the Russian language. - M., 2004. Ivanchikova, Vladimirovich Vinogradov () / // Rus. speech. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 3-12.

18. Kiyanova, chronicle texts in the tradition of the Moscow Linguistic School: results and perspectives / O. N. Kiyanova // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 2006. - No. 4. - S. 34-43.

Kapitanova, readings in 2007 / Yu. S. Kapitanova // Vopr. linguistics. - 2007. - No. 4. - P. 153-155. Kolesov, characterization of the word in lexicological works / // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 1995. - No. 3. - P. 130-139. Kondrashov, Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov (on the centenary of his birth) // Rus. lang. in school - 1994. - No. 6. -S. 84-89. Kostomarov, V.A. about the Russian language as a phenomenon of world culture // Izv. AN. Ser. lit. and yaz. - 1995. - T. 54, No. 3. - S. 49-54. Kostomarov, in science / // Rus. speech. - 1989. - No. 5. - S. 98-102.

24. Koftunova, improperly direct speech in the works / // Problems of linguistics. - 2002. - No. 1. - S. 65-71.

25. Krysin, - stylistic analysis of vocabulary in works / // Rus. lang. in school - 2005. - No. 3. - P. 110-113,119.

Kuleshov, Vladimirovich Vinogradov / V. I. Kuleshov // Ros. literary critic. magazine - 1996. - No. 8. - P. 150-157. Laptev, Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov on the social and personal factors of speech in connection with the theory of the literary language / // Vopr. linguistics. - 1989. - No. 4. - P. 111-127. Makaev, years since the founding of the journal "Problems of Linguistics" / // Vopr. linguistics. - 1992. - No. 1. - S. 5-7. Annotation: Publication of the professor's memoirs about meetings with the founder and first editor of the "Problems of Linguistics" Academician. Matveeva, N. A. In the homeland of Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov / // Rus. lang. in school - 1996. - No. 3. - P. 111-112. Nikitin, the study of the language of Russian business writing in scientific views / O. V. Nikitin // Vopr. linguistics. - 1999. - No. 2. - P. 113-127. Odintsov, V. V.: book. for students / VV Odintsov. - M. : Education, 1983. - 93 p. Onipenko, Readings-2004 at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University / // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 2004. - No. 3. - S. 216-219. Onipenko, readings in 2003 / N. K. Onipenko // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 2003. - No. 3. - S. 228-231. Onipenko, N. K. XXXVIII Vinogradov Readings at Moscow State University / N. K. Onipenko // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 2007. - No. 4. - S. 181-185. Onipenko, N. K. XXXVII Vinogradov Readings at Moscow State University / N. K. Onipenko, E. N. Nikitina // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 2006. - No. 3. - P. 187-191. Paducheva, E. V. and the science of the language of artistic prose / / Izv. AN. Ser. lit. and yaz. - 1995. - T. 54, No. 3. - S. 39-48.

37. Correspondence with an academician and / entry. Art., preparation of the text and notes. E. N. Nikitina // Izv. Acad. Sciences. Ser. lit. and yaz. - 2007. - T. 66, No. 4. - S. 56-68.

Revzin, and literature: the teachings of academician V. V. Vinogradov in the light of modern humanitarian knowledge / // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 1995. - No. 6. - S. 83-90. Rozhdestvensky, schoolboy / Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky // Vestn. Moscow university Ser. 9, Philology. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 51-56. Rozhdestvensky, Yu. V. and / Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky // Russian asceticism. - M. : Nauka, 1996. - S. 352-369. Strokov, our journal everyday life / G. V. Strokova // Questions of linguistics. - 2002. - No. 1. - S. 72-80.

42. Tarlanov, sentences and modal words in the history of the Russian language in their systemic development / Z. K. Tarlanov // Philol. science. - 2003. - No. 6. - S. 43-52.

Frolova, readings at Moscow State University / // Rus. speech. - 2005. - No. 4. - P. 124-137. Khaustova, Yu. "I can't live without thinking about language" / Yu. Khaustova // Nar. education. - 1998. - No. 5. - S. 159-161. Chudakov, A.P. On the nature of scientific meditation and style of V.V. Vinogradov / // Rus. speech. - 1989. - No. 6. - S. 31-36. Chukovsky, K. Correspondence with Moscow linguists / K. Chukovsky; intro. note, pub, and comment. // Rus. speech. - 1991. - No. 6. - S. 35-43.

House in Zaraysk, where he was born

(does not exist - drawing)

Trinity Church in Zaraysk,

where did the father work

ON THE LANGUAGE OF GOGOL'S EARLY PROSE

The question of the formation and development of the prose style of N.V. Gogol, the question of the language of Gogol’s early prose, his “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” is extremely important for the history of the language of Russian fiction of the 19th century, for the history of the formation of critical realism. In Russian philological science, which has a whole range of studies of Gogol's language and style, many of the most important problems in the study of Gogol's language have not yet been clarified, resolved, or comprehended from a historical point of view. The very beginning of Gogol's creative path in the field of Russian artistic prose is still obscure, almost unexplored. It seemed and seems to many that the system of artistic and narrative styles that found its expression in the first cycle of Gogol's stories - in "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka" and which differs significantly in its speech originality from the style of the Karamzin school and at the same time from Pushkin's narrative manners, invented by Gogol under the influence of Ukrainian literary and folklore traditions, as if immediately and already in finished form. In any case, everyone admits that “the history and chronology of the creation of “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” can be restored only in the most general terms”1.

In addition, it is known that the image of the publisher-beekeeper Rudy Pank, suggested to Gogol, according to P. Kulish, P. A. Pletnev, arose and took shape later, when the main part of the Evenings had already been written2,1 *. “Foreword” by Rudy Pank combines a cycle of stories around one democratic personality who decided to “stick his nose out of his backwoods into the big world” of Russian literary and artistic creativity, but who is afraid of the general cry: “Where, where, why? go, man, go!" ... At the same time, the preface explains the variety of styles and heterogeneity of the composition of the book by differences in the social appearance and in the social and speech manner of several narrators.

On the one hand, the preface emphasizes the main type of narrative speech that determines the general socially expressive atmosphere of Evenings. This is a speech “for simple”, as if addressed to “some kind of matchmaker, or godfather”; this is farmer “talk” about “curiosities”, far from the style of “big world”, “great lords”, and even “highest servility”. The preface ironically warns the reader about the deep introduction of vernacular into the language of Russian fiction.

On the other hand, here the main narrators of the stories are personally depicted and their styles of speech are characterized. There are two narrators in the first book of Evenings. Both of them were people "not at all a mere dozen, not some peasant peasants." Here, for example, the clerk of the Dikan church, Foma Grigorievich: “Oh, head, what stories he knew how to let go!” Already in the most familiar colloquial expression letting go of stories a characteristic indication of the folk, vernacular and everyday warehouse of the deacon's tale is hidden. If, however, to delve into the brief introductory conversation to the first one, told by the deacon, to “Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala”, then here you can find a hint of another distinctive feature of Foma Grigoryevich’s speech: this is the speech of a natural Ukrainian. The style of Foma Grigorievich is organized in a folk-Ukrainian way. It is based on the poetic forms and figurative system of the Ukrainian folk language. It is opposed to the styles of traditional Russian book-narrative prose of that time. In fact, in the preface to “The Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala,” Rudy Panko characterizes the impression that was made on Foma Grigorievich by the text of his story, placed in P. P. Svinin’s “Domestic Notes”: I understand and do not wear glasses, I began to read. Before I had time to turn two pages, he suddenly stopped me by the hand: “Wait! Tell me in advance what are you reading?” I confess that I am a little stumped by this question. “How, what do I read, Foma Grigorievich? your story, your own words.” “Who told you that these are my words?” - “Yes, what’s better, it’s printed here: told by such and such a deacon". “Spit on the head of the one who printed this! Breshe, bitch Muscovite. Is that what I said? Something already, like who has the devil's staves in the head. Listen, I will tell you now”” (I, 137-138).

At the same time, it is impossible not to pay attention to the fact that Foma Grigoryevich is a friend for Panka, the publisher of stories from the cycle “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”. Both have the same speech style. This proximity of the speech position of the “publisher” of the stories, the beekeeper Rudy Pank, and one of the storytellers, Foma Grigorievich, indicates that the author attached particular importance to the democratic image of Foma Grigorievich. It is significant that the story of Foma Grigorievich (“The Enchanted Place”) is also placed in the second part of “Evenings” (“In this book you will hear all the storytellers almost unfamiliar to you, except perhaps Foma Grigorievich”). This fact is all the more important because another narrator in "In the Evening," panich in a pea coat from Poltava, "who spoke in such a pretentious language that many wits even from the Moscow people could not understand," later, as it were, was removed by Gogol from the stage and, moreover, not under the influence of public displeasure, but as a result of social conflict, as a result of sharp discrepancies between tastes, disposition and worldview beekeeper and this panich. In the second book of "Evenings" there are no longer his stories. Not only that: the image of this Poltava city panich, named Makar Nazarovich, “an important person”, with aristocratic manners, “who once dined at the same table with the governor”, is ironically and to obvious disadvantage compared with the democratic personality of Foma Grigorievich, inspiring “involuntary respect” . “I will tell you, dear readers,” says Rudy Panko in the preface to the second part of “Evenings,” that There is nothing worse in the world than this knowledge. What was his uncle once a commissar, so the nose carries up. Yes, as if the commissioner is already such a rank that there is no higher in the world. Thank God there are more commissars. No, I do not like this nobility. Here is an example of Foma Grigorievich; it seems that he is not a noble person, but to look at him: some kind of importance shines in his face, even when he starts sniffing ordinary tobacco, and then you feel involuntary respect. In the church, when he sings on the wing, - indescribable tenderness! would have melted, it seemed, all!” (I, 196-197). So, the image of a panich is opposed to the image of a simple person, a village deacon.

However, already from the preface to the first part of "Evenings" it was clear that the sympathies of the publisher of "Evenings" were entirely on the side of Foma Grigoryevich, who reacted with deep irony to the bookish-romantic style of the panich and almost "gave the barrel" to this capricious narrator. The panich’s manner of narration was depicted in this way: “It used to be that he would put his finger in front of him and, looking at the end of it, would go to tell - pretentiously, but cunningly, as in printed books! Sometimes you listen, you listen, and thought will attack. Nothing, for the life of me, you don't understand. Where did he get these words from?!” (I, 105). Bookishly intricate, far from living oral folk speech, abundant in paraphrases, artificially embellished, romantically elevated and full of echoes of a sentimental style, the panich's manner of speech contrasts with the folk-everyday tale of Foma Grigorievich. This opposition is extremely vividly and figuratively expressed in Foma Grigorievich's “glorious saying”. “Foma Grigorievich once wove a glorious saying about this for him: he told him how one schoolboy, who studied with some clerk to read and write, came to his father and became such a Latin man that he even forgot our Orthodox language. All words turn on mustache. Shovel, he has a shovel; grandmother, grandmother. So, it happened once, they went with their father to the field. The Latin man saw the rake and asked his father: “What do you call it, father?” Yes, and he stepped, gaping his mouth, with his foot on the teeth. He did not have time to gather an answer, as the pen, waving, rose and - to grab him on the forehead. “Damn rake!” shouted the schoolboy, grabbing his forehead with his hand and jumping up a yard: “How are they, the devil would have pushed their father off the bridge, they are fighting painfully!” - So that's how! Did you remember the name too, my dear?” (I, 105).

Thus, the folk style of Foma Grigorievich is given a clear advantage over the bookish, artificial, pretentious prose of Makar Nazarovich. The style of Foma Grigorievich is emphatically brought to the fore.

There is reason to believe that, chronologically, Gogol's work on the style of Foma Grigorievich, the narrator of The Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala (and The Lost Letter), somewhat preceded Gogol's exercises in the styles of book-poetic, rhythmic prose. The stories associated with the image of the panich - "May Night or the Drowned Woman" and "Sorochinsky Fair" - perhaps developed somewhat later than "The Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala"4. In any case, the compositional significance of the image of Foma Grigorievich cannot be underestimated or belittled. According to the editors and commentators of the academic edition of Gogol’s works, “in the early stages, the cyclization of stories could have been built around the image of the narrator Foma Grigorievich, who was much more organically connected with individual parts of the narrative than the fiction of “panich in a pea coat” or a lover of scary stories. Three stories are attributed to him (“Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala”, “The Missing Letter”, “The Enchanted Place”), the tale-like manner of presentation of which was determined by the subtitle “A true story told by a deacon of the *** church” affixed to them. Since the first of these stories is perhaps the earliest, and Gogol requested a detailed “description of the full outfit of a rural deacon”, later used to characterize Foma Grigorievich in the “Preface”, in a letter dated April 30, 1829, then we can guess that already in the original plan this image was assigned an important compositional function of combining individual stories into a single collection. In this regard, it should be noted that the opening of “The Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala” is built as an introduction to a coherent series of stories, the general theme of which, semi-historical, semi-fantastic, was outlined right there. However, the writer's assumption did not take shape clearly enough and did not prevent him from moving from a tale to an "impersonal" form of narration" (I, 501-502).

It goes without saying that the possibility of Gogol's simultaneous work on two styles of narration is not ruled out - on a folk-everyday tale in a realistic spirit and on a grandiloquent romantic style full of echoes of Ukrainian folk poetry, on the language of "Evenings on the Eve of Ivan Kupala" and over the tongue of the May Night. After all, after experiments in poetry, after composing the poem “Hanz Kühelgarten”, Gogol’s appeal to ornamental poetic prose, already represented by the styles of Zhukovsky, F. Glinka, A. A. Bestuzhev, and partly by Narezhny and other writers, was natural. There is reason to believe that Gogol's work on "May Night" was not separated by some long interval from the preparation of "Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala"; Apparently, the draft edition of “May Night” was already ready by July 1829, since Gogol, without waiting for the materials sent to him by his mother in a letter dated June 2 of this year, used the materials he had and recorded in the “Book of All sorts of things” ( I, 502; cf. also 529-530)3*. The estimated date of Gogol's work on the draft manuscript of "May Night" is May-June 1829.

Therefore, the study of the process of Gogol's work on the language and style of both of these stories is extremely important for understanding the formation of Gogol's prose style, which played such a huge role in the history of the language of Russian fiction in the 19th century. However, it is already obvious in advance that the proportion of those two varieties of Gogol's style, which found expression in "The Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala" and in "May Night", is not the same. In the style of Foma Grigorievich, the seeds of nationality and folk realism were laid deeper. The language, style and composition of “May Night” caused many fair reproaches in Gogol’s contemporary criticism: N. Polevoy (Moscow telegraph. 1831. No. 17), A. Ya. XXV. Nos. 1-4, etc.)4*.

Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is a well-known linguist and literary critic, a student of A.A. Shakhmatova, L.V. Shcherby. His main works are devoted to the grammar of the Russian language. He founded a school in Russian linguistics, for which he was awarded the State Prize in 1951. The book “Russian language. The Grammatical Doctrine of the Word” (1947) is a systematic presentation of the theoretical grammar of the Russian language with a detailed discussion of the views of predecessors on most debatable issues. "Essays on the history of the Russian literary language" (1934; 2nd revised edition, 1938) - devoted to the history of the Russian literary language. He supervised the work on collective works, in particular, on the two-volume Grammar of the Russian Language (1952-1954). In the works “Modern Russian language” (Issue 1-2. 1938), “Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word "(1947)," Basic questions of the syntax of the sentence "Vinogradov gave a complete theoretical course on the grammar of the modern Russian language, defined the word as a system of forms and meanings, formulated the main characteristics of the sentence, included modal words and the category of state in the system of parts of speech. The scientist showed a special place of word formation in the system of linguistic disciplines, the connection of word formation with grammar and lexicology, created the doctrine of phraseology as a special section of linguistics. The role of the works of VV Vinogradov in the field of grammar is exceptionally great. The principles of construction and description of the grammatical system put forward and developed in them had a decisive influence on the development of the grammatical thought of Soviet linguists. Already in the late 1920s, V. V. Vinogradov was attracted to the problem of parts of speech. Developing the ideas of A. A. Shakhmatov and L. V. Shcherba, he created a harmonious and original concept of parts of speech, which was reflected in his later works on grammar. Vinogradov divided words into "basic structural-semantic types": 1) parts of speech names (noun, number, adjective); remnants of pronouns; verb; adverbs; state category); 2) particles of speech (particles of copula; prepositions; unions); 3) modal words; 4) interjections. In 1938, his book "Modern Russian Language" was published in two editions. Then, continuing his work in the field of Russian grammar, he published a number of articles of exceptional theoretical importance. Prepared by these studies, in 1947 his work "Russian Language" (Grammatical Doctrine of the Word) was published. This work, still in manuscript, was awarded the Lomonosov Prize by Moscow University; later, in 1951, it was awarded the Lomonosov Prize. , he was awarded the State Prize. For V. V. Vinogradov, the word "represents an internal, constructive unity of lexical and grammatical meanings" and at the same time "the focus of the connection and interaction of the grammatical categories of the language", and therefore it is the main unit of the language, and grammar is the center of the language system, since "the semantic contours of a word, the internal connection of its meanings, its semantic volume is determined by the grammatical structure of the language." From this naturally follows the proclamation of the interaction between grammar and vocabulary, the need to study them in close connection. "The study of the grammatical structure of a language without taking into account its lexical side, without taking into account the interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings is impossible," V. V. Vinogradov writes polemically pointedly about this. In the book "Russian language" this fundamental idea was concretely embodied. It underlies the analysis of all grammatical categories and forms. It is connected with the view put forward by V. V. Vinogradov on word formation as a special section of the language system, interacting, on the one hand, with grammar in a narrow sense, on the other hand, with vocabulary. The inclusion of word formation in the grammatical doctrine of the word is justified by the fact that the word-formation structure of the word is determined by its grammatical properties: belonging to a certain part of speech and to a certain morphological (identified by form-building features) type within the part of speech. In accordance with this, the types of nominal word formation are distributed according to morphological classes of words formed on their basis. The "Russian language" is also connected with the works of V. V. Vinogradov, devoted to other issues, as if far from grammar. In his preface, V. V. Vinogradov writes that in parallel with his work on The Russian Language, he was working on Historical Lexicology of the Russian Language, and this work "could not but affect the exposition of the grammatical doctrine of the word." Indeed, "Russian language" contains numerous information from the history of Russian vocabulary and word formation.

Sociolinguistics. The role of extra- and intralinguistic factors in language development

Sociolinguistics is a section of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and the social conditions of its existence. Sociolinguistics arises in opposition to structuralism. Sociolinguistics deals with the interaction of language and society. The focus is on internal functioning (age, gender of the speaker, characteristics of the situation).

This direction arose in the 30s, and the term was introduced in 1952. It arose at the intersection of sociology and linguistics. Representatives of this direction are: Vinogradov, Vinokur, Polivanov, Zhirmunsky, Meillet, Charles Bally.

The main goals are to study:

1. How people use language. What does it have to do with the people who make up this or that society.
2. How changes in the society in which this language exists influence the development of a language.

Goals cause problems:

1. Social differentiation of language.
2. Social conditionality of language. As society develops, language changes. Social change is primary.

logical operators

The default operator is AND.
Operator AND means that the document must match all the elements in the group:

research development

Operator OR means that the document must match one of the values in the group:

study OR development

Operator NOT excludes documents containing this element:

study NOT development

Search type

When writing a query, you can specify the way in which the phrase will be searched. Four methods are supported: search based on morphology, without morphology, search for a prefix, search for a phrase.
By default, the search is based on morphology.
To search without morphology, it is enough to put the "dollar" sign before the words in the phrase:

$ study $ development

To search for a prefix, you need to put an asterisk after the query:

study *

To search for a phrase, you need to enclose the query in double quotes:

" research and development "

Search by synonyms

To include synonyms of a word in the search results, put a hash mark " # " before a word or before an expression in brackets.
When applied to one word, up to three synonyms will be found for it.
When applied to a parenthesized expression, a synonym will be added to each word if one was found.
Not compatible with no-morphology, prefix, or phrase searches.

# study

grouping

Parentheses are used to group search phrases. This allows you to control the boolean logic of the request.
For example, you need to make a request: find documents whose author is Ivanov or Petrov, and the title contains the words research or development:

Approximate word search

For an approximate search, you need to put a tilde " ~ " at the end of a word in a phrase. For example:

bromine ~

The search will find words such as "bromine", "rum", "prom", etc.
You can optionally specify the maximum number of possible edits: 0, 1, or 2. For example:

bromine ~1

The default is 2 edits.

Proximity criterion

To search by proximity, you need to put a tilde " ~ " at the end of a phrase. For example, to find documents with the words research and development within 2 words, use the following query:

" research development "~2

Expression relevance

To change the relevance of individual expressions in the search, use the sign " ^ " at the end of an expression, and then indicate the level of relevance of this expression in relation to the others.
The higher the level, the more relevant the given expression.
For example, in this expression, the word "research" is four times more relevant than the word "development":

study ^4 development

By default, the level is 1. Valid values are a positive real number.

Search within an interval

To specify the interval in which the value of some field should be, you should specify the boundary values in brackets, separated by the operator TO.
A lexicographic sort will be performed.

Such a query will return results with the author starting from Ivanov and ending with Petrov, but Ivanov and Petrov will not be included in the result.
To include a value in an interval, use square brackets. Use curly braces to escape a value.