Geology is the science of what? What do geologists do? Problems of modern geology

“Geology is a way of life,” a geologist will most likely say when answering a question about his profession, before moving on to dry and boring formulations, explaining that geology is about the structure and composition of the earth, the history of its birth, formation and patterns development, about the once countless, but today, alas, “estimated” riches of its depths. Other planets of the solar system are also objects of geological research.

The description of a particular science often begins with the history of its origin and formation, forgetting that the narrative is full of incomprehensible terms and definitions, so it’s better to get to the point first.

Stages of geological research

The most general scheme of the sequence of research into which all geological work aimed at identifying mineral deposits (hereinafter MPO) can be “squeezed” essentially looks like this: geological survey (mapping outcrops of rocks and geological formations), prospecting work , exploration, reserves calculation, geological report. Surveying, searching and reconnaissance, in turn, are naturally divided into stages depending on the scale of the work and taking into account their expediency.

To carry out such a complex of work, an entire army of specialists from a wide range of geological specialties is involved, which a real geologist must master much more than at the “a little bit of everything” level, because he is faced with the task of summarizing all this diverse information and ultimately arriving at the discovery of a deposit ( or make it), since geology is a science that studies the bowels of the earth primarily for the development of mineral resources.

Family of geological sciences

Like other natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry, geography, etc.), geology is a whole complex of interrelated and intertwined scientific disciplines.

Directly geological subjects include general and regional geology, mineralogy, tectonics, geomorphology, geochemistry, lithology, paleontology, petrology, petrography, gemology, stratigraphy, historical geology, crystallography, hydrogeology, marine geology, volcanology and sedimentology.

Applied, methodological, technical, economic and other sciences related to geology include engineering geology, seismology, petrophysics, glaciology, geography, mineral geology, geophysics, soil science, geodesy, oceanography, oceanology, geostatistics, geotechnology, geoinformatics, geotechnology, cadastre and monitoring lands, land management, climatology, cartography, meteorology and a number of atmospheric sciences.

“Pure” field geology still remains largely descriptive, which imposes a certain moral and ethical responsibility on the performer, therefore geology, having developed its own language, like other sciences, cannot do without philology, logic and ethics.

Since prospecting and exploration routes, especially in hard-to-reach areas, are practically uncontrolled work, a geologist is always susceptible to the temptation of subjective, but competently and beautifully presented judgments or conclusions, and this, unfortunately, happens. Harmless “inaccuracies” can lead to very serious consequences both in scientific-production and material-economic terms, so a geologist simply does not have the right to deception, distortion and error, like a sapper or a surgeon.

The core of geosciences is arranged in a hierarchical series (geochemistry, mineralogy, crystallography, petrology, lithology, paleontology and geology itself, including tectonics, stratigraphy and historical geology), reflecting the subordination of successively more complex objects of study from atoms and molecules to the Earth as a whole.

Each of these sciences branches widely in various directions, just as geology itself includes tectonics, stratigraphy and historical geology.

Geochemistry

The field of view of this science lies in the problems of the distribution of elements in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Modern geochemistry is a complex of scientific disciplines, including regional geochemistry, biogeochemistry and geochemical methods for searching for mineral deposits. The subject of study for all these disciplines is the laws of migration of elements, the conditions of their concentration, separation and redeposition, as well as the processes of evolution of the forms of occurrence of each element or associations of several, especially similar in properties.

Geochemistry is based on the properties and structure of the atom and crystalline matter, on data on thermodynamic parameters characterizing part of the earth's crust or individual shells, as well as on general patterns formed by thermodynamic processes.

The direct task of geochemical research in geology is the detection of mineral deposits, therefore, ore mineral deposits are necessarily preceded and accompanied by geochemical survey, based on the results of which the areas of dispersion of the useful component are identified.

Mineralogy

One of the main and oldest branches of geological science, studying the huge, beautiful, unusually interesting and mysterious world of minerals. Mineralogical studies, the goals, objectives and methods of which depend on specific tasks, are carried out at all stages of prospecting and geological exploration and include a wide range of methods from visual assessment of mineral composition to electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction diagnostics.

At the stages of surveying, prospecting and exploration of mineral deposits, research is carried out to clarify mineralogical prospecting criteria and a preliminary assessment of the practical significance of potential deposits.

During the exploration stage of geological work and when assessing reserves of ore or non-metallic raw materials, its full quantitative and qualitative mineral composition is established with the identification of useful and harmful impurities, data on which are taken into account when choosing a processing technology or making a conclusion about the quality of raw materials.

In addition to a comprehensive study of the composition of rocks, the main tasks of mineralogy are the study of the patterns of combination of minerals in natural associations and the improvement of the principles of taxonomy of mineral species.

Crystallography

Crystallography was once considered a part of mineralogy, and the close connection between them is natural and obvious, but today it is an independent science with its own subject and its own research methods. The objectives of crystallography are to comprehensively study the structure, physical and optical properties of crystals, the processes of their formation and the characteristics of interaction with the environment, as well as changes occurring under the influence of influences of various natures.

The science of crystals is divided into physicochemical crystallography, which studies the patterns of formation and growth of crystals, their behavior in various conditions depending on the shape and structure, and geometric crystallography, the subject of which is the geometric laws governing the shape and symmetry of crystals.

Tectonics

Tectonics is one of the core branches of geology, which studies in structural terms, the features of its formation and development against the background of different-scale movements, deformations, faults and dislocations caused by deep processes.

Tectonics is divided into regional, structural (morphological), historical and applied branches.

The regional direction operates with such structures as platforms, plates, shields, folded areas, depressions of seas and oceans, transform faults, rift zones, etc.

As an example, we can cite the regional structural-tectonic plan that characterizes the geology of Russia. The European part of the country is located on the East European Platform, composed of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks. The territory between the Urals and the Yenisei is located on the West Siberian Platform. The Siberian Platform (Central Siberian Plateau) extends from the Yenisei to the Lena. Folded areas are represented by the Ural-Mongolian, Pacific and partially Mediterranean fold belts.

Morphological tectonics, compared to regional tectonics, studies structures of a lower order.

Historical geotectonics deals with the history of the origin and formation of the main types of structural forms of oceans and continents.

The applied direction of tectonics is associated with the identification of patterns of placement of various types of rock formations in connection with certain types of morphostructures and features of their development.

In the “mercantile” geological sense, faults in the earth’s crust are considered as ore supply channels and ore-controlling factors.

Paleontology

Literally meaning “the science of ancient beings,” paleontology studies fossil organisms, their remains and traces of life, mainly for the stratigraphic division of rocks in the earth's crust. The competence of paleontology includes the task of restoring a picture reflecting the process of biological evolution based on data obtained as a result of reconstructing the appearance, biological characteristics, methods of reproduction and nutrition of ancient organisms.

According to quite obvious signs, paleontology is divided into paleozoology and paleobotany.

Organisms are sensitive to changes in the physical and chemical parameters of their environment, so they are reliable indicators of the conditions in which rocks were formed. Hence the close connection between geology and paleontology.

Based on paleontological research, together with the results of determining the absolute age of geological formations, a geochronological scale has been compiled, in which the history of the Earth is divided into geological eras (Archaean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic). Eras are divided into periods, and those, in turn, are divided into epochs.

We live in the Pleistocene era (20 thousand years ago to the present) of the Quaternary period, which began about 1 million years ago.

Petrography

Petrography (petrology) deals with the study of the mineral composition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, their textural and structural characteristics and genesis. Research is carried out using a polarizing microscope in rays of transmitted polarized light. To do this, thin (0.03-0.02 mm) plates (sections) are cut from rock samples, then glued to a glass plate with Canada balsam (the optical characteristics of this resin are close to the parameters of glass).

Minerals become transparent (most of them), and minerals and their constituent rocks are identified based on their optical properties. Interference patterns in thin sections resemble patterns in a kaleidoscope.

Petrography of sedimentary rocks occupies a special place in the cycle of geological sciences. Its great theoretical and practical significance is due to the fact that the subject of research is modern and ancient (fossil) sediments, which occupy about 70% of the Earth's surface.

Engineering Geology

Engineering geology is the science of those features of the composition, physical and chemical properties, formation, occurrence and dynamics of the upper horizons of the earth's crust, which are associated with economic, mainly engineering and construction activities of humans.

Engineering geological surveys are aimed at performing a comprehensive and integrated assessment of geological factors caused by human economic activity in conjunction with natural geological processes.

If we remember that, depending on the guiding method, natural sciences are divided into descriptive and exact, then engineering geology, of course, belongs to the latter, unlike many of its “comrades in the shop.”

Marine Geology

It would be unfair to ignore the vast section of geology that studies the geological structure and features of the development of the bottom of oceans and seas. If you follow the shortest and most succinct definition that characterizes geology (the study of the Earth), then marine geology is the science of the sea (ocean) bottom, covering all branches of the “geological tree” (tectonics, petrography, lithology, historical and Quaternary geology, paleogeography , stratigraphy, geomorphology, geochemistry, geophysics, the study of minerals, etc.).

Research in the seas and oceans is carried out from specially equipped vessels, floating drilling rigs and pontoons (on the shelf). For sampling, in addition to drilling, dredges, grab-type bottom grabs and straight-through tubes are used. Using autonomous and towed vehicles, discrete and continuous photographic, television, seismic, magnetometric and geolocation surveys are carried out.

In our time, many problems of modern science have not yet been solved, and these include the unsolved secrets of the ocean and its depths. Marine geology has been given the honor not only for the sake of science to “make the secret obvious”, but also to master the colossal mineral

The main theoretical task of the modern marine branch of geology remains the study of the history of the development of the oceanic crust and the identification of the main patterns of its geological structure.

Historical geology is the science of the patterns of development of the earth's crust and the planet as a whole in the historically foreseeable past from the moment of its formation to the present day. Studying the history of the formation of the structure of the lithosphere is important because the tectonic movements and deformations occurring in it seem to be the most important factors causing most of the changes that took place on Earth in past geological eras.

Now, having received a general idea of ​​geology, we can turn to its origins.

An excursion into the history of Earth science

It is difficult to say how far back the history of geology goes back thousands of years, but the Neanderthal already knew what to make a knife or ax out of, using flint or obsidian (volcanic glass).

From the time of primitive man until the middle of the 18th century, the pre-scientific stage of accumulation and formation of geological knowledge lasted, mainly about metal ores, building stones, salts and groundwater. They started talking about rocks, minerals and geological processes in the interpretation of that time already in ancient times.

By the 13th century, mining was developing in Asian countries and the foundations of mining knowledge were emerging.

During the Renaissance (XV-XVI centuries), the heliocentric idea of ​​the world was affirmed (G. Bruno, G. Galileo, N. Copernicus), the geological ideas of N. Stenon, Leonardo da Vinci and G. Bauer were born, and cosmogonic concepts were formulated. Descartes and G. Leibniz.

During the period of formation of geology as a science (XVIII-XIX centuries), the cosmogonic hypotheses of P. Laplace and I. Kant and the geological ideas of M. V. Lomonosov and J. Buffon appeared. Stratigraphy (I. Lehman, G. Füxel) and paleontology (J.B. Lamarck, W. Smith) are emerging, crystallography (R.J. Gayuy, M.V. Lomonosov), mineralogy (I.Ya. Berzelius, A. Kronstedt, V. M. Severgin, K. F. Moos, etc.), geological mapping begins.

During this period, the first geological societies and national geological services were created.

From the second half of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, the most significant events were the geological observations of Charles Darwin, the creation of the doctrine of platforms and geosynclines, the emergence of paleogeography, the development of instrumental petrography, genetic and theoretical mineralogy, the emergence of the concept of magma and the doctrine of ore deposits. Petroleum geology began to emerge and geophysics (magnetometry, gravimetry, seismometry, and seismology) began to gain momentum. In 1882, the Geological Committee of Russia was founded.

The modern period of development of geology began in the mid-20th century, when Earth science adopted computer technology and acquired new laboratory instruments, instruments and technical means that made it possible to begin the geological and geophysical study of the oceans and nearby planets.

The most outstanding scientific achievements were the theory of metasomatic zoning by D. S. Korzhinsky, the doctrine of metamorphic facies, M. Strakhov’s theory of the types of lithogenesis, the introduction of geochemical methods for searching for ore deposits, etc.

Under the leadership of A.L. Yanshin, N.S. Shatsky and A.A. Bogdanov, overview tectonic maps of the countries of Europe and Asia were created, and paleogeographic atlases were compiled.

The concept of a new global tectonics has been developed (J. T. Wilson, G. Hess, V. E. Khain, etc.), geodynamics, engineering geology and hydrogeology have stepped far forward, a new direction in geology has emerged - environmental, which has become a priority today.

Problems of modern geology

Today, on many fundamental issues, the problems of modern science still remain unresolved, and there are at least one hundred and fifty such questions. We are talking about the biological foundations of consciousness, the mysteries of memory, the nature of time and gravity, the origin of stars, black holes and the nature of other cosmic objects. Geology also faces many problems that still need to be dealt with. This concerns mainly the structure and composition of the Universe, as well as the processes occurring inside the Earth.

Nowadays, the importance of geology is increasing due to the need to control and take into account the growing threat of catastrophic geological consequences associated with irrational economic activities that aggravate environmental problems.

Geological education in Russia

The formation of modern geological education in Russia is associated with the opening of the Corps of Mining Engineers in St. Petersburg (the future Mining Institute) and the creation of Moscow University, and the heyday began when in 1930 in Leningrad it was created and then transferred to Geology (now GIN AH CCCP ).

Today, the Geological Institute occupies a leading position among research institutions in the fields of stratigraphy, lithology, tectonics and the history of sciences of the geological cycle. The main areas of activity are related to the development of complex fundamental problems of the structure and formation of the oceanic and continental crust, the study of the evolution of continental rock formation and sedimentation in the oceans, geochronology, global correlation of geological processes and phenomena, etc.

By the way, the predecessor of the GIN was the Mineralogical Museum, renamed in 1898 to the Museum of Geology, and then in 1912 to the Geological and Mineralogical Museum named after. Peter the Great.

Since its inception, the basis of geological education in Russia has been the principle of the trinity: science - education - practice. Despite the perestroika upheavals, educational geology still follows this principle today.

In 1999, by decision of the boards of the Ministries of Education and Natural Resources of Russia, the concept of geological education was adopted, which was tested in educational institutions and production teams that “grow” geological personnel.

Today, higher geological education can be obtained in more than 30 universities in Russia.

And even though going “on exploration in the taiga” or going “to the sultry steppes” in our time is no longer as prestigious a job as it once was, a geologist chooses it because “happy is he who knows the aching feeling of the road”...