Types of astronomy. Sections of astronomy

In the structure of astronomical science, you can highlight the following components:

1. Astrometria.
2. Heavenly mechanics.
3. Theoretical Astronomy.
4. Astrophysics.
5. Star Astronomy.
6. Cosmochemistry.
7. Cosmogony.
8. Cosmology.

Sections that decisive astronomical study of the stroke of the celestial objects

Astrometry. This area of \u200b\u200bastronomical science is responsible for the study of kinematics and geometry of celestial objects.

Note 1.

The main purpose of astrometry is to find a high accuracy of the coordinates of the celestial objects, as well as the vector values \u200b\u200bof their speeds at a specified period of time.

The characteristic of these parameters is set to six astrometric values:

1. Direct equatorial ascent (equatorial heavenly arc length).
2. Direct equatorial decline (angular distance to the celestial equatorial plane).
3. Equatorial speed in literacy.
4. Equatorial speed in direct decline.
5. Parallaxes (variation of the observed location of the object).
6. Radial (radial) speeds.

In the case of high-precision metering of these values, you can get additional information about the celestial body, namely:

1. About absolute luminosity.
2. On the mass and age of the heavenly body.
3. About the location of the celestial body.
4. About class object.
5. About the presence of satellites.

Astromometry gives the information necessary to move forward other areas of astronomy.

Heavenly Mechanics. It is an area of \u200b\u200bastronomy, which uses the rules of classical mechanics in the study and calculation of the stroke of the celestial objects, mainly related to the solar system, and events interrelated with this movement.

For heavenly mechanics, its submission to Newton's laws is characteristic:

• Law of inertia. This law claims that the coordinate system moving with zero acceleration, in the absence of external influence, all objects remain alone or have a straight and uniform move. The outside force is needed only to give the body of movement, to brake it or change the velocity vector. Under the influence of the strength of the bodies, acceleration is attached - the speed of the speed of change of speed. If the celestial object has acceleration, therefore, it is external influence. Since the movement along curvilinear orbit always occurs with acceleration (normal, otherwise centripetal), planets (in particular, the Earth) are constantly exposed to the action of the so-called gravitational force. The aim of heavenly mechanics is to find the dependence between gravitational gravity strength and the move of the celestial object.
• The law of force. Under the influence of the force attached to the object, it performs an accelerated movement (with greater force - greater acceleration). The force of the same size gives different bodies different accelerations. The inertness indicator of the object is "Mass", which can be called "the amount of substance" - the body is massive, the greater its inertness and, as a result, the less acceleration. Therefore, the acceleration commensurately applied to the body, and inversely proportionally its mass. With certain values \u200b\u200bof the acceleration and mass of the object, the force acting on it is easily located.
• The law of opposition. According to this law, the interaction of bodies occurs by the same by the module, but having different focus. Therefore, if the system includes two bodies acting one to another equal to the module by force, they acquire acceleration in the inverse proportion to their masses. From here, the point located on the line of connecting objects disturbed from them in the inverse proportion to their masses will receive a movement with zero acceleration, despite the fact that each body has an accelerated course. This point is referred to as the "center of the masses", the circulation of double stars occurs around such a point.

Theoretical Astronomy. The subject to the study of this section of astronomy: the relative movement in the system of two bodies based on the law of world community, without taking into account the influence of third-party objects, which usually affects a very weak form and in the primary calculations can not be taken into account. In particular, in the system of the Sun, the gravitational forces of other planets act on all planets, but because They are so small in comparison with solar gravity, sometimes they can not be taken into account. The main question that theoretical astronomy solves is determining the components of the orbits of celestial objects on the basis of long-term observations. The second task is solvable much easier, consists in compiling the studied orbital elements of the table of the space-time coordinates of the celestial objects observed from the Earth (ephemeris).

Figure 1. Astromometry. Space distances. Author24 - Student Internet Exchange

Astrophysics. The objects of research in astrophysics are: structure, features of the physical device and the chemical structure of the celestial bodies. The subsections of astrophysics are: practical (observant) astrophysics and theoretical astrophysics.

The main empirical agents of astrophysics:

1. Spectral analysis.
2. The photo.
3. Photometry.

Note 2.

The theoretical astrophysics operates both by means of analysis and computer modeling in the study of different astrophysical events, creating their models and theoretical substantiation.

Sections decisive astronomical study of the structure of celestial objects

In Star Astronomy, the laws of accommodation are explored by the volume of the universe and their movement.

Cosmochemistry is engaged in the study of the chemical structure of heavenly objects, the laws of the propagation and dislocation of chemical elements on the expanses of the universe. It studies the processes of education of cosmic matter.

One of the main issues solved in Cosmochemistry - knowledge, based on the structure and distribution of chemical elements, the processes of development of celestial objects, the definition, based on their chemical nature, the history of their occurrence and development. Cosmochemistry's main attention is paid to the propagation and dislocation of chemical elements in outer space. The chemical structure of the Sun, internal planets, meteorites and asteroids is likely to actually similarly. Different periods of star development give a different chemical structure of the shone.

Figure 2. Observed spectra of the Earth's atmosphere and Mars. Author24 - Student Internet Exchange

Cosmogony is an area of \u200b\u200bastronomical science, which is engaged in studying the emergence and evolution of heavenly objects: stars and their clusters, nebulae, galactic systems, solar system, together with the luminaire itself, planetary systems with their satellites, meteorites, asteroids, comet.

Cosmogony is closely associated with astrophysics. Since all space objects are born and evolved, the dynamic processes characteristic of them have a relationship with their nature. Therefore, modern cosmogony is comprehensively using physical and chemical research methods.

Cosmology. This section of astronomy is responsible for learning the generalized laws of the device and the evolution of the world.

Astronomical research methods

Megamira components

Space(Megamir) - the whole world surrounding the planet Earth.

We can't observe the whole cosmos for a number of reasons (technical: Galaxian runoff → Light does not have time to fly).

Universe- Part of space, available observation.

Cosmology- studies the structure, origin, evolution and the future fate of the Universe as a whole.

The basis of this discipline is astronomy, physics and mathematics.

Astronomy(literally - science of stars' behavior) - a narrower branch of cosmology (most important!) - Science on the structure and development of all cosmic bodies.

Methods of research in astronomy

In astronomy directly only objects emitting electromagnetic radiation can be observed. , including light.

The basic information is obtained using optical instruments.

1. Optical astronomy - Explores visible (i.e. glowing) objects.

Observed, or luminous, matter Either herself eats visible light as a result of processes running inside it (stars), or reflects the falling rays (the planet of the solar system, nebulae).

In 1608. Galilee sent his simple to heaven pipe pipe, thereby performing a revolution in the field of astronomical observations. Now astronomical observations are carried out with telescopes.

Optical telescopes are 2 types: refractors (Light collects lens → Large lenses are needed, which may bend under their own weight → Image distortion) and reflex (Light collects mirrorThere are no such problems → Most professional telescopes are reflectors).

In modern telescopes, human eye is replaced photoflaxes or digital cameras, which are able to accumulate light stream over large time intervals, which allows you to detect even smaller objects.

Telescopes are installed on high mountain peaks, where the influence of the atmosphere and light of large cities is affected in the smallest extent. Therefore, today most of the professional telescopes are concentrated in observatory, which are not so much: in Andes, on Canary O-Wah, on Hawaiian Volcans (4205 m above ur. Sea, on extinct volcano - the highest observatory in the world) and in some particularly isolated places of the United States and Australia.

Thanks to international agreements, strolas, in which there are no places suitable for installation, can establish their equipment in places with such conditions.

The largest telescope - Built in Chile by the South European Observatory (includes a system of 4 telescopes with a diameter of 8.2 m each).

In 1990, an orbit was derived optical telescope "Hubble" (USA) (H \u003d 560 km).

Its length is 13.3 m, width - 12 m, a mirror with a diameter of 2.4 m, a total mass - 11 tons,

cost ~ $ 250 million

Thanks to him, he received a deep, never previously unattainable image of the starry sky, planetary systems were observed in the formation stage, data were obtained on the existence of huge black holes in the centers of different galaxies. The telescope must complete the work by 2005; Now the other more modern is launched.

2. Non-optical astronomy - Examines objects emitting em radiation beyond visible light.

Electromagnetic radiation - The form of electrical and magnetic energy, which extends to space at the speed of light. Unit of measurement - wavelength (M).

The EM spectrum is conditionally divided into stripes, characterized by a certain wavelength interval. Clear boundaries between the ranges cannot be determined, because They often overlap each other.

Part 1
Chapter 1

Subject of mathematical processing of observations
1.1. Astronomical observations

According to textbooks, astronomy - Science of the Universe, which studies the origin, structure and development of the celestial bodies and their systems. In recent years, specially space studies have been allocated, realizing the study of the outer space surrounding the Earth and other bodies of the solar system. This is due to the development of technical means of scientific research and, among otherwise, with the creation of artificial celestial bodies - satellites, spacecraft, probes that penetrate far into the outer space made by the hands of a person.

The main source of information in astronomy - observations. Cannot be confused by astronomical observations with the contemplation of the starry sky! Very often, a professional observer astronomer does not know where and what constellations are located in the sky. He can not be absolutely not interested, to which constellation the observed star or other star-like object belongs. Images of mythological heroes and animals in the sky - for astronomy lovers.

An astronomer observer is not a sage standing on a balcony with a long visual pipe (telescope). Although M.V. Volonosov, it was in the visual tube opened the atmosphere of Venus, watching the outbreak of the halo around the planet. Such a phenomenon as stars with satellites and planets were observed in antiquity now. True, the human eye is replaced by photosensitive electronic elements, the times of the coating time is measured by ultra-threaded standard frequency generators. Astronomical observations turned into the most modern physical experiment. However, astronomical observations also have serious differences from the physical experiment. First of all, this is what the observer (experimenter) cannot change the conditions of observation, cannot affect observation objects. The source of information is usually the electromagnetic radiation of the object under study, which is not able to change the observer. But he can replace the receiver of this radiation and get new characteristics of the object under study. Modern astronomical observations are performed in a very wide frequency range: from X-ray to radio waves. Depending on the range of the observed frequencies, various "astronomy" is introduced - radio astronomy, infrared, optical, x-ray, and the like.

So what is astronomical observation? At what stage need to resort to mathematical processing of this observation? What tasks sets mathematical processing? For these questions and try to answer.

Suppose that the observer needs to determine the moment of passing the specified star catalog through the meridian. Before proceeding to observations, an astronomer must establish a telescope so that the star at the right moment is in sight. Therefore, with the help of the formula, the observer must first prevail the position of the telescope pipe and the moment of passing the star. This data is prepared in advance. Now this example will follow the evolution of observation techniques. First of all, these observations are produced on a fixed tool (passage tool, wagon, etc.), in the field of view of which, due to daily rotation, the image of the star is moving. To determine the moment of passing through the meridian, an observer about 50 years ago he took a clock-chronometer with him, clearly chopping seconds. A few seconds before the passage of the star through the vertical line in the field of vision of the eyepiece, identified with the position of the meridian, the observer "takes the bill of seconds" and carefully monitors the movement of the star. For example, the star crossed the "meridian" in the interval when the chronometer beat off the 19th and 20 seconds. These shares of the seconds determine without breaking from the eyepiece, estimating the relative distance from the star to the vertical line at the time of 19 s all over the passage of the star in the entire second to the eye. This method known in the ancient astronomy as a Bradley method (Bradley), demanded a huge voltage observer. In this case, observation errors up to 0.1-0.2C were inevitable. This method has long been used in geodesists to determine astronomical coordinates in the field and to determine astronopurns. The invention of "impersonal micrometer" significantly facilitated the objective of observations. Now the observer should only keep a moving star between two close vertical lines - a bisser. And the electrical contacts of the micrometer and the chronometer allowed the whole process of movement of the star to write on paper tape, which can be measured in a relaxed atmosphere, during the day in the laboratory. Replacing the tape recorder Chronograph completely eliminated the need to measure the tape. However, this method requires an art observer. It should be very accurate, evenly move the bisser, and so that the star remains strictly in the middle between the two vertical lines. The invention of various photosensitive electronics made it possible to save an observer and from this operation. Now in the field of view of the pipe was put photocells. The image of the star image from one photocell to another will cause the electric voltage jump, the time of which can be determined using a special standard frequency generator. Only these signals remain in the appropriate blocks connected to the computer, which will calculate with high accuracy and the moment of passing the star through the meridian. The role of the observer in this case is in the correct, neat operation of all equipment, including the astronomical instrument.

It must be said that the evolution of the observation technique did not end. Observations of the moments of the passage of stars through the meridian are carried out, in particular, with an astrometric study of the movement of the planet Earth (geodynamics) - bases for constructing a fundamental coordinate system necessary when studying the universe. Now for this purpose, methods are used significantly different from classic. Even such a purely astrometric instrument as a telescope for some astronomical tasks goes to history. In particular, radio interferometry with a super long base (RSDB), laser location of satellites and a satellite system "global positioning" are used to study the movement of the pole and unevenness of the rotation of the Earth (RSDB). All these methods appeared quite recently when cosmic studies have become one of the most important sciences about the land and the universe.

With astrometric and astrophysical observations, astrophotography is widely used. On photoflaxes with the necessary photosensitive characteristics, photos of sections of the sky, planets and their satellites, spectra of stars and other celestial objects are obtained. Now there is an opportunity (albeit very expensive!) Astronomical cameras - Astrographers - place on spacecraft, where there is no atmosphere that makes the astronomical observation on Earth. Impressive photographs of the surface of Mars, his companions, Saturn rings and even Jupiter, who were previously known before, were obtained from spacecraft. The image of the object under study is now obtained not only on photoflaxes, but also on the screens of personal computers, and even in color (truth, artificial). Photoflastic in modern astronomy replace CCD matrices - a kind of facetful eyes, with which nature has provided insects. It is densely packed on a small platform. Many microfotoelements (pixels), each of which changes the electric charge when changing its illumination. An image of an object on the CCD matrix is \u200b\u200btranslated into the number language and is entered into the computer. The one, in turn, at the request of the operator, highlights the image on the display or entirely or separate parts on different scales. That was thus studied recently (1986), Gallia Comet, which took place close to the sun. In order to look at her, these "electronic" eyes were equipped with spacecraft, closely flying near the comet.

So, what is the purpose of astronomical observation? Not only to get images of the cosmic body, although it is interesting. The main task of astronomical observations is to receive observation data (information) on the object under study: coordinates on the celestial sphere, on a photoplastic, distribution of the density of blackening in the image of the spectrum, etc. All of these data are expressed in numbers, tables, charts. The outcome of the asteroid observations are the two coordinates in the heavenly sphere and the moment of observation. The observations of the star spectra can be recorded in the form of curves obtained after the automatic "reading" of the photographic image density on the photoflastic using a microstensitometer. In any case, the result of observations - data to be mathematical processing in order to determine the necessary parameters The object under study, to interpret the data, build a model of this object.
1.2. Observation errors

The number, the graph that receive in the process of observations is not absolutely accurate. This is due to the fact that the numeric data we get from measurements at the limit of the possibilities of measuring instruments. So in the example of observing the moment of passing the star through the meridian measuring instrument, the telescope itself is, and the observer task is to remove the counts from the time scale that the chronometer gives us. In any physical experiments, it is often necessary to use measuring scales. In the event that the countdown accounts for the scale between the division of the scale, an estimate (interpolating) is made to the eye with an accuracy of the tenth of this division. In astronomy, it has to do, for example, when using intricate tools.

Estimation on the eye cannot be made accurately. The countdown error is inevitable. Replacing the eye to photosensitive elements reduces, but does not completely remove the problem of measurement errors. The star itself due to optics imperfection is not a point image. In addition, the atmospheric density fluctuations cause "flickering" stars. It does not stand still, but has a chaotic movement near his "true" position. All this leads to multiple image, and with it "blurring" countdown.

Instead of the term "error" often apply the term "error", especially in old mathematical work. Now both of these term have the same right to use. Although the mistake is also called the concept that does not have any relation to the mathematical processing of observations. In English Error - Mathematical error, Mistake is a mistake, error. For example, by mistake You can confuse the number of the number, mistakenly take advantage of the wrong formula, etc. This kind of mistakes refer to misses.

Errors share on systematic and random.

Basic property random Errors - its unpredictability. In addition, it is assumed that a random error can both exaggerate the result and to understand it. Mentally imagine the possibility of repetition of observation unlimited number of times, which is often impossible in practice. Observation of a particular star through a meridian can only be one. It can not be repeated, time is gone. Conditions for observation on the next night, strictly speaking, others. This will not be repetition of the first observation. In the case when numerical observation data is obtained in laboratory conditions, for example, measuring the coordinates of the image of the star on the photographic flatness, then the measurement procedure can be repeated as much as the patience is enough. At the same time, you will receive a different result all the time. What of them are correct?

Let the observed parameter have
, and measurements give
. Then the measurement error will be

.

Error
They call random if, in addition to its unpredictability, it has the following properties:

1) equal to zero of its average
,

2) the independence of one dimension from the other. Independence Criterion is equal to zero of the average value of the product of all different errors. Let be
and
- errors, respectively, the i-th and jth observations (
), and j-i \u003d m. Let's make a work
There will be such works n-M,where n -total number of measurements. Obviously, equality zero averages can be written as
.

For independent measurements, this equality must be performed for any offset. m. 0 .

The first of the properties is intuitively easy to understand. Sum
it contains both positive and negative terms, which both increase the amount and reduce it. As a result, the amount with an increase in the number of members is growing slower than itself n. Hence, the ratio of the amount to the number of measurements is striving for zero.

However, this will not be zero, if, for example, the number of positive members is usually more than negative. The average value in this case will not be zero, and the error, strictly speaking, cannot be called random, although it is still unpredictable.

The second property is more complicated, although it is possible to use the same argument to be used again: the amount contains members with different signs that compensate each other. Options

+	+	+
+	–	–
–	+	–
–	–	+

From here, the denominator increases the faster of the numerator, and the limit is again zero.

The concept of measurement independence can be distributed to the measurements of two parameters. Let them be defined x and y, as a result of the measurements, we will simultaneously have a pair and (i \u003d 1.2, .. n). Measurement errors call differences

,

.

Errors will be independent if the average value of the amount of works
Equally zero:

Imagine that the exaggeration of the value of X entails and exaggeration of the value of Y, and vice versa - a decrease in X entails a decrease in y. Then works
There will be a tendency to keep the sign and the equality mentioned above is not performed. In this case, takes place statistical addiction
and
friend from each other. Measurements cannot be considered independent.

So, measurement errors (observation) are called randomIf in addition to unpredictability (chance), satisfy the requirement of equality zero of their average value and the condition of independence. However, the last requirement in some cases may not be performed. These cases we will specifically negotiate.

The main property of systematic errors is the inability to reduce their effect on the result by multiple repetitions. Let's go back to our example with the observation of the passage of the star through the meridian. The tool on which we observe must be installed in the meridian. Suppose he will slightly turn to the east. Then the stars in the upper climax will reach the instrumental "meridian" a little earlier than the true one. Moreover, all the stars that we see! Error everywhere one sign, although it will depend on the height of the star. No multiple measurements to eliminate it. In practice, an amendment is introduced for an azimuth tool, which is determined specifically, by carrying out additional studies.

Systematic errors occur in the case when the theory is not strict enough if it does not take into account any essential factors or works with an inadequate model. For example, when determining the distance to the artificial satellite of the Earth by laser location, you need to know the speed of the propagation of light in the Earth's atmosphere. To do this, it is necessary to accept the atmosphere model for the truth and to obtain the necessary formulas to calculate the amendments. If the model is incorrect, there will be the same errors in all observations.

Such sections of astronomy as astrometry, gravimetry, photometry and others are sections of science, exploring the possibilities of eliminating systematic errors. Therefore, in each particular case, the method of excluding a systematic error is studied in the appropriate section of astronomy and goes beyond our course.

Systematic errors may be unreasonable. An example of this can take the construction of a star catalog. To determine the coordinates of stars, the relative method choose the supporting stars and measure the increment of coordinates on direct climbing and declining,
and
(See Fig.). If the coordinates of the reference star
, knowing
and
, We get the measured coordinates:

These stars whose coordinates are determined relative to the supporting star may be any way. But their coordinates will contain except measurement errors
and
and errors that contain coordinates of support stars. The latter refer to the type of systematic. They are unknown and eliminate them is impossible. In this case, we can say that the coordinates of the stars are defined in system This reference star. Almost take not one, but a lot of support stars belonging to one catalog. Then they say that the coordinates are defined in the system of support stars of this catalog.

1.3. Tasks of mathematical processing of observations

As follows from the foregoing, mathematical processing is not observed, but the results of these observations specified in the form of numbers, tables or graphs. Formulas for which the calculation is made in preparation for observations and after their execution are derived in the theory of the corresponding section of astronomy. Our course covers some common features of the computing process that relate to any astronomical, and physical objectives.

One of the main tasks is to compile calculation algorithms, schemes, computing forms, etc., which, from a computational point of view, competently organize the calculation process. First of all, it is necessary to use the technique of approximate computing.

We give a simple example. Suppose you need to calculate the difference
Without a computer, and the rules for extracting a square root you forgot! Very quickly to the result will result in the following "little trick":

The calculator would have to use multigid numbers:

The second example. Need to calculate the difference on the calculator
for
. If you use this formula "in the forehead", we get
. If this formula is converting:, we get the result much more accurately.

Third example. The number 2.378 is given .... the remaining numbers after the comma are unknown to you. Suppose you need to divide this number to 17. We take a calculator and calculate:

2,378:17=0.13988235

First, we repel all the numbers that are displayed on the calculator scoreboard. But, as I said, the numbers after ... 8 are unknown to us. Or maybe there should be 2.3789?! In this case, the private from division at 17 will be 0.139 93529 . It can be seen, depending on which digit follows ... 8, the 5 last digits of the result will change. Therefore, they should be considered unknown, although they are displayed on the scoreboard. Use the resulting result in further calculations is a mediocre overload of both machines and your own time. This kind of examples can be given a lot.

So, the first task Mathematical processing is organization of calculations.

As we have already spoken, the initial data contain errors. The question arises immediately - how are they? To say that the error is equal to a certain number, it is impossible, we do not know it. However, we need to know with what accuracy this data is obtained. For example, we can measure the visible diameter of the moon with an accuracy of 1 angular minute, 1 angular second or, maybe with an accuracy of a second. Repeating measurements repeatedly, we can make yourself an idea of \u200b\u200baccuracy. The full response to this question is the characteristics of the error, the definition of which enters the sphere of interests of our subject.

Hence, second task mathematical processing of astronomical observations will definition Characteristics of accuracy of observation, measurements or, as they say more often, estimation of observation accuracy.

In astronomical studies, it is often necessary to resort to the construction of empirical formulas. Let any parameter depending on time be Y, then as a result of repeating observations in moments we will have different meanings . You can construct a graph of Y depending on T, but observed points (
) Due to observation errors, "in the chain" are not built. Through them, it is impossible to conduct a smooth curve. Then come as follows. A smooth curve is carried out without fubs so that the observed points lay on both sides of the curve, despite how much the curve is so much lower. As a rule, intuition tells us how to spend this curve, and it will be empirical curve. However, it cannot be used for further mathematical calculations. Need empirical formula. This is usually the sum of the sinusoid with different amplitudes, periods and phases. It can be exponential or logarithmic curves. Often use power polynomials. It is only necessary to determine the parameters of this function so that it is best approximated, i.e. Pictured a change in the observed parameter from time.

The above can be translated into the language of the formula. Let the approximating observation function contains M unknown parameters, and we chose the analytical view of the function itself in advance. Denote by the desired parameters through
, and the function through
,will have

where - "Sleep" (residual differences, residuals).

Sleeps show how observed values \u200b\u200b(o) differ from the calculated (C). In other words, our "residuals" is nothing more than O-C - so traditionally designate these differences in astronomy (Observatio-Calculatio).

The reduced formula can be considered a system n. Equations S. m. unknown. For
The system is overridden (the number of equations is greater than the number of unknown). You can, of course, to take away from observations exactly as much as you need, and the rest to discard. Then we get one solution. If you select other observations, we get another solution. So you can come repeatedly (more precisely, n-M. times), getting all new and new solutions. What parameters should be considered the best? The answer to this question gives mathematical processing of observations.

So, third task of our subject is the definition of point estimates of parameters - This is the name of this procedure. The point estimates are called specific approximate parameter values, the totality of which gives the point in the M-dimensional space.

Sleeps may be negligible or, on the contrary, very large. It is clear that the degree of confidence in determining the parameters will be different. Therefore, an important characteristic of the parameter assessment is its reliability - quite mathematical characteristic of the estimation. Strictly speaking, we can only specify the range of parameter values. The more this interval, the higher the reliability of the assertion that the desired value of the parameter (or parameters) lies within this interval; The less the interval, the smaller and reliability. The task of determining the interval with a given reliability is called interval estimate of the parameterswe will take fourth task Mathematical processing of observations.

Our course should be called introduction to mathematical processing. A deeper study of the subject relies on the relevant sections of mathematics, in particular, numerical methods, theory of probabilities and mathematical statistics. All these items you will study at different courses of the university. However, improving the theory and practice of this subject will have all life together with the development of computational means and practical monitoring algorithms. In the meantime, you can recommend the following literature:

1) Demidovich B.P., Maron I.A. "Basics of computing mathematics", 1970s.

2) Taylor J. "Introduction to the theory of errors", 1985

3) Schigolev B.M. "Mathematical processing of observations", 1969

part 1.

1. What is studying astronomy. Astronomy connection with other sciences, its meaning

Astronomy * - Science, learning movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems.The knowledge gained is applied to the practical needs of humanity.

* (This word comes from two Greek words: Astronon - Luminous, Star Inomos - Law.)

Astronomy is one of the most ancient sciences, it originated on the basis of human practical needs and developed with them. Elementary astronomical information has already been known for thousands of years ago in Babylon, Egypt, China and were used by the peoples of these countries to measure time and orientation on the sides of the horizon.

And in our time, astronomy is used to determine the exact time and geographic coordinates (in navigation, aviation, cosmonautics, geodesy, cartography). Astronomy helps the study and development of outer space, the development of cosmonautics and the study of our planet from space. But this is far from being exhausted by the task.

Our land is part of the Universe. The moon and the sun cause tides and flow. Solar radiation and changes affect the processes in the earth's atmosphere and the vital activity of organisms. Mechanisms of influence of various cosmic bodies on Earth also studies astronomy.

The Astronomy Course completes the physico-mathematical and natural science education received by you at school.

Modern astronomy is closely related to mathematics and physics, with biology and chemistry, with geography, geology and cosmonautics. Using the achievements of other sciences, it in turn enriches them, stimulates their development, putting out all new tasks before them.

Studying astronomy, it is necessary to pay attention to what information are reliable facts, and which are scientific assumptions that can change over time.

Astronomy studies in space a substance in such states and scales, which are not feasible in laboratories, and this expands the physical picture of the world, our ideas about matter. All this is important for the development of a dialectical and materialistic idea of \u200b\u200bnature.

Predicallying the offensive of the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon, the appearance of comet, showing the possibility of a natural science explanation of the origin and evolution of the Earth and other celestial bodies, astronomy confirms that there is no limit to human knowledge.

In the last century, one of the idealist philosophers, proving the limitations of human knowledge, argued that, although people were able to measure the distances to some of the shining, they would never be able to determine the chemical composition of stars. However, spectral analysis was opened soon, and astronomers not only established the chemical composition of the atmosphere of stars, but also determined their temperature. Many other attempts to indicate the boundaries of human knowledge were insolvent. Thus, scientists first theoretically estimated the temperature of the lunar surface, then measured it from the ground using thermoelement and radiometers, then these data were confirmed by the instruments of automatic stations created and sent by people to the moon.

2. Science of the Universe

You already know that the natural satellite of the Earth - the moon is the nearest to us with the heavenly body, that our planet, along with other large and small planets, is part of the solar system that all planets are treated around the sun. In turn, the sun, like all the stars visible in the sky, part of our star system - galaxies. The size of the galaxy is so great that even the light spreading at a rate of 300,000 km / s is the distance from one edge to another for another one hundred thousand years. There are many such galaxies in the Universe, but they are very far away, and we can only see one of them with the naked eye - Andromeda Nebula.

Distances between individual galaxies are usually ten times higher than their dimensions. To more clearly imagine the scale of the universe, carefully examine Figure 1.

Stars are the most common type of celestial bodies in the universe, and the galaxies and their clusters - its main structural units. The space between the stars in galaxies and between the galaxies is filled with very sparse matter in the form of gas, dust, elementary particles, electromagnetic radiation, gravitational and magnetic fields.

Studying the laws of movement, the structure, the origin and development of the celestial bodies and their systems, astronomy gives us an idea of \u200b\u200bthe structure and development of the Universe as a whole.

Peel into the depths of the universe, to study the physical nature of celestial bodies with the help of telescopes and other devices, which have modern astronomy due to the successes achieved in various fields of science and technology.

Heavenly arch burning glory,
Mysteriously looks from the depth
And we float, burning abyss
Surrounded on all sides.
F. Tyutchev

Lesson1 / 1.

Subject: The subject of astronomy.

purpose: Give an idea of \u200b\u200bastronomy - like science, links with other sciences; will get acquainted with the history, the development of astronomy; Instruments for observations, features of observation. Give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe structure and scale of the universe. Consider solving problems on finding permissive ability, increasing and lighting a telescope. The profession of astronomer, value for the national economy. Observatory. Tasks :
1. Teaching: introduce the concepts of astronomy, as the science and main sections of astronomy, objects of knowledge of astronomy: space objects, processes and phenomena; methods of astronomical studies and their features; Observatory, telescope and its various species. The history of astronomy and connections with other sciences. Roles and features of observations. The practical application of astronomical knowledge and means of cosmonautics.
2. Ripping: the historical role of astronomy in the formation of a person's understanding of the world and the development of other sciences, the formation of scientific worldview of students during the acquaintance with some philosophical and general scientific ideas and concepts (materiality, unity and the knowledge of the world, the spatial-temporal scale and the properties of the universe, the universality of physical action laws in the universe). Patriotic education when familiarizing with the role of Russian science and technology in the development of astronomy and astronautics. Polytechnic education and labor education in the presentation of information on the practical use of astronomy and astronautics.
3. Developing: Development of cognitive interests for the subject. Show that the thought of human always seeks to know the unknown. The formation of skills to analyze information, draw up classification schemes. Know: 1st level (standard) - the concept of astronomy, the main sections and stages of development, the place of astronomy among other sciences and the practical application of astronomical knowledge; have an initial concept of methods and tools of astronomical research; The scale of the universe, space objects, phenomena and processes, the properties of the telescope and its types, the value of astronomy for the national economy and the practical needs of humanity. 2nd level - The concept of astronomy, system, the role and features of observations, the properties of the telescope and its types, connection with other objects, the advantages of photographic observations, the value of astronomy for the national economy and the practical needs of humanity. Be able to: 1st level (standard) - use the textbook and reference material, to build the schemes of the simplest telescopes of different types, bring a telescope to a specified object, search for information on the selected astronomical topic. 2nd level - Use the textbook and reference material, to build the schemes of the simplest telescopes of different types, calculate the resolution, lighting and increasing telescopes, conduct observations using a given object's telescope, search for information on the selected astronomical theme.

Equipment: F. Yu. Ziegel "Astronomy in its development", theodolite, telescope, telescopes posters, "radio astronomy", d / f. "What is studying astronomy", "The largest astronomical observatory", k / f "Astronomy and the worldview", "astrophysical methods of observation". Earth Globe, Diaposition: Sun photos, Moon and Planets, Galaxies. CD- "Red SHIFT 5.1" or photos and illustrations of astronomical objects from multimedia disk "Multimedia Library for Astronomy". Show the calendar of the observer for September (take from the site Astronet), an example of an astronomical magazine (electronic, such as the sky). You can show an excerpt from the film Astronomy (Part 1, Fr. 2 The most ancient science).

Intergovernmental communications: Rectilinear distribution, reflection, refraction of light. Construction of images given by a thin lens. Camera (physics, VII CL). Electromagnetic waves and speed of their distribution. Radio waves. Chemical action of light (physics, X CL).

During the classes:

Introductory conversation (2 min)

1. E.P. Levitan textbook; Total notebook - 48 sheets; Exams at will.
2. Astronomy is a new discipline in school, although in short with some questions you are familiar.
3. How to work with a textbook.

• work (and not read) paragraph
• in essence, deal with each phenomena and processes
• work out all questions and tasks after paragraph, briefly in notebooks
• control your knowledge of the list of questions at the end of the topic
• advanced Material View on the Internet

Lecture (new material) (30 min) The beginning is a video clip with CD (or my presentation).

Astronomy [Greek. Astron (Astron) - Star, Nomos (Nomos) -Zacon] - Science of the Universe, completing the natural-mathematical cycle of school disciplines. Astronomy studies the movement of celestial bodies (section "Heavenly Mechanics"), their nature (section "Astrophysics"), origin and development (section "Cosmogony") [ Astronomy - Science on the structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems \u003d, that is, the science of nature]. Astronomy is the only science that has received her patroness Muse - Urania.
Systems (space): - All bodies in the universe form systems of varying complexity.

- Sun and moving around (planets, comets, satellites planets, asteroids), the sun is a self-lining body, the rest of the bodies, like the earth shine reflected light. CC ~ 5 billion years. / Such stellar systems with planets and other bodies in the universe a huge amount / Visible stars in the sky Including the Milky Way is an insignificant share of stars that are part of the galaxy (or call our Milky Way galaxy) - stars, their clusters and interstellar media. / Such galaxies are many, the light from the nearest goes to us millions of years. Age Galaktik 10-15 billion years / Galaxies combine in a kind of cluster (system) All bodies are in continuous motion, change, development. Planets, stars, galaxies have their own history, often calculated billion years. The scheme reflects the systemality and distances: 1 Astronomical unit \u003d 149, 6 million km(average distance from Earth to Sun). 1PK (parsek) \u003d 206265 A.E. \u003d 3, 26 st. years 1 Light year(St. Year) is the distance that the beam of light at a speed of almost 300,000 km / s flies for 1 year. 1 Light year is 9.46 million million kilometers!

History of astronomy (You can fragment of the film Astronomy (Part 1, Fr. 2 The most ancient science))
Astronomy is one of the most fascinating and the most ancient sciences about nature - not only the real, but also the distant past of the macromir around us, as well as to share the scientific picture of the future universe.
The need for astronomical knowledge dictated to a vital necessity:

Stages of development of astronomy
I-J. Antique world(BC). Philosophy → Astronomy → Mathematics elements (geometry).
Ancient Egypt, ancient Assyria, ancient Maya, ancient China, Sumerians, Babylonia, ancient Greece. Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy: Falez Miletsky (625-547, etc.), Evdox Knadsky (408- 355, Dr. Greece), ARISTOTLE (384-322, Macedonia, Dr. Greece), Aristarh Samossky (310-230, Alexandria, Egypt), Eratosthen. (276-194, Egypt), Hipparch Rhodes(190-125g, other genre).
II Dotelescopic period. (Our era until 1610g). Decline of science and astronomy. The collapse of the Roman Empire, raids of the barbarians, the origin of Christianity. Stormy development of Arab science. Revival of science in Europe. Modern heliocentric system structure of the world. Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy in this period: Claudius Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolomeus) (87-165, etc. Rome), Biruni, Abu Reichan Mohammed Ibn Ahmed Al - Biruni (973-1048, Sovr. Uzbekistan), Mirza Mohammed Ibn Shahrukh ibn Timur (Taragai.) Ulugbeck(1394 -1449, Sovr. Uzbekistan), Nikolai Copernicus (1473-1543, Poland), Quiet (Tig) Braga (1546-601, Denmark).
III-IY Telescopic Before the appearance of spectroscopy (1610-1814gg). The invention of the telescope and observation with its help. The laws of motion of the planets. Opening of the planet Uranus. The first theories of the formation of the solar system. Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy in this period: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642, Italy), Johann Kepleler. (1571-1630, Germany), Jan Haveli. (Gavelius) (1611-1687, Poland), Hans Christian Guigens (1629-1695, Netherlands), Giovanni Dominico (Jean Domenic) Cassini\u003e (1625-1712, Italy-France), Isaac Newton (1643-1727, England), Edmund Gales ( Halli., 1656-1742, England), William (William) Wilhelm Friedrich Herschel (1738-1822, England), Pierre Simon Laplas (1749-1827, France).
IV Spectroscopy. Before the photo. (1814-1900gg). Spectroscopic observations. The first definitions of the distance to the stars. Opening of the planet Neptune. Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy in this period: Josef von Fraungofer (1787-1826, Germany), Vasily Yakovlevich (Friedrich Wilhelm Georg) Struve (1793-1864, Germany-Russia), George Biddell Erie (Eyri, 1801-1892, England), Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel(1784-1846, Germany), Johann Gottfried Galle (1812-1910, Germany), William Hegins. (Haggins., 1824-1910, England), Angelo Skik (1818-1878, Italy), Fedor Alexandrovich Bredikhin (1831-1904, Russia), Eduard Charles Picering (1846-1919, USA).
V-b Modern Period (1900-presents). Development of photography and spectroscopic observations in astronomy. Solving the issue of the source of the energy of stars. Opening galaxies. The emergence and development of radio astronomy. Space studies. See more details.

Communication with other objects.
PSS T 20 F. Engels - "First of Astronomy, which already because of the seasons is absolutely necessary for shepheten and agricultural work. Astronomy can develop only with mathematics. Therefore, it was necessary to engage in mathematics. Further, at the well-known level of development of agriculture in well-known countries (raising water for irrigation in Egypt), and especially with the emergence of cities, large buildings and the development of the craft developed mechanics. Soon it becomes necessary for shipping and military. It is also transferred to the help of mathematics and thus contributes to its development. "
Astronomy played such a leading role in the history of science, that many scientists consider - "Astronomy the most significant factor in development from its occurrence - up to Laplace, Lagrange and Gaussa" - they drew the tasks from it and created methods for solving these tasks. Astronomy, mathematics and physics never lost the relationship that was reflected in the activities of many scientists.

		The interaction of astronomy and physics continues to influence the development of other sciences, technology, energy and various sectors of the national economy. An example is the creation and development of cosmonautics. Plasma retention methods in limited volume, the concept of "invaluing" plasma, MHD generators, quantum radiation amplifiers (maseres), etc.
	1 - Helobiology 2 - xenobiology 3 - Space Biology and Medicine 4 - Mathematical Geography 5 - Cosmochemistry A - spherical astronomy B - Astrometry B - Heavenly Mechanics G - Astrophysics D - cosmology E - Cosmogony Well - Cosmophysics	Astronomy and chemistry Treat issues of research on the origin and prevalence of chemical elements and their isotopes in space, the chemical evolution of the Universe. The science of astronomy, physics and chemistry, the science of astronomy, physics and chemistry, is closely related to astrophysics, cosmogonia and cosmology, studies the chemical composition and the differentiated inner structure of cosmic bodies, the effect of cosmic phenomena and processes on the flow of chemical reactions, the laws of prevalence and distribution of chemical elements in the universe, combination and Migration of atoms in the formation of a substance in space, the evolution of the isotopic composition of the elements. The study of chemical processes, which, due to their scale or complexity, are difficult or completely non-refined in earthly laboratories (substance in the depths of planets, synthesis of complex chemical compounds in dark nebulaes, etc.). Astronomy, geography and geophysics Binds the study of the Earth as one of the planets of the solar system, its basic physical characteristics (figures, rotation, sizes, mass, etc.) and the influence of space factors on the geography of the Earth: the structure and composition of the earth's subsoil and surface, relief and climate, periodic, Seasonal and long-term, local and global changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and Litospheres of the Earth - magnetic storms, tides, change of time of the year, drift of magnetic fields, warming and glacial periods, etc. resulting from exposure to space phenomena and processes (solar activity , rotation of the moon around the earth, the rotation of the earth around the Sun, etc.); As well as the astronomical methods of orientation in the space and determination of the locality coordinates. One of the new sciences was cosmic landland - a set of instrumental research of the Earth from space in order to scientific and practical activities. Communication astronomy and biology Determined by their evolutionary character. Astronomy studies the evolution of space objects and their systems at all levels of the organization of inanimate matter is similar to how Biology studies the evolution of living matter. Astronomy and biology associate the problems of the emergence and existence of life and mind on Earth and in the universe, the problems of earthly and cosmic ecology and the impact of cosmic processes and phenomena at the Earth's biosphere. Communication astronomy from history and social studiesstudying the development of the material world at a qualitatively higher level of the organization of matter, due to the influence of astronomical knowledge on the worldview of people and the development of science, technology, agriculture, economics and culture; The question of the effect of cosmic processes on the social development of mankind remains open. The beauty of the starry sky wake thoughts about the greatness of the universe and inspired writers and poets. Astronomical observations carry a powerful emotional charge in themselves, demonstrate the power of the human mind and his ability to know the world, bring up a sense of excellent, contribute to the development of scientific thinking. Communication of astronomy with science science - philosophy - It is determined by the fact that astronomy as science has not only a special, but also universal, humanitarian aspect, contributes the greatest contribution to the clarification of the place of man and humanity in the universe, in the study of the relationship "Man - Universe". In each cosmic phenomenon and the process, the manifestations of the main, fundamental laws of nature are visible. Based on astronomical studies, the principles of knowledge of matter and the universe are formed, the most important philosophical generalizations. Astronomy had an impact on the development of all philosophical exercises. It is impossible to form a physical picture of the world bypassing modern ideas about the Universe - it will inevitably lose its ideological importance.

Modern astronomy is a fundamental physico-mathematical science whose development is directly related to NTP. For research and explanation of the processes, the entire modern arsenal of various, newly emerged sections of mathematics and physics are used. There is also.

The main sections of astronomy:

Classic astronomy	combines a number of sections of astronomy, the foundations of which were developed before the beginning of the twentieth century:
	Astrometry:	Spherical astronomy	it examines the position, visible and its own movement of space bodies and solves the tasks associated with the definition of the provisions of the shone on the heavenly sphere, the preparation of stellar catalogs and maps, theoretical basics of the time account.
		Fundamental astrometry	works on the definition of fundamental astronomical permanent and theoretical substantiation of the compilation of fundamental astronomical directories.
		Practical astronomy	deals with the definition of time and geographical coordinates, provides the service service, calculation and compilation of calendars, geographical and topographic maps; Astronomical orientation methods are widely used in seaflines, aviation and cosmonautics.
	Heavenly Mechanics	explores the movement of cosmic bodies under the action of the forces of gravity (in space and time). Relying on the data of astrometry, the laws of classical mechanics and mathematical methods of research, the celestial mechanics determines the trajectories and characteristics of the movement of cosmic bodies and their systems, serves as theoretical basis of cosmonautics.
Modern astronomy	Astrophysics	he studies the basic physical characteristics and properties of space objects (movement, structure, composition, etc.), cosmic processes and space phenomena, divided into numerous sections: Theoretical Astrophysics; practical astrophysics; Physics Planets and their satellites (planetology and plantography); Sun physics; stars physics; extragalactic astrophysics, etc.
	Cosmogony	learn the origin and development of space objects and their systems (in particular the solar system).
	Cosmology	explore the origin, the main physical characteristics, properties and evolution of the universe. The theoretical basis of it is modern physical theories and data of astrophysics and extragalactic astronomy.

Observations in astronomy.
Observations - the main source of information About the heavenly bodies, processes, phenomena taking place in the Universe, as they are impossible to touch and conduct experiments with celestial bodies (the possibility of conducting experiments outside the Earth has arisen only due to astronautics). They also have the features in the fact that to study any phenomenon are necessary:

• long intervals and simultaneous observation of related objects (example-evolution of stars)
• the need to indicate the position of the celestial bodies in space (coordinates), since all the luminaries seem far from us (in antiquity the concept of heavenly sphere, which, as a whole, revolves around the Earth)

Example: Ancient Egypt, watching the Sotis star (Sirius) determined the beginning of the spill of the Nile, set the duration of the year in 4240 BC. in 365 days. For accuracy of observations, they were needed instruments.
one). It is known that Fales Miretsky (624-547, Dr. Greece) in 595 BC For the first time, the gnomon was used (the vertical rod is attributed, he created his student Anaximander) - allowed not only to be sunny clock, but also to determine the moments of the equinox, the solstice, the duration of the year, the breadth of observation, etc.
2). Already, Hipparch (180-125, Dr. Greece) used astrolabia, which allowed him to measure the pararallax of the Moon, in 129th BC, set the duration of the year in 365.25, to determine the procession and draw up 130 to AD. Star catalog for 1008 stars, etc.
There were astronomical staff, Astolabon (the first type of theodolite), quadrant, etc. Observations are conducted in specialized agencies - , Arriving at the first stage of development of astronomy to NE. But the real astronomical study began with the invention telescopein 1609

Telescope - Increases the angle of view, under which heavenly bodies are visible ( resolution ), and collects many times more light than the eye of the observer ( penetrating power ). Therefore, in the telescope, you can consider the surfaces of the celestial bodies that are invisible to the ground and see many weak stars. It all depends on the diameter of its lens.Types of telescopes: and radio(Telescope show, Telescop Posters, Schemes). Telescopes: From History
\u003d optical

1. Optical telescopes ()

	Refractor (Refracto-refractive) - the refraction of light in the lens (refractive) is used. "The auditorium" is made in Holland [H. Lipperse]. By the approximate description, it was manufactured in 1609 Galileo Galileo and first sent 1609 in November 1609 on the sky, and in January 1610 he opened 4 satellites of Jupiter. The world's largest refractor is made by Alvan Clark (Optico from the USA) 102cm (40 inches) and installed in 1897 in the Yero Observatory (Chicago blisters). It was also made 30 inch and installed in 1885 in the Pulkovo observatory (destroyed during the Great Patriotic War).
	Reflector (Reflecto-reflect) - a concave mirror is used, focusing rays. In 1667, the first mirror telescope was invented by I. Newton (1643-1727, England) the diameter of the mirror 2,5 cm at 41 H. magnification. In those days, the mirrors were made from metal alloys, quickly tucks. The world's largest telescope. W. Keka was established in 1996 the diameter of the mirror 10m (the first of two, but the mirror is not monolithic, but consists of 36 hexagonal molds) in the Moun-Kea Observatory (California, USA). In 1995, the first of four telescopes was introduced (the diameter of the mirror 8m) (ESO Observatory, Chile). Prior to that, the largest was the largest in the USSR, the diameter of the mirror is 6m, installed in the Stavropol Territory (Mountain Pastukhov, H \u003d 2070m) in the Special Astrophysical Observatory of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Monolithic Mirror 42T, 600T Telescope, you can see stars 24 m).
	Mirror - lenza. B.V. Schmidt. (1879-1935, Estonia) built in 1930 (Schmidt chamber) with a lens diameter of 44 cm. Large lights free from coma and a large field of view, putting a corrective glass plate in front of a spherical mirror. In 1941. DD Maksutov (USSR) made a meniscus, beneficial a short pipe. Applied by amateurs - astronomers. In 1995, the first telescope with a 8m mirror (out of 4-s) with a 100m base is put into operation for an optical interferometer (from the Atakama, Chile desert; ESO). In 1996, the first telescope with a diameter of 10m (of two with a base 85m) them. W. Keka introduced in the Maun Observatory - Kea (California, Hawaiian Islands, USA) amateurtelescopes

• direct observations
• photograph (astrograph)
• photoelectric - sensor, energy oscillation, radiation
• spectral - give information about the temperature, chemical composition, magnetic fields, movements of celestial bodies.

Photographic observations (before visual) has advantages:

1. Documentality is the ability to record what is happening and processes and for a long time to maintain the information received.
2. Evenability - the ability to register short-term events.
3. Panoramic - the ability to capture several objects at the same time.
4. Integrality - the ability to accumulate light from weak sources.
5. Detail - the ability to consider the details of the object in the image.

In astronomy, the distance between the celestial bodies is measured by an angle → Angular distance: degrees - 5 o, 2 minutes - 13 ", 4, seconds - 21", 2 ordinary eye we see near 2 stars ( resolution) if the angular distance is 1-2 ". The angle under which we see the diameter of the Sun and the moon ~ 0.5 o \u003d 30".

• In the telescope we extremely see: ( resolution) α \u003d 14 "/ D or α \u003d 206265 · λ / d [Where λ - Light wavelength, and D. - Telescope lens diameter].
• The number of light collected by the lens is called lIGHT. Lights E.\u003d ~ S (or d 2) lens. E \u003d (D / D xp ) 2 where d. XP - human pupil diameter under normal 5mm (maximum in the dark 8mm).
• Increase Telescope \u003d focal length of lens / focal length of the eyepiece. W \u003d f / f \u003d β / α.

With a strong increase\u003e 500 x visible air fluctuations, so the telescope must be positioned as high in the mountains and where the sky is often cloudless, and even better outside the atmosphere (in space).
Objective (independently 3 min): For a 6m telescope in a special astrophysical observatory (in the North Caucasus), determine the resolution, lighting and increasing, if the eyepiece is used with a focal length 5cm (F \u003d 24m). [ Speed \u200b\u200brating and correctness] Decision: α \u003d 14 "/ 600 ≈ 0.023" [When α \u003d 1, a match box is visible at a distance of 10km]. E \u003d (d / d xr) 2 \u003d (6000/5) 2 \u003d 120 2 \u003d 14400 [In so many times it collects more light than the eye of the observer] W \u003d f / f \u003d 2400/5 \u003d 480 2. RadiTellies - advantages: In any weather and time of day, you can monitor objects inaccessible to optical. They are a bowl (like a locator. "Radio telescopes" poster). Radio astronomy has developed after the war. The largest radiosecellies now are fixed Ratan - 600, Russia (entered into service in 1967 40 km from the optical telescope, consists of 895 separate mirrors with a size of 2.1x7,4m and has a closed ring with a diameter of 588m), Arecibo (Puerto -Reko, 305m- The concreted bowl of extinct volcano, introduced in 1963). Movable has two radio telescope 100m bowl.

Heavenly bodies give radiation: light, infrared, ultraviolet, radio wave, x-ray, gamma - radiation. Since the atmosphere interferes with penetration of rays to Earth C λ< λ света (ультрафиолетовые, рентгеновские, γ - излучения), то последнее время на орбиту Земли выводятся телескопы и целые орбитальные обсерватории : (т.е развиваются внеатмосферные наблюдения).

l. Fastening material .
Questions:

1. What information astronomical you studied in the courses of other items? (Environmental education, physics, history, etc.)
2. What is the specificity of astronomy compared to other sciences about nature?
3. What types of celestial bodies are you known?
4. Planets. How many, as they are called, the order of location, the largest, etc.
5. What is the significance of astronomy today in the national economy?

nature in the national economy:
- Orientation on the stars to determine the side of the horizon
- navigation (navigation, aviation, cosmonautics) - the art of laying the way on the stars
- Study of the Universe in order to understand the past and predict the future
- Cosmonautics:
- Study of the Earth in order to preserve its unique nature
- obtaining materials that are impossible on earthly conditions
- Weather forecast and natural disaster prediction
- Salvation of trials of courts
- Studies of other planets to predict the development of the Earth
Outcome:

1. What new learned. What is astronomy, the appointment of a telescope and its views. Features of astronomy, etc.
2. It is necessary to show the use of CD- "Red SHIFT 5.1", an observer calendar, an example of an astronomical log (electronic, such as the sky). On the Internet show, Astrotop, portal: Astronomy in Wikipedia- Using which you can get information on the question of interest or find it.
3. Estimates.

Homework: Introduction, §1; Questions and tasks for self-control (p11), №6 and 7 make up schemes, it would be desirable in the lesson; Strop9-30 (p.1-6) - the main thoughts.
With a detailed study of material about astronomical instruments, it is possible to offer students questions and objectives:
1. Determine the main characteristics of the Galilean telescope.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the optical system of the Galilean refractor compared to the optical scheme of the Kepler refractor?
3. Determine the main characteristics of BTA. How many times the BT is more powerful MShR?
4. What are the advantages of telescopes installed on board of spacecraft?
5. What conditions should the place for the construction of an astronomical observatory?

The lesson issued the members of the Mug "Internet Technology" 2002: Jump Denis (10kl)and Disney Anna (9kl). Changed on 01.09.2007

"Planetarium" 410.05 MB		The resource allows you to install a teacher or student version of the Innovative Educational and Methodological Complex "Planetarium" to the teacher's computer. "Planetarium" - a selection of thematic articles - are intended for use by teachers and students in the lessons of physics, astronomy or natural science in 10-11 classes. When installing the complex, it is recommended to use English letters in the folder names.
Demonstration materials 13.08 MB		The resource is the demonstration materials of the innovative educational and methodological complex "Planetarium".
Planetarium 2.67 MB		This resource is an interactive model "Planetarium", which allows you to study the starry sky through working with this model. For full use of the resource you need to install Java Plug-in
Lesson	Theme lesson	Development of lessons in the Tsor Collection	Statistical graphics from the COR
Lesson 1	The subject of astronomy	Topic 1. The subject of astronomy. Constellations. Orientation for Star Sky 784,5 KB 127,8 KB 450,7 KB Scale of electromagnetic waves with radiation receivers 149.2 kb

1. The need for time account (calendar). (Ancient Egypt - the relationship with astronomical phenomena is seen)
2. Finding the road on the stars, especially for navigators (the first sailing ships appeared for 3 thousand years before N. e)
3. Curiousness - to understand what is happening and put them on your service.
4. Caring for your destiny that norful astrology.