Mysteries of the Etruscans that haunt scientists: What were the fashion, life and entertainment of the predecessors of Ancient Rome. What did the Romans borrow from the Etruscans? Lucien Bonaparte's windfall
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Argumentation of the migration version
The second theory is supported by the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC. e. As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were natives of Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to catastrophic crop failure and famine. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians, who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the Hittite Empire fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenians should be dated to the 13th century BC. e. or a little later. Perhaps connected with this legend is the myth about the flight to the west of the Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance for the Etruscans. Herodotus's hypothesis is supported by genetic analysis data, which confirm the kinship of the Etruscans with the inhabitants of the lands currently belonging to Turkey.
Until the middle of the 20th century. The “Lydian version” was subject to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, there is also a version that the Etruscans should not be identified with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians”. A. Erman identified the legendary Tursha tribe, which lived in the eastern Mediterranean and carried out predatory raids on Egypt (XIII-VII centuries BC), with the Etruscans of this early period.
Argumentation of the complex version
Based on the material of ancient sources and archaeological data, we can conclude that the most ancient elements of prehistoric Mediterranean unity took part in the ethnogenesis of the Etruscans during the period of the beginning of the movement from East to West in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e.; also a wave of settlers from the area of the Black and Caspian Seas in the 2nd millennium BC. e. In the process of forming the Etruscan community, traces of Aegean and Aegean-Anatolian emigrants were found. This is confirmed by the results of excavations on the island. Lemnos (Aegean Sea), where inscriptions similar to the grammatical structure of the Etruscan language were found.
Geographical position
It is not yet possible to determine the exact limits of Etruria. The history and culture of the Etruscans began in the Tyrrhenian Sea region and is limited to the basin of the Tiber and Arno rivers. The country's river network also included the rivers Aventia, Vesidia, Tsetsina, Alusa, Umbro, Oza, Albinia, Armenta, Marta, Minio, and Aro. A wide river network created conditions for developed agriculture, in some places complicated by wetlands. Southern Etruria, whose soils were often of volcanic origin, had extensive lakes: Tsiminskoe, Alsietiskoe, Statonenskoe, Volsinskoe, Sabatinskoe, Trasimenskoe. More than half of the country's territory was occupied by mountains and hills. From the paintings and reliefs one can judge the diversity of flora and fauna of the region. The Etruscans cultivated cypress, myrtle, and pomegranate trees, brought to Italy from Carthage (an image of a pomegranate is found on Etruscan objects in the 6th century BC).
Cities and necropolises
Each of the Etruscan cities controlled a certain territory. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown; according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri in its heyday was 25 thousand people.
Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria; it controlled deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the well-being of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. The necropolis was traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. The personal belongings of the deceased were placed with them.
From the name of this city (etr. - Caere) the Roman word “ceremony” was subsequently derived - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.
The neighboring city of Veii had excellent defenses. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by ditches, making Veii almost impregnable. An altar, a temple foundation and water tanks were discovered here. Vulka is the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know was a native of Wei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock, which served to drain water.
The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tyrrhenus Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia were concentrated near the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs, carved into the rock, were protected by mounds, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were discovered, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.
When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to the Roman ones. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which the sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, using a plow drawn by a cow and an ox, drew a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Where possible, the Etruscans used a lattice street layout, oriented to the cardinal points.
Story
The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the backdrop of three periods of Ancient Greece - Orientalizing or Geometric, Classical (Hellenistic), and the rise of Rome. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonic theory of the origin of the Etruscans.
Proto-Villanovian period
The most important of the historical sources that marked the beginning of the Etruscan civilization is the Etruscan chronology of saecula (centuries). According to him, the first century of the ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time belongs to the so-called Proto-Villanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on the Proto-Villanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning of a new civilization is a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burying the ashes in urns.
Villanova I and Villanova II periods
After the loss of independence, Etruria retained its cultural identity for some time. In the II-I centuries BC. e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called Etruscan-Roman. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. the inhabitants of Etruria received Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of Romanization of Etruscan cities was almost completed, along with Etruscan history itself.
Arts and culture
The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The development cycle of Etruscan civilization ends in the 2nd century. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.
The Etruscans long preserved the archaic cults of the first Italian settlers and showed a special interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, based on the concept that the objects in them should maintain a connection with real life. The most notable surviving monuments are sculpture and sarcophagi.
Etruscan language and literature
A special category were women's toiletries. One of the most famous products of Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers and decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the reverse was decorated with engraving or high relief. Strigils were made from bronze - spatulas for removing oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, and caskets.
The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the haruspex priests [ ] . The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop [ ] . In an earlier period, the Etruscans cut their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean [ ] . Women let their hair down over their shoulders or braided it and covered their head with a cap.
Leisure
The Etruscans loved to participate in fighting competitions and, perhaps, to help other people with housework [ ] . Also, the Etruscans had a theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the manuscripts of plays found are not enough for a final analysis.
Economy
Crafts and agriculture
The basis of Etruria's prosperity was agriculture, which made it possible to keep livestock and export surplus wheat to the largest cities in Italy. Spelled, oat and barley grains were found in the archaeological material. The high level of Etruscan agriculture made it possible to engage in selection - an Etruscan spelled variety was obtained, and for the first time they began to cultivate cultivated oats. Flax was used to sew tunics and raincoats, and ship sails. This material was used to record various texts (this achievement was later adopted by the Romans). There is evidence from antiquities about the strength of linen thread, from which Etruscan artisans made armor (6th century BC tomb, Tarquinia). The Etruscans quite widely used artificial irrigation, drainage, and regulation of river flows. The ancient canals known to archaeological science were located near the Etruscan cities of Spina, Veii, in the Coda region.
In the depths of the Apennines lay copper, zinc, silver, iron, and on the island of Ilva (Elba) iron ore reserves - everything was developed by the Etruscans. The presence of numerous metal products in the tombs of the 8th century. BC e. in Etruria it is associated with an adequate level of mining and metallurgy. Remains of mining are widely found in ancient Populonia (Campiglia Marritima region). The analysis allows us to establish that the smelting of copper and bronze preceded iron processing. There are finds made of copper inlaid with miniature iron squares - a technique used when working with expensive materials. In the 7th century BC e. iron was still a rare metal for processing. Nevertheless, metalworking in cities and colonial centers has been identified: the production of metal utensils was developed in Capua and Nola, and an assortment of blacksmith items was found in Minturni, Venafre, and Suessa. Metalworking workshops are noted in Marzabotto. For that time, the mining and processing of copper and iron was significant in scale. In this area, the Etruscans succeeded in constructing mines for manual extraction of ore.
By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets; things and provisions were stored in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.
Luxury goods and jewelry
For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and acquired luxury items made of glass, earthenware, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, precious metal jewelry, and faience pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local products were brooches, made of bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare.
The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused a rapid development of jewelry and an influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phenicia, and the images on them were copied by Etruscan craftsmen. Boxes and cups were made from ivory imported from the East. Most jewelry was produced in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair ribbons, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, and clothing plates were widespread.
During the Archaic era, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny bags and disc-shaped earrings have come into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants or bullas often played the role of amulets and were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the 2nd century BC. e. They wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, disc-shaped clasps on their shoulders, and their hands were decorated with bracelets and rings.
The lack of written and material historical evidence, the significant time period separating modernity from the Etruscan era do not yet allow a thorough study of the life of the representatives of this civilization, but it is known that the Etruscans had a very noticeable influence on both the ancient peoples and the modern world.
The emergence and disappearance of the Etruscan civilization
The Etruscans appeared on the Apennine Peninsula in the 9th century BC. and after three centuries they represented a developed civilization that could be proud of the high level of craftsmanship, successful agriculture, and the presence of metallurgical production.
Fragment of the front wall of an Etruscan funeral urnThe Villanova civilization, the first of the Iron Age cultures in Italy, is considered by some scientists to be an early stage of the existence of the Etruscans, while others deny continuity between the two cultures, recognizing the version of the expulsion of the Villanova representatives by the Etruscans.
The origin of the Etruscans is one of the issues that has caused controversy among historians since ancient times. Thus, Herodotus argued that these people came to the Apennines from Asia Minor - this version is still the most popular.
Herodotus Titus Livy assumed that the homeland of the Etruscans was the Alps, and the people appeared thanks to the migration of tribes from the north. According to the third version, the Etruscans did not come from anywhere, but always lived in this territory. The fourth version - about the connection of the Etruscans with the Slavic tribes - is currently considered pseudoscientific, despite its popularity.
It is interesting that the Etruscans themselves foresaw the decline and death of their civilization, which they wrote about in their books, which were later lost.
Etruscan sarcophagus The reasons for the disappearance of the people are said to be both assimilation with the Romans and the influence of external factors - in particular, malaria, which could have been brought to Etruria by travelers from the East and spread thanks to mosquitoes that inhabited the swampy lands of Italy in large numbers.
The Etruscans themselves are silent about their history - their language, despite the fairly successful decipherment of the inscriptions on tombstones, nevertheless continues to remain unsolved.
Interaction of the Etruscans with other peoples
Be that as it may, about a thousand years of existence of the Etruscan civilization left interesting traces. Etruria was located in an exceptionally favorable region in terms of natural resources. Here, building stone, clay, tin, and iron were found in abundance, forests grew, and coal deposits were explored. The Etruscans, in addition to the high level of development of agriculture and crafts, also succeeded in piracy - they were known as excellent shipbuilders and kept the ships of other tribes at bay. This people is credited with, among other things, the invention of the anchor with a lead rod, as well as the copper sea ram.
Fragment of a fresco depicting an Etruscan ship However, the interaction of the Etruscans with the ancient peoples of the Mediterranean was not in the nature of confrontations - on the contrary, the inhabitants of Etruria willingly adopted the values of Ancient Greece and the peculiarities of their way of life. It is known that the ancient Greek alphabet was borrowed first by the Etruscans, and from them by the Romans. Despite the fact that scientists cannot yet translate the Etruscan language, it is nevertheless written in Greek letters - as on tablets from the city of Cortona, discovered in 1992.
Tablets from Cortona with an inscription in the Etruscan language It is believed that a number of words used by modern people are of Etruscan origin. These are, in particular, “person”, “arena”, “antenna” (meaning “mast”), “letter” and even “service” (meaning “slave, servant”).
The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sound of a flute, most often a double one, they cooked, fought, went hunting, and even punished slaves, as the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes with some indignation.
Fresco of the necropolis of the city of Tarquinia depicting a double flute Togas, decorations, construction of cities and circuses
They probably dressed to the music - it is interesting that the famous Roman toga with a purple border traces its history back to the Etruscans. This large piece of fabric, usually made of wool, evolved from the ornate cloaks of Etruscan chiefs.
The Etruscans are considered the creators of the Roman toga Women wore full skirts and lace-up bodices, and in addition, they were very fond of jewelry - just like men. Etruscan bracelets, rings, and necklaces made of gold have been preserved. Etruscan craftsmen achieved particular skill in creating brooches - gold clasps of extremely fine workmanship that were used to fasten capes.
Etruscan fibula made of gold The Etruscan art of city building, which had a great influence on the architecture of Rome and antiquity in general, deserves special mention. In the 7th century BC. the phenomenon of the Twelve Cities arose - a union of the largest Etruscan cities, among them Veii, Clusium, Perusia, Vatluna and others. The remaining cities of Etruria were subordinate to the closest of those included in the Twelve City.
Etruscan city Volterra The Etruscans began the construction of the city with a symbolic designation of the border - it was supposed to be outlined by an ox and a heifer harnessed to a plow. The city necessarily had three streets, three gates, three temples - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.
Ancient Roman Appian Way - Via Appia There is also an assumption that the famous ancient Roman roads that still exist today, for example, Via Appia, were built not without the participation of the Etruscans.
The Etruscans built the largest hippodrome in Ancient Rome - Circus Maximus, or Great Circus. According to legend, the first chariot racing competitions were held by King Tarquinius Priscus, who was from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia in the 6th century BC.
Circus Maximus - Circus Maximus As for gladiator fights, this ancient tradition originates from the Etruscan culture of sacrifice, when captured warriors were given a chance to survive instead of being sacrificed to the gods.
Gladiator fight. Roman mosaic The mixing of different cultures, the mutual influence of the worlds of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Etruria on each other led to the enrichment of the experience of different peoples and at the same time to the loss of the originality of each of them. The Etruscans in the ancient world are one of the most important components, without them the history of mankind would be different.
Early Roman culture developed on a local, Latin basis, but was influenced by more cultured peoples, primarily the Greeks and then the Etruscans.
The Romans spoke Latin, which was enriched by Greek and Etruscan words. Maybe. Already in the 8th century. BC e. they used writing. Ancient authors talk about this, but no written monuments of this time have survived. The oldest Latin inscription dates back to the end of VII. BC e. The Latin alphabet was developed on the basis of the Greek, but the Etruscans participated in the transmission of the Greek written tradition.
In IV BC. e. stage games in the image of the Etruscans were introduced in Rome, performed by professional artists - histrions, as well as demonstrations of one-act plays, atellana, invented by the Campanians and named after the Campanian city of Atella.
Until now, scientists have not solved many of the mysteries of the Etruscans. It is not known where these people came to Italy from, or what race they belonged to. Many of the inscriptions on the monuments could not be deciphered, although the Etruscans used the Greek alphabet.
The heyday of Etruscan culture occurred at a time when the archaic era reigned in Greece. Etruria was then a strong maritime power, and its inhabitants were excellent sailors and warriors. Rome was initially ruled by Etruscan kings, although they were soon pushed aside by the Romans. But even after Etruria was conquered by Rome, and its population mixed with the Roman one, Etruscan culture was of great importance for a long time.
An idea of the architecture of this state is given mainly by the necropolises that archaeologists discovered near the cities of Etruria - Vertulonia, Cera, Populonia, Vulci, etc. The cities of the dead, consisting of many majestic tombs, played no less a role for the Etruscans than for the ancient Egyptians.
Most Etruscan tombs were found in the 19th century, not by professional archaeologists, but by amateurs and treasure hunters. Thus, Father Regolini and General Galassi discovered one of the most interesting burials in Tsera. The tomb is a structure made of slabs hewn from tuff, in the form of a long corridor with a pyramid-shaped vault. Two round chambers are attached to its middle one. When they entered the tomb, they saw on the bed the body of a woman in rich clothes. On the vessels standing nearby, the researchers read her name - Lartia. Unfortunately, the air that entered the room with them instantly turned Lartia’s body into dust.
The Etruscan tombs had a round shape: in ancient times the circle symbolized the sky. The ceiling of the tomb was a vault formed by rows of stones hanging over each other. Although such a false vault did not actually rest on the walls, it was quite strong. Therefore, it is not entirely clear for what purpose a pillar was placed in the middle of the burial chamber in many tombs. Perhaps it had a symbolic meaning, representing the so-called cosmic axis connecting heavenly space with the earthly and underground.
The closeness to Egyptian culture is also indicated by the shape of many tombs, which are mounds filled in, vaguely reminiscent of the pyramids of the Egyptian pharaohs.
Unfortunately, not a single temple built by the Etruscans has survived. Unlike tombs, they were built from mud brick or wood, so they could not be durable. But what these temples looked like is known: they had a square shape and were surrounded by columns on three sides. The Etruscan temple stood on a podium. Through the portico there was an entrance to three temple rooms simultaneously. Such structures were based on an order called Tuscan or Etruscan. It was a variant of the Doric order but, unlike the latter, it had more massive proportions and a base.
The Italian type of residential building is associated with the traditions of Etruscan architecture. Its compositional center is the atrium - a large hall with a rectangular opening in the center of the ceiling.
The roof of the Etruscan temple was decorated with brightly painted terracotta masks of satyrs, silenes, maenads, and the Gorgon Medusa. They were intended to scare away evil spirits - evil spirits and demons that could enter the temple.
Unlike Greek ones, Roman temples had a more stable and durable appearance. They were not as elegant and beautiful as the Greek ones: probably the Etruscans attached more importance to what was inside rather than what was outside. The gods of Etruria were divided into several triads, the main one among them was the triad consisting of Tinia, Uni and Menerva, analogous to Zeus, Hera and Athena in Greece and Jupiter, Juno and Minerva in Rome.
It was the Etruscans who created the first Roman temple, which the inhabitants of Ancient Rome considered their main shrine - the temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva on the Capitol. It was built from non-durable materials, so the Romans constantly repaired it. However, the structure stood intact for quite a long time, until the 5th century. n. e., when the Vandal leader Genseric tore off part of the temple’s gilded roof.
Thanks to the Etruscans, the Romans also got an emblem - a statue of the legendary she-wolf who nursed the founders of the Great Empire - Romulus and Remus. Talented Etruscan craftsmen cast it in bronze.
Etruscan cities have not yet been excavated. But it is known that the inhabitants of Etruria were among the first among other peoples to begin to create cities with a regular layout. The Etruscans had excellent engineering abilities. They built bridges, arches, roads. Their architectural talents are evidenced by the gates, which played a huge role in the life of the Etruscans: they were the completion of the fortress walls and protected from the invasion of foreigners. Such is the gate called the Arch of Augustus in Perugia. Above the arch space between the columns there are shields - symbols of the sky.
The period when talented Etruscan craftsmen built a temple on Capitol Hill and created a bronze she-wolf was the final period in their history. By this time, the former power of Etruria was a thing of the past. The nearness of the end was reflected in art, which was more gloomy and tragic than before. The tombs, as before, resembled the dwellings of the living - houses with household items, clothing, weapons. But now these things have simply become fake; they cannot be picked up or separated from the walls with which they form a single whole.
By the 3rd century. BC. Most of the cities of Etruria were already under the rule of Rome. The Romans settled the lands where the Etruscans lived for a long time, who gradually mixed with the Roman population and forgot their language.
Italian archaeologists have announced a sensational discovery: a perfectly preserved Etruscan villa has been found. It was so perfectly preserved that scientists called this find the first of its kind in the entire study of Etruscan civilization. In all respects - dating, location, richness of historical information - archaeologists received a unique object for research.
The villa was discovered on the territory of the Etruscan city of Vetulonia (Vatluna, Vatl), the ruins of which are located near the modern town of Grosseto in Tuscany. Excavations here resumed in 2009. Vetulonia is often called the last Etruscan city: of the 12 communities of the Etruscan League (the famous Twelve Cities), which disappeared one after another as Rome expanded, Vetulonia lasted a couple of centuries longer than the others. By comparison, the Etruscans captured by the Romans had not been heard of since 280 BC, while Vetulonia perished after 80 BC.
It is known that the Romans adopted a lot from the Etruscans, from construction and engineering knowledge to traditions and insignia. Such “inheritance of intellectual property” became possible, among other things, thanks to the islands of Etruscan civilization that were not immediately destroyed by Rome - such as Vetulonia.
The famous attributes of official power, many of which are strongly associated with Ancient Rome, are in fact of Etruscan origin - ancient authors wrote about this, this is confirmed by modern archaeological finds. Lictor's fasces (a bundle of tied rods with a fixed axe, stylized images of which still appear on many state coats of arms and emblems), the curule chair, the toga praetexta (a white toga with a purple border on the side) - this is only part of the culture of power that the Romans adopted from defeated Etruscans. In the process of “appropriation” Vetulonia played an important role.
A rich villa discovered by archaeologists tells the story of the coexistence of the Etruscans and Romans in the same city. The mansion quickly received the nickname Domus dei dolia, “house of the dolias,” from the very first find: researchers first came across a room densely filled with dolias - large vessels for storing olive oil.
Excavations of the southern part of the Domus dei dolia. Photo: Marco Merola
“This is a huge villa with an area of at least 400 square meters. meters. We counted ten residential premises and several utility rooms. Judging by the interior decoration and location on a hill overlooking the surrounding area, the house belonged to a wealthy member of the Etruscan nobility,” archaeologist Simona Rafanelli, who has been working on excavations in Vetulonia since 2015, told the Italian edition of National Geographic.
It is noteworthy that on the city plan the villa was located in the middle of the central street connecting the Roman and Etruscan regions of Vetulonia. Rafanelli explained the proximity of sworn enemies as follows: “From the 3rd century BC, a period of peaceful coexistence with Rome began in Vetulonia. For the city, it was a time of economic growth and prosperity, which was reflected in the renovation of religious buildings, the construction of new mansions and an increase in the urban population.”
Domus dei dolia is further proof of the well-being of the city and its inhabitants. The earth has preserved all the details of the structure, from the foundation to the roof.
Fragments of terracotta tiles and palmettes that decorated the roof of the building. Photo: Marco Merola
Stone walls, magnificent finishes (one of the living rooms was originally decorated with frescoes in the early Pompeian style, also known as “inlay” or “structural” - it gave the house a strict, noble appearance), terracotta tiles and tiles, opus signinum floors (another technology adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans - in Italy it is still known under the name cocciopesto, in Russian - tsemyanka: lime mortar with the addition of ceramic chips) ... Archaeologists even found iron nails that fastened wooden floor beams, and decoration - palmette crowning the roof of the building.
Iron nails that fastened the wooden floors of an Etruscan villa. Photo: Marco Merola
In a recess under the floor of the same room with frescoes, archaeologists discovered several extremely valuable bronze figurines. One of them is in the title photo: judging by the remains of a hand, the figurine once depicted a rider on a horse and served as a decorative top for a lamp. The figurine was dated to the 4th century BC.
Among the artifacts found during the excavations, Etruscan and Roman coins are of particular interest. Etruscan independence ended in the 3rd century BC, but two cities, Vetulonia and Volterra, still tried to maintain their Etruscan identity - including by minting their own coins with the highest permission of the winner, Rome.
According to numismatists, this curious phenomenon did not last long, perhaps several decades - all previously found coins date back to the same 3rd century BC. Etruscan money circulated in parallel with Roman money, but not on an equal basis: only “ethnic Etruscans” could pay with it and only in the territory of the city that issued the coins.
The situation seems humiliating, but the Etruscans of Vetulonia used coins as a kind of manifesto or ethnic declaration: silver and bronze coins with low denominations did not represent much value, but were full of symbols and meanings. The inscription on the obverse of all coins (Vatl or Vatluna, the Etruscan name of Vetulonia) clearly stated that the ancient city existed and prospered since it had the opportunity to mint its own money.
Numismatists know four types of coins from Vetulonia, but the most common (almost 300 of these were found before the Domus dei dolia excavations) is with the image of a male head on the obverse, possibly the water deity Nethuns, the Etruscan predecessor of Neptune. The reverse features an image of a trident surrounded by two dolphins - a possible hint at the connection of the Etruscan Vatluna with the sea and maritime trade, since the city is located only 20 km from the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. These symbols were clear to contemporaries, as was the meaning of the message: the city had not lost its Etruscan identity and had not forgotten its glorious past, despite the growing power of Rome.
At the Domus dei Dolia excavations, archaeologists discovered many coins, but it was this bronze sestertius, with a trident and dolphins, that scientists called the most valuable specimen.
It is symbolic that another coin, a Roman one, found by archaeologists near the villa, tells its own story - the story of the death of Vetulonia and the bloody end of the “peaceful coexistence” of two great cultures.
We are talking about the silver denarius of Lucius Thorius Balbus - that is, a coin issued under the monetarium (triumvir for minting coins), whose name is well known to historians and allows us to definitely date the coin to 105 BC.
Silver denarius of Lucius Thorius Balbus (105 BC), found during excavations of an Etruscan villa. Photo: Marco Merola
From the very beginning of their existence, the Etruscan people appeared in the eyes of the Ancient World rich and powerful nation. The self-name of the Etruscans is “Rasena”, their name inspired great fear, constantly appearing in "Annals" which notes: "Even the Alpine tribes, especially the Rhaetians, are of the same origin as the Etruscans"; and Virgil, in his epic about the emergence of Rome, tells in detail about ancient Etruria.
The Etruscan civilization was primarily an urban civilization, in ancient times, which played an important role in the fate of Rome and the entire Western civilization. Etruria fell to the Roman legions by the middle of the 3rd century BC. e., but it has not lost its cultural role. Etruscan priests spoke the Etruscan language both in Tuscany and Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire, that is, until the end of the 5th century AD. e. Beginning, Greek sailors began to settle on the southern coasts of Italy and Sicily and traded with the inhabitants of Etruscan cities.
The inhabitants of Etruria were known to the Greeks as "Tyrrhenians" or "Tyrsenians", and the Romans called them Tusci, hence the current name of Tuscany. According to Tacitus(“Annals”, IV, 55), during the Roman Empire retained the memory of his distant Etruscan origin; The Lydians even then considered themselves brothers of the Etruscans.
"Tyrrhenians" is an adjective, most likely formed from the word "tirrha" or "tirra"in Lydia there is a place called Tyrrha - turris - “tower”, that is, “Tyrrhenians” are “people of the citadel”. Root very common in Etruscan. King Tarchon, brother or son of Tyrrhenus, founded Tarquinia and the dodecapolis -. Names with the root tarch were given to the gods or, the Black Sea region and Asia Minor.
The Etruscans are one of the peoples of ancient civilization, survivor of the Indo-European invasion from the north in the period from 2000 to 1000 BC. e., and the catastrophe of the destruction of almost all tribes. The relationship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Hellenic idioms of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean Sea has been discovered - proves connection Etruscans and the Middle Eastern world. The entire history of the Etruscans unfolded in the Aegean Sea basin, which is where the Etruscans come from religious presentations and rituals, their unique art and crafts that were previously unknown on Tuscan soil.
On the island Lemnos in the 7th century BC. e.
spoke a language similar to Etruscan. The Etruscans apparently originated from a mixture of ethnic elements of different origins. There is no doubt the diversity of the roots of the Etruscan people, born through the fusion of various ethnic elements.
The Etruscans have Indo-European roots and appeared on the land of the Apennine Peninsula in the first years of the 7th century BC. e. Etruscan haplogroup G2a3a and G2a3b discovered in Europe; haplogroup G2a3b went to Europe through Starchevo and further through the archaeological culture of Linear Band Pottery, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany.
Etruscan culture had a significant influence on Roman culture : the inhabitants of Rome adopted their writing and the so-called Roman numerals that were originally Etruscan .The Romans adopted the skills of Etruscan city planning, ancient Etruscan customs and religious beliefs and the entire pantheon of Etruscan gods were adopted by the Romans.
Under the Etruscan king Tarquin the Ancient (VI century BC) in Rome drainage of the swampy areas of the city began through irrigation canals, a sewage system was built in Rome sewerage system and built Cloaca maxima, cloaca in Rome is still in effect today.
stood on a high foundation – podium and had only one entrance facing south. The Etruscans built the podium and foundations of temples from stone, and the buildings themselves, arches, vaults ceilings, complex rafter system they built made of wood. This speaks of an ancient Etruscan tradition masters of wooden architecture A. The Romans are still amazed that The Etruscans built their houses from wood (log houses), and did not build houses from marble.
Rome borrowed their foundations from the Etruscans, the monumental character of Roman architecture was inherited from the Etruscans and embodied in marble and stone. Architectural layout of interior spaces , atriums are the central rooms in Etruscan houses, borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. "Signor Piranesi states that,When the Romans first wanted to build massive buildings, the solidity of which amazes us, they were forced to turn to their neighbors for help- Etruscan architects." The Romans built the Capitoline Temple with a southern entrance in all the occupied lands - a copy of the legendary building Etruscan architects Tarquinii and observed the rituals of all Etruscan religious holidays.
The Etruscans were skilled in geodesy and measuring technology, and Roman surveyors learned from them. The division of Italian lands and the territory of all provinces into squares with a side 710 meters - this is the merit of the Etruscans.
In essence, the Etruscan civilization settled on the seven hills of Rome. By the end of the 4th century BC. e. Etruscan letters. Initially, there was a monarchy in Etruscan cities.
Etruscan kings The Tarquins in Rome wore a gold crown, a gold ring and a scepter. Their ceremonial the clothing was a red toga-palmata, and the royal procession was led lictors carried on shoulders Fascia is a sign of the unlimited power of the ruler. The fasces consisted of rods and a hatchet- a ceremonial weapon and symbol of the political and religious power of the Tarquins.
In the 6th century BC. e. the monarchy in Rome was replaced by a republic; the king was replaced, regularly re-elected, officials. The new state was essentially oligarchic, with constant and strong Senate and replaced annually magistrates. All power was in the hands oligarchies, consisting of principes - leading citizens. Aristocratic class– ordo principum – controlled the interests of the community.
Etruscan families had different names – nomen gentilicum, Etruscan “gens” - “gens” - family group and cognomen- family branches, and Each Etruscan had a personal name. The onomastic system of the Etruscans was exactly adopted by the Romans. Onomastics(from ancient Greek ὀνομαστική) - the art of giving names, was adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans.
The Etruscans influenced the history of Rome and the fate of the entire West. Latin peoples were part of the Etruscan confederation, created by religious grounds.
In the 6th century BC. e. The Etruscan League arose, which was a religious association of Etruscan lands. Political meeting Etruscan League was held during the general Etruscan annual religious holidays, a large fair was held, the supreme leader of the Etruscan League was elected, wearing title rex (king), later - sacerdos (high priest), and in Rome - was elected praetor or aedile of the fifteen nations of Etruria. 
The symbol of sovereignty survived in Rome after the expulsion Etruscan dynasty Tarquini from Rome to 510 BC e., when the Roman Republic arose, which existed for 500 years.
The loss of Rome was a serious blow for Etruria; difficult battles lay ahead on land and sea with the Roman Republic and with the period 450-350. BC e.
Throughout Roman history, the Romans repeated all religious rituals, performed by the Etruscan kings. During the celebration of triumph, victory over the enemy, a solemn procession went to the Capitol, for a sacrifice to Jupiter, and the commander stood in his war chariot, at the head of a cortege of prisoners and soldiers, and was temporarily likened to the supreme deity.
The city of Rome was founded according to the plan and ritual of the Etruscans. The founding of the city was accompanied by Etruscans sacred rituals. The site of the future city was outlined in a circle by the city line, and along it plowed the ritual furrow with a plow, protecting the future city from the hostile outside world. The plowed circle around the city corresponded to the Etruscan ideas about the Heavenly World - Templum (lat. templum) - “Temple.” The sacred walls of the city were called in Etruscan TULAR Spular (lat. tular spular) became known to the Romans as pomerium.
In the Etruscan city, they necessarily built three main streets, three gates, three temples - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.
Mundus, a hole in the ground where the souls of ancestors lived, was located on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Throwing a handful of earth brought from the homeland into a common pit (Mundus) is the most important rite when founding a city, since the Etruscans and Italics believed that The souls of ancestors are contained in the native land. That's why, a city founded according to such a ritual became their true homeland, where the souls of their ancestors moved.
Other Etruscan cities were founded and built in Etruria (on the Apennine Peninsula) in compliance with all Etruscan city planning rules and according to religious canons. This is how the Etruscan city was built Volterra, in Etruscan – Velatri, Lucumonius and others were surrounded by high city walls, and the city gate Velatri Porta del Arco, decorated with sculptures - the heads of deities have survived to this day. In Southern Italy, the Etruscans founded the cities of Nola, Acerra, Nocerra and the fortress city of Capua (Italian: Capua), the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua.
The famous ancient Roman roads that still exist today, for example, Via Appia, were built with the participation of the Etruscans.
The Etruscans built the largest hippodrome Ancient Rome - Circus Maximus, or Great Circus. According to legend, the first chariot racing competitions were held at the hippodrome in the 6th century BC. Etruscan king of Rome Tarquinius Priscus, who was originally from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia.
The ancient tradition of gladiator fights originates from the Etruscan culture of sacrifice, when captured warriors were given a chance to survive, and if the prisoner happened to survive, they believed that it was the will of the gods.
In Etruria, tombs were located outside the city walls - this Etruscan rule was invariably observed throughout the ancient Mediterranean: the settlements of the dead must be separated from the settlements of the living.
The Romans took as a model the design of Etruscan tombs, the interior decoration of tombs, sarcophagi, urns with ashes, as well as the funeral rituals of the Etruscans, who believed in an afterlife similar to earthly life.
The Romans believed in the power of ancient Etruscan oaths that had magical powers, if they are addressed to the Etruscan deities of the Earth. The Etruscans built their houses from wood, a short-lived material, but The Etruscans built their tombs for centuries for eternal life, stone tombs were carved out of rocks, hidden in mounds, decorated with wall with images of feasts, dances and games, and filling the tombs with jewelry, weapons, vases and other valuable items. “Life is a moment, death is forever”
Roman temples were built of stone and marble, but decorated according to the Etruscan style wooden temples that existed in ancient times Kose, Veii, Tarquinia, Volsinia, capital of the Etruscan Confederation.
Found in the Etruscan city of Veii temple (of Apollo), with many life-size terracotta statues of gods, executed with amazing skill, the work of an Etruscan sculptor Vulka.
The Romans introduced almost all the Etruscan gods into their pantheon. The Etruscan gods became Hades, (Aritimi) - Artemis, - Earth, (Etrus. Cel) — Geo (earth). In Etruscan “Cels clan” - Celsclan - “son of the Earth”, “tribe of the Earth”. (Satre) — Saturn; (Turnu), Turan, Turanshna (Etrus.Turansna) - epithet of the goddess Turan - Swan, Swan; - Menerva. Etruscan god of vegetation and fertility, death and rebirth (Etruscan. Pupluna or Fufluna) originated in the city of Populonia. Etruscan Fufluns reigns at symposiums and funeral meals - corresponds to the Roman Bacchus, or Bacchus, the Greek Dionysus.
The supreme gods of the Etruscans were a trinity, which was worshiped in the triple temples - this . The Greek goddess Hecate became the visible embodiment of the triune Etruscan deity. Trinity cult which was worshiped in Etruscan sanctuaries with three walls - each dedicated to one of the three gods - is also present in Cretan-Mycenaean civilization.
Just like the Etruscans, the Romans showed great interest in divination, fortune-telling, and haruspices. Etruscan tombs are often surrounded egg-shaped Etruscan columns
cippi – low stone pillars (like the Scythians’ stone women) with decorations that are a symbol of the divine presence. 
In Etruria, games and dances had a ritual origin and character. Etruscan warriors since ancient times learned military dances in gymnasiums, dancing was not just a variety military training, but also for conquest disposition of the gods of war.
On the frescoes of Etruria we see armed men in helmets, dancing and banging their spears on their shields to the beat - , dedicated god Pyrrhus
The Roman salii - warrior priests - performed a pyrrhic dance in honor of Mars, brutal gladiator fights (lat. Munera gladiatoria) the Romans also borrowed from Etruscan Tuscany in 264 BC. e.
The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sounds of a double flute, they fought, went hunting, cooked, and even punished slaves, as the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes with some indignation.
Rome invited Etruscan dancers and mimes to its celebrations, whom the Romans called "histriones" - "histriones"
– the Romans used this term too taken from the Etruscans. According to Titus Livy, Etruscan dancers and mimes, with the rhythm of their movements, pacified the evil gods who sent a terrible scourge to the city of Rome - the plague in 364 BC. e.
The Etruscans owned specific methods of processing gold and silver. Found in 1836 in the Cerveteri mound gold jewelry and the finest engraving of silver and bronze mirrors represent the pinnacle of craftsmanship of the 7th century BC. — at this time Roman jewelry did not exist!
The treasures from the tomb of Regolini-Galassi amaze with the perfection and technical ingenuity of amber and bronze jewelry, products chryselephantine, boxes for cosmetics, brooches, combs, necklaces, tiaras, rings, bracelets and archaic earrings testify to the high skill of Etruscan jewelers.
D achievements lead the Etruscans to 7th century BC to a leading position among artists of the Western Mediterranean. In the visual arts one can feel the connection with the Phoenician, Cretan-Mycenaean and , the same ones are depicted fantastic beasts– chimeras, sphinxes and winged horses. Fantastic Etruscan chimera actually represents animal image of the triune deity -, commanding Birth - this is the image of the Goat-nurse, commanding Life - the image of Leo, commanding Death - the image of the Snake.
In the middle of the 3rd century BC. e. Rome subjugated Etruria (Tascana), the military and political role of Etruria was eliminated, but Etruria did not lose its originality. Religious traditions and crafts flourished in Etruria before the Christian era, and Romanization proceeded very slowly. The Romans sent delegates to universal annual religious meeting twelve tribes Etruscans of 12 Etruscan cities in the main Sanctuary of Voltumna – Fanum Voltumnae; it was called "concilium Etruriae".
The cities of southern Etruria near Rome soon fell into decay, and northern Etruria was a mining region- Chiusi, Perugia, Cortona, have preserved the famous production workshops that produced objects made of malleable steel and bronze, Volterra and Arezzo - a large industrial center, Populonia - a metallurgical center ore mining and metal smelting, even under the rule of Rome retained its industrial and commercial power. 
