Alternative (imputed) costs. Types of Education Costs for Students Alternative Learning Value
1. Which of these provisions is not related to the definition of the subject of the theoretical economy?
A) efficient use of resources;
C) unlimited production resources;
C) maximum satisfaction of needs;
D) material and spiritual needs;
E) the rarity of the good.
2. In which of the listed cases, the study of the theoretical economy does not matter?
A) every person is influenced by the economy and affects it;
B) Each person makes money using his knowledge and experience about certain areas of activity. The theoretical economy teaches students "the ability to live";
C) Each person faces political problems, many of which are related to the economy;
D) Anyone who understands the principles of the economy is able to better solve its own economic problems.
3. Economic theory:
A) is suitable for studying all economic systems;
B) is only suitable for studying the capitalist management system;
C) cannot be useful in the study of economic relations inherent in socialism;
D) the answers B and C are true;
E) suitable for studying pre-industrial systems.
4. Macroeconomics is defined as an area of \u200b\u200beconomic theory, which studies:
A) the processes occurring in the national economy taken as a whole;
B) the role of the state in the economy;
(C) Global problems of human economic development;
(D) The same problems as political savings in the initial value of this term;
E) correct answers c) and d);
5. Which of the statements below are correct:
(A) Economic laws are objectively, but people must study them and use them in practical activities;
B) Economic laws act by the will of people, people establish them;
C) Economic laws act on themselves, regardless of the will and desires of people;
(D) Economic laws are the same as legal laws;
E) the answers B and D.
6. What are economic laws:
A) essential internal, sustainable causal relations in industrial relations;
B) formalized ideas about economic phenomena;
C) Scientific abstraction, allowing to determine the essential parties of economic phenomena;
(D) Articles of criminal and civil codecs that regulate economic relations, economic activities;
(E) Legal laws.
7. What are economic categories:
A) Simplified statements;
B) subjective assessments of concepts;
C) Scientific abstractions expressing certain aspects of production relations;
D) causal relationships;
E) formalized ideas about economic phenomena
8. The economy is effective if it achieved:
A) full-time employment;
B) full use of production resources;
C) or full-time employment, or the full use of other resources;
D) and complete employment, and the complete use of other production resources;
E) all of the above are incorrect
9. If economic growth contributes to a fair distribution of income, then these two macroeconomic purposes:
A) logically connected with each other;
B) contradict each other;
C) complement each other;
D) mutually exclusive each other;
10. What is the economic goal if society seeks to minimize costs and maximize returns from limited production resources?
A) achieving full employment;
B) maintaining economic growth;
C) Economic Security;
D) economic efficiency;
E) All of the above are incorrect.
11. Fundamental economic issues "What, as for whom to produce," are solved on micro and macro levels. Which of these issues can be solved only on the macroeconomic level.
A) What is done?
B) What level of inflation will we encounter?
C) How many goods and services will be produced?
D) Who will produce goods and services?
E) Who will produce goods and services for?
12. Choose a function that does not relate to the functions of economic theory:
A) cognitive;
B) practical;
C) methodological;
D) mediation;
E) Critical.
13. The problem "What to produce":
A) can stand only before a private entrepreneur, but not to society;
B) can be considered as the problem of choosing a point on the HPF;
C) is studied based on the action of the law of decreasing productivity of production factors;
D) occurs only in conditions of acute resource deficit;
E) there is no correct answer.
14. The rarity is:
A) the characteristic of only industrial systems;
B) the concept reflecting the inability to fully satisfy human needs;
C) the characteristic of only pre-industrial systems;
D) efficiency;
E) solvent demand.
15. Install in which of the following projects of economic resources are examples of only factors of production:
A) account in the bank, shop owner, sulfur;
B) banker, oil, tractor;
C) geologist, machine, money;
D) bonds, coal, brigadier;
E) money, technologist, gas.
16. The effective functioning of the economic system on the schedule of production capabilities reflects:
A) any point lying on the curve of production capabilities;
B) the point underlying the curve of production capabilities;
C) the point underlying the production capacity curve;
D) the point lying on the curve of production capabilities and equally removed from both ordents;
(E) Right Answers A and D.
17. For students, the alternative value of training at the university reflects:
A) maximum earnings that can be obtained by working;
B) scholarship size;
C) the costs of the state for the formation of an average specialist;
D) parents' costs for student content;
E) the cost of the time of a young man for training;
18. Which of the above characteristics is incorrect to economic benefit:
A) is only the result of production;
B) may satisfy the needs of people;
C) is insufficient to meet the needs of all people;
D) is not a gift: to have an economic benefit, it is necessary to abandon another economic benefit;
(E) Right Answers B, C.
19. Limited is a problem that:
A) exists only in poor countries;
C) there is only poor people;
C) all people and societies have;
D) never arises from rich people;
E) never occurs in rich countries.
20.The it is recommended to get the maximum result with minimal costs - this is human behavior:
A) rational;
C) is irrational;
C) dependency;
D) consumer;
E) public.
The object of economic analysis in each country is the deficit (limitations, rarity) of resources and an alternative choice of their use.
Since the resources are rare, the economy cannot provide an unlimited issue of goods and services. Moreover, it is necessary to make decisions about which goods and services should be made, and from what to refuse.
In the overwhelming majority situations there are more than two choice features. In a similar position, the efficient economic entity assesses the benefits of which they receive from each alternative use of resources, and stops its choice on the most profitable alternative.
At the same time, it deprives (loses) benefits from other (alternative) use of cash. Consequently, costs (costs) to receive the selected good will be the highest benefit from the rejected options.
In other words, alternative (imputed) costs or choice Price- This is the benefit of the best of unrealized alternative opportunities.
Alternative (imputed) production costs - It is the cost of production of one product, expressed in the number of other goods, from the production of which has to abandon to produce this product.
In other words, the economic costs of obtaining some good - these are other benefits that could be obtained using the same resources, but which will have to refuse if the choice is made in favor of this good. Therefore, they are called alternative costs or the cost of missed opportunities.
for example, We will appreciate the alternative student training costs in the university. First of all, paying for training, the student refuses to buy some of the goods (clothing, etc.). In addition, study takes time during which the student could earn money, just rest, etc. From all this, he refuses, deciding to learn. Therefore, economic costs of learning include both unopened money.
Thus, in order to evaluate the full economic costs of obtaining some good, it is necessary to sum up all the losses (in the form of other non-accepted goods), which are in connection with this.
Accounting for alternative costs in the economic selection is the most important principle of microeconomic analysis.
On the transformation curve, we see that each additional unit one product has to sacrifice an increasing number of other goods, i.e. Alternative costs increase.
What is reflected in z. akone increases of imputed (alternative) costs which states: in the conditions of limited and specificity of resources, alternative costs are steadily increasing as the issue of any of the alternative types of products increases. Those. Under the full use of resources and unchanged technology, to obtain each additional unit of one product, it is necessary to abandon the increasing number of other goods.
The economic meaning of the law of increasing impregnated costs is reduced to the following: economic resources are unsuitable for their full use in the production of alternative products.
Action of the law increasing alternative (imputed) production costs manifests itself in thatproduction curve has convex shape.
When we try to increase the production of one products, you have to switch from the production of other goods resources are less and less adapted for this kind of application. And this switching operation is becoming increasingly deep and expensive.
There is a law closely associated with the above, - the law of decreasing return (performance). It can be formulated as follows: a continuous increase in the use of one resource in combination with the constant number of other resources at a certain stage leads to the cessation of growth growth from it, and then to its reduction.
This law is based on the incomplete interchangeability of resources. After all, the replacement of one of them to another (other) is possible to a certain limit. For example, if four resources: land, labor, entrepreneurial abilities, knowledge - to leave unchanged and increase such a resource as capital (for example, the number of machines at the factory with a constant number of machineries), then at a certain stage there comes the limit behind which further growth The specified production factor is becoming less and less. The effectiveness of the machine operator serving an increasing number of machines is reduced, the percentage of marriage increases, there are downtime of machines, etc.
Thus, the main economic task is the choice of the most efficient distribution of production factors in order to solve the problem of optimal capabilities, which is due to the boundless needs of society and limited resources.
The problem of effectiveness is the main problem of an economic theory that explores the best use or applying rare resources in order to achieve the most or maximum possible satisfaction of the infinite needs of society (the purpose of production). Thus, economic science is the science of efficiency, about the effective use of rare resources.
Any production is effective If with these resources it is not possible to increase the release of one good without reducing the release of another, therefore, any point lying on the curve of production capabilities is effective.
The distribution of resources in which it is impossible to increase the release of one economic good without reducing the release of the other, is called a pass-effective or pass-optimal (name of the famous Italian scientist-economist Wilfredo Pareto).
Economic efficiency characterizes the relationship between the number of units of rare resources, which are used in the production process, and obtained as a result of the amount of any product, i.e. Encompasses the problem "Costs - Release" ().
Task 1.
The principle of rational economy implies minimization of costs or maximizing utility. Yes or no?
Task 2.
For students, the alternative value of learning at the university reflects:
a. scholarship size;
b. maximum earnings that can be obtained by throwing learn;
c. Parent costs for student content.
Task 3.
Characteristics of the economic benefit are:
a. ability to meet the needs;
b. rarity;
c. value;
d. True all specified.
Task 4.
The seamstress Dotsenko is engaged in individual entrepreneurial activities: sews fashionable clothing to order. For one thing she spends two days and receives a fee in the amount of 60 den. As a rule, it works and on weekends. But for future weekends she was offered a two-day rest outside the city. Cost of a trip 100 den.ied. Mrs. Dotsenko decided to relax. What will alternative costs be equal?
Task 5.
On the weekend you can go to the mountains to go skiing. A trip and payment for riding is 80 den., But you are ready to pay 100 den.
a. Will you go to the mountains?
b. Your friend suggests repairing his computer for 30 den. You love to collect computers so much that you would agree to help a friend for free. Will you go in this case in the mountains?
c. You work on weekends in the restaurant and you can earn 100 den. You do not like this work, so you will not fulfill it less than 90 den.ru Will you go in this case in the mountains?
d. If you do not go to the mountains, you can visit the exhibition of the works of the famous artist. The entrance for students is free, but you dreamed about it that they are ready to pay 15 den.ied. Will you go in this case in the mountains?
Task 6.
Ivanov programmer earns 10 den.ied. Her mother is retired. In the store for beef on 8 den.ied. For kilograms, it is necessary to stand for an hour, for a beef for 12 den.ied. For a kilogram there is no queue. With what volume of purchases is rationally acquisition of cheaper beef for programmer Ivanova? Her mother?
Task 7.
Build the curve of production capabilities (CPV) of the conditional country according to the following data.
1. Can the country's economy manufactures 2 million pieces of investment goods and 15 million pieces of consumer goods?
2. Can the country's economy produce 4 million pieces of investment goods and 3 million pieces of consumer goods?
Task 8.
Agricultural enterprise that specializes in growing vegetables has two greenhouses. One can grow 2000 tons of cucumbers per year or 1500 tons of tomato. About the second it is known that the alternative value of 1 ton of cucumbers is 0.5 tons of tomatoes with a maximum yield of tomato 600 tons.
1. Determine the alternative value of the production of cucumbers in the first greenhouse.
2. In which greenhouse it is more profitable to grow tomatoes; Cucumbers?
3. Build the CPV of the enterprise.
Task 9.
On the circuit of the combination of mixed economy, show the following streams, market objects and subjects:
1. A private cafe paid for telephone conversations;
2. The pensioner paid for telephone conversations;
3. The joint stock company received profits;
4. The former employee of the private enterprise received a pension;
5. Family Ivanenko;
6. Sidorenko was educated;
7. Money;
Task 10.
The graph shows the conditional CPV of some country, which determines the correspondence between the production of individual consumption and public consumption goods. Determine which points of the graph corresponds to the type of economic system.
Task 11.
The company plans to release a new type of product and considers three production technologies.
1. What technology will the enterprise choose if it is interested in using a smaller resource?
2. What technology will the enterprise choose if it puts the purpose of obtaining maximum profits?
3. Suppose that the price of the "Labor" resource has decreased to 2 den.ied. For a unit, and the "Capital" resource rose to 6 den.ied per unit. How will the choice change?
End of form
Answers to tasks
Solving problems on the topic: "Consumer behavior theory"
Task 1.
Answer.
| Transition from one combination to the next | Q meat (kg) | Q cheese (kg) | |
| From a to b | 2,5–4= –1,5 | 1 – 0,5=0,5 | –1,5:0,5=–3 |
| from b k in | 1,5 – 2,5= –1 | 1,5 – 1=0,5 | –2 |
| from in k g | 1– 1,5= –0,5 | 2,5 – 1,5=1 | –0,5 |
That is, at first the consumer is ready to abandon 3 kg of meat for the benefit of one kg of cheese. Then the replacement rate decreases: for one kg of cheese consumer is ready to abandon 2 kg of meat. And when moving from a combination in a combination, the consumer donates only 0.5 kg of meat for 1 kg of cheese.
Task 2.
Answer.
Task 3.
Answer.
Task 4.
Answer.
Task 5.
Answer.
The table gives the overall usefulness of drinks, so to solve the problem it is necessary to find utmost utility.
4 "Pepsi" and 1 "Fantas": Tu \u003d 15 + 13 + 10 + 8 + 10 \u003d 46 + 10 \u003d 56;
3 "Pepsi" and 2 "Fantas": Tu \u003d 15 + 13 + 10 + 10 + 9 \u003d 38 + 19 \u003d 57;
2 "Pepsi" and 3 "Fantas": TU \u003d 15 + 13 + 10 + 9 + 6 \u003d 28 + 25 \u003d 53;
1 "Pepsi" and 4 "Fantas": Tu \u003d 15 + 10 + 9 + 6 + 3 \u003d 15 + 28 \u003d 43.
Comparing the results obtained, we conclude: a combination of drinks consisting of 3 Pepsi bottles and 2 Phanti bottles will bring the greatest utility.
Task 6.
Answer.
The task needs to determine the set of products that will bring the greatest satisfaction with the limited budget, using the rule: for this fill in the table:
From the table shows that there are two options:
1. 2 units of goods A and 2 units of goods in; 2 * 10 + 2 * 5 \u003d 30 den.
2. 3 units of goods A and 4 units of goods in; 3 * 10 + 4 * 5 \u003d 50 den.ied.
In the first case, the consumer will not spend the entire budget, so it needs to choose the second option.
Task 7.
Answer.
The equilibrium position is satisfied:
Mu a \u003d 10i., R a \u003d 0,7 den.ied.
Mu B \u003d?, P B \u003d 0.5 den.
Task 8.
Answer.
1. The budget constraint can be determined by schedule: the consumer can only buy goods A, at a price of 0.8 den.ied. It will pay: 5 * 0.8 \u003d 4 den.ied., Or Products in: 10 * 0.4 \u003d 4 den.e., that is, the budget is equal to 4 den.;
point and on the chart corresponds to the situation in which the consumer can only buy goods and in quantity
3. Any point that is located to the left of the budget line characterizes such a set of goods at which extra money remains. For example, the point in: 2 * 0.8 + 2 * 0.4 \u003d 2.4 den.ied.
4. The point C lies above the budget line, so such a combination of goods at this budget is impossible: 3 * 0.8 + 7 * 0.4 \u003d 5.2 den.
Task 9.
Answer.
The budget line is built on the basis of a general equation: i \u003d p x q x + p y q y
28 \u003d 1Q A + 2Q b,
Schedule Build two points:
Q b \u003d 0, q a \u003d 28,
Q a \u003d 0, q b \u003d 14.
Logging line slope , as well as at the point of equilibrium, we find on the segment (12,16)
Task 10.
Answer.
Mu a \u003d 40th., R a \u003d 0,6 den.ru
Mu B \u003d 50h., P B \u003d 1den.
Maximization of utility occurs when the condition is met :.
The family does not maximize the usefulness, buying such a set of products. In order for satisfaction to be the greatest, it is necessary to either reduce the utmost usefulness of the product A, or increase the utmost utility of goods V.
Limit use is the usefulness of an additional unit of goods. And with each number of the goods consumed, it decreases under the law of decreasing utmost utility. That is, the family needs to increase product consumption A or reduce the consumption of goods V.
Task 11.
Answer.
I \u003d 13 den.;
Mu n \u003d 30 - 2x, mu o \u003d 19 - 3ow;
P p \u003d 2 den.ied, r o \u003d 1den.
Since the tasks of two unknown x and y, it is necessary to compile a system of equations.
The first equation is a budget limitation: i \u003d p x q x + p y q y, 13 \u003d 2x + y.
The second equation is the consumer equilibrium condition:
x \u003d 5 (kg) y \u003d 13-2 * 5 \u003d 3 (kg).
The consumer is ready to buy 5 kg of tomato and 3 kg of cucumbers.
Task 12.
Answer.
1. Products can be indispensable at a level, but independent goods are still replaced by utility, and no different.
Task 13.
Answer.
Task 14.
Answer.
| Q, pcs. | |||||
| U, Yutil | |||||
| Tu. | |||||
| Mu. | |||||
| Mu i \u003d Mu i -p (\u003d 7) | -1 | -3 | -5 | ||
| Mu i at p \u003d 5 | -1 | -3 |
Task 15.
Answer.
I \u003d 16 den.ied - Nominal income, less utility - U1
Task 16.
Answer.
1. Point A goes to point in;
2. Point A goes to point C;
3. Effect effect: point A goes to point d;
4. Replacement effect: point d goes to point C;
Task 17.
Answer.
1. Rising prices at least one product can be considered as a decrease in income. The price of income from the price can be viewed on a separate effect of revenue reduction. For the goods of the highest group, the volume of consumption will decrease. Normal goods with rising prices are buying less. In this case, demand is partially moving into goods with a constant price. The answer is presented in Problem No. 14.
Task 18.
Answer.
1. U2 \u003d 0 income compensates for work, u2 - 5\u003e 0, u1<0 бесплатный труд несёт отрицательную полезность;
4. The effect of income reduces the need for labor, the substitution effect increases its effectiveness;
5. A) on the example U3, b) U1;
6. For example, point 2. Independent income shifts the budget line parallel to up;
7. The shear of the utility line refers to the consideration of income only on this work, income lines - the total income.
4.2 Solving tasks on the topic: "Goods, price, money, credit"
Task 1.
Answer.
1. The equilibrium value of the banking percentage as the price of money is determined by the equilibrium condition: Q d \u003d q s. Q s \u003d 25,
R - the price of money, that is, a bank percentage is 30%.
2. In the event that the bank increases the offer of money by 5 million per. (Q s \u003d 30), then the new equilibrium price will be:
Bank percentage will decrease to 28.75%.
Task 2.
Answer.
According to Fisher's formula Mv \u003d pq,where: m is the mass of monetary units;
V - the speed of money circulation;
P - the price of goods;
Q is the number of goods presented in the market.
The total cost of sold goods is equal to PQ.
PQ \u003d 174 million den.ied
Task 3.
Answer.
In the bank and the depositor will get Pn \u003d s (1 + i) n, where s -contribution, I- percentage n. - number of years.
S \u003d 500, i \u003d 0.2, n. \u003d 5, p \u003d 500 (1 + 0.2) 5 \u003d 500 * 2.49 \u003d 1244
In the bank used the depositor in 5 years will receive Pn \u003d s (1+ in) \u003d500(1+5*0,25)=500*2,25=1125.
It is more profitable to invest in Bank A.
Task 4.
Answer.
1. Nominal rate \u003d
2. Real bid \u003d nominal - inflation rate \u003d 20% -22% \u003d -2%
Task 5.
Answer.
1. Ordinary interest with the exact number of loans days:
156=21+28+31+30+31+15;
S \u003d 20 000 (1 + 0.14 ·) \u003d 21 213.3, den.ru
2. Ordinary percentages with an approximate number of days loan:
S \u003d 20 000 (1 + 0.14 ·) \u003d 21 205.6, den.ru
3. Exact interest with an approximate number of days loans:
S \u003d 20 000 (1 + 0.14 ·) \u003d 21 189.0, den.ru
4. Exact interest with bank accounts:
S \u003d 20 000 (1 + 0.14 ·) \u003d 21 516.7, den.ru
Task 6.
Answer.
I EF \u003d (1+) Mn - 1.
i \u003d (1+) 365 - 1 \u003d 0.115156, i.e. 11%.
The actual income of the depositor for 1 tenge. Invested funds will be not 10 thiynes. (from the condition), and 11 thiyn. Thus, an effective interest rate on the deposit is higher than the nominal.
Task 7.
Answer.
a) i \u003d (1+) 4 - 1 \u003d 0.1038, i.e. 10.38%;
b) i \u003d (1+) 2 - 1 \u003d 0.1025, i.e. 10.25%.
The calculation shows that the difference between the rates is insignificant, but the accrual of 10% per annum is more profitable for the depositor.
Task 8.
Answer.
Calculation of the increasing amount when changing the interest rate in time with accrual of simple percentage.
S \u003d p (1 + i 1 t 1 + i 2 t 2 + i 3 t 3 + i n t n),
where I n is the rate of simple percent, T n is the duration of the accrual period.
S \u003d 10 000 (1 + 0.10 · 1 +0.105 · 1 + 0.11 · 1) \u003d 13 150, den.
Dr \u003d 3 150 den.ied
Task 9.
Answer.
When calculating complex interest is applied formula
S \u003d P (1 + i 1 T 1) · (1 + I 2 T 2) · (1+ I 3 T 3) · (1+ i n t n),
where I n is the rate of complex interest, T n is the duration of its accrual period.
S \u003d 10 000 (1 + 0.10 · 1) · (1 +0.105 · 1) · (1 + 0.11 · 1) \u003d 13 492, 05, den.ru
Task 10.
Answer.
The term of the loan (contribution) is determined by the formula: T \u003d · 365.
t \u003d () · 365 \u003d 730 days (2 years).
Task 11.
Answer.
t \u003d () \u003d 0.08 \u003d 8% per annum.
Task 12.
Answer.
Changing the cost under the influence of inflation can be calculated:
S \u003d p (1 + r · t), where (1 + r · t) is the average price level for a specific period; R is the inflation rate expressed in the coefficient.
S \u003d 5 000 (1 + 0.13 · 1) \u003d 5 650, den.ru
In other words, a year in the amount of 5,650 den.ied. It will be possible to purchase the same set of goods and services as at the beginning of the period, only in the amount of 5,000 den.ied.
Task 13.
Answer.
S \u003d 5 000 (1 + 0.13) 5 \u003d 9 212, den.ru
Task 14.
Answer.
The inverse task of the previous one, i.e. it is necessary to determine the average level of inflation for a specific time interval (within the period), based on the data level data for the year or more. The solution is carried out by calculating the mathematical root, the degree of which is t.
r \u003d 4 \u003d 1, 033 \u003d 3.3,%.
Task 15.
Answer.
1. The consumer goods market serves the commodity exchange on which transactions are concluded: with a premium (option), forward and futures transactions.
2. Labor market - labor exchange;
3. Securities Market - Stock Exchange;
4. Capital market - banks, financial and credit mediators.
Task 16.
Answer.
Bank costs. 12 * 0.2 \u003d 2.4 (mln. Den.) - payments to depositors.
Bank revenues. In connection with the need to reserve deposits, the bank cannot all 12 million to provide on credit, therefore:
1) 12 * 0.15 \u003d 1.8 (mln.den.) - reservation rate.
2) 12 - 1.8 \u003d 10.2 - the amount of loan.
If all the money bank is ottstst on a loan under 40% per annum, then the income will be equal to:
10.2 * 0.4 \u003d 4.08 (mln.d.ed.)
Profit Bank \u003d Income - Costs: 4.08-2.4 \u003d 1.68 millionDed.
Task 17.
Answer.
Purchase option. Rryn at the time of delivery 130. The option gives the right to buy for 100, paying for such a right to award 10, that is, the buyer will spend 110. It will not refuse the contract, because 110.<130, и таким образом выигрыш покупателя составит 130-110=+20. Продавец вынужден (обязан) продавать за 100, а мог бы продать, если бы не заключил контракт, за 130. С учётом премии его проигрыш -20.
Option for sale. Rmarket at the time of delivery 130. The seller has the right to sell the contract for 100, but it is less than the market price, and it is advantageous to refuse and sell the goods on the free market. At the same time, he loses the previously paid premium -10. The buyer is not losing anything and not making purchases, wins the premium +10.
Task 18.
Answer.
2. Macker;
3. Broker;
Task 19.
Answer.
M 0 \u003d 9583 million den.ru 43%
M 1 \u003d 9583 + 4511 \u003d 14094 million den.ru
M 2 \u003d 14094 + 7620 \u003d 21714 million den.ru
M 3 \u003d 21714 + 355 \u003d 22069 million den.ru 100%
Money mass structure:
Cash - 43%
Money on settlement accounts - 20%
Urgent deposits - 35%
Trust deposits and securities - 2%
End of form
18. Alternative costs of paid training do not include:a) the salary that could be obtained by working instead of learning;
b) the cost of educational literature and stationery;
c) costs for food;
d) training fee.
19. The farmer on his field can grow potatoes and wheat. If it sews the entire field of potatoes, it will collect 400 tons, and if wheat is 100 tons. What is the alternative value of one ton of wheat:
a) an alternative value cannot be accurately installed, as it is not known how much wheat is sown, and how many potatoes;
b) 4 tons of potatoes;
c) 1/4 tons of potatoes;
d) Alternative cost is impossible to determine because the prices are unknown.
20. You earn a day 200 rubles. One day you decide to leave the second half of the day on football, paying 50 rubles for a ticket. Your costs are:
a) 100 rubles as an income in half a day;
b) 50 rubles per ticket;
c) 150 rubles as an amount of income in half the day and ticket prices;
d) There are no alternative costs.
21. On the curve of production opportunities, the growth of the production of one type of product is combined:
a) with a decrease in the production of another type of product;
b) with an increase in the production of another type of product;
c) with a constant volume of production of another type of product;
d) any of the specified options is possible.
55. Limit costs are:a) the maximum costs of producing products;
b) average cost of product production;
c) costs associated with the release of an additional product unit;
d) the minimum cost of product release.
56. The total costs of production are:
a) the costs associated with the use of all resources and services for the production of products;
b) obvious (external) costs;
c) implicit (internal) costs, including normal profits;
d) costs of commodity producers associated with the acquisition of consumer goods for long-term use.
Page 3.
a) Adam Smith;c) Francois Kene;
d) David Ricardo.
6. To the problems that are studying microeconomics belongs:
a) economic growth;
b) unemployment;
c) monopolistic competition;
d) public debt.
7. The macroeconomic indicator is not:
a) the price of the computer;
b) GDP growth rate;
c) the unemployment rate;
d) Price level.
8. The subject of macroeconomics is not:
a) state tax policy;
b) the rate of economic growth of the country;
c) state budget deficit;
d) the level of salary of a separate worker.
9. The laws of supply and demand are studied within the framework of the course:
a) management;
b) microeconomics;
c) macroeconomics;
d) finance.
10. Economic School, expressing the interests of the trade bourgeoisie of the Epoch of the initial capital accumulation - this is:
a) mercantilism;
b) physiocration;
c) marginalism;
d) Marxism.
11. A mental decomposition of phenomena on the components and the allocation of individual parties to identify that specific in them, which distinguishes them from each other, is:
a) Economic experiment;
b) analysis;
c) discounting;
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12. Each point of production curve characterizes:a) the minimum production volume of products;
b) the maximum production volume;
c) the best combinations of producing products;
d) alternative combinations of goods under a given amount of resources.
13. A person who has the opportunity to get a job with payment from 4,000 to 6,000 rubles per hour, alternative costs of one hour of leisure equal, rub. / Hour:
14. For students, the alternative value of learning at the university reflects:
a) scholarship size;
b) the maximum earnings that can be obtained by throwing schools;
c) the costs of the state for the formation of a medium-term specialist;
d) the cost of parents for the content of the student.
15. Which of the list of factors of production is more accurate:
a) labor, land, capital, labor, management;
b) labor, means of production, technology, entrepreneurship, management;
c) resources, technology, entrepreneurship;
d) work, land, capital, entrepreneurship.
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16. Property economic relations are characterized by:a) using legal norms;
b) relations between people about things, benefits;
c) people's relations to things, benefits;
d) relationships between the means and objects of labor.
17. What is standing for the statement that before each economic system, the problem of limited resources is faced:
a) there are times when some products can be bought only at high prices;
b) production resources never enough to meet all human needs;
c) in any economy there are periods of recession when the lack of something is arising;
Page 6.
22. Property ownership is:a) the actual possession of the object;
b) extracting useful properties from it;
c) all of the listed correctly;
d) all listed incorrectly.
23. The economic system solves the following questions:
a) what, how, for whom and what is the growth rate;
b) what, how, for whom;
c) when, where, why;
d) What, where, for whom.
24. The criteria for delimitation of types of economic systems are:
a) ownership of the resources;
b) type of coordination mechanism;
c) the level of welfare of members of society;
d) The answers are true a and b.
25. If economic problems are solved and the market, and the government, the economy is:
a) market;
b) command;
c) mixed;
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26. The fundamental problem faced by all economic systems:a) investment;
b) consumption;
c) production;
d) limited resources.
27. Which of these characteristics does not apply to a market economy:
a) Private property;
b) centralized planning;
c) competition;
d) freedom of entrepreneurship.
28. Problems of "What, how and for whom to produce" may be related to:
a) only to societies where centralized planning dominates;
b) only to the market economy;
c) to any society regardless of its socio-economic and political organization;
d) only to totalitarian systems.
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57. Economic profit is equal to the difference:a) between gross income and external costs;
b) between external and internal costs;
c) between gross income and general costs;
d) between the overall revenue and depreciation.
58. Exact costs include all costs listed below, except:
a) wages;
b) costs for raw materials and materials;
c) depreciation;
d) electricity fees.
59. The cost of production of products is:
a) shared costs;
b) average costs;
c) external costs;
d) variable costs.
60. Internal costs include:
a) the cost of purchasing raw materials and materials for the production of products;
b) the costs of resources owned by the enterprise;
c) the costs associated with the acquisition of the land plot;
d) Rent for used equipment.
61. The purchase of raw materials from suppliers belongs:
a) to external costs;
b) to internal costs;
c) to constant costs;
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93. An example of transfer payments is:a) salary;
c) profit;
d) unemployment benefit.
94. GDP can be calculated as the sum:
a) consumption, investments, government procurement and pure exports;
b) consumption, transfer payments, wages and profits;
c) investment, wages, profits and value of intermediate goods;
d) the cost of finite goods, intermediate products, transfer payments and rent.
95. The founder of macroeconomics as science is:
a) J.M.Kanes;
b) A. Marshall;
c) A. Smith;
d) K. McConnell.
96. Potential GNP is:
a) the cost of all goods and services produced in the economy, starting from some base period to the present;
b) the cost of all goods and services that can be manufactured if the economy is functioning in the conditions of complete employment of labor;
c) the cost of all goods and services that can be produced if the economy functions with complete employment and capital;
d) the degree in which the GNP may increase if the level of investment is maximum.
97. The classic model assumes that the curve of the Cumulative Offer (AS) will be:
a) horizontal at the price level, determined by the total demand;
b) horizontal at the price level, determined by the interest rate and state policy;
c) vertical at an arbitrary level of GNP;
d) vertical at the level of potential GNP.
Page 10.
121. Direct taxes do not include:a) the income tax of enterprises;
b) income tax with individuals;
c) water fee, land tax;
d) VAT, excise taxes, customs duties.
122. A pronounced anti-inflationary fiscal policy suggests:
a) increase taxation and reducing government spending;
b) reduction and tax revenues, and government spending;
c) tax increases and a higher level of government spending;
d) tax reducing and higher level of government spending.
Alternative costs
Under production costs, it is customary to understand the expense group, cash spending necessary in order to create a product. That is, for enterprises (companies, companies), they are speaking paid manufacturing factors.
Due to such expenses, payments are covered by the materials necessary to ensure the production process (raw materials, electricity, fuel), employee payments, depreciation, and expenses to ensure production management.
When selling goods are held, entrepreneurs get revenue.
Some of the financial resources obtained goes to compensate for production costs (money for the production of the required number of goods), the second part is to ensure profit, the main goal, for which any production starts. This means that production costs will be less than the cost of goods on the volume of profit.
What are alternative costs?
Most of the production costs are from the use of resources providing this production. When resources are used in one place, they will not be applied somewhere else, because they are rare and limited.
For example, the money that was spent to buy a domain allowing to produce cast iron cannot be used to produce soda.
Result: if any resource is decided to use in some way, then it cannot be spent differently.
Considering this circumstance, with any decision to start production, there is a need to refuse to use some resources in order to use this very resource in the manufacture of other products. Thus, alternative costs are formed.
Alternative production costs - costs in the production of goods, which passed the assessment from the point of view of lost opportunities with the possible use of this very amount of resource for another purpose.
Example:
To be able to understand how an alternative cost is evaluated, you can consider a uninhabited island with Robinson Cruise. Corn and potatoes are two agricultural crops that he planted near his own hut.
The land plot is very limited from all sides: one side - the ocean, the second side of the rock, the third side is his hut, the fourth side is rocks. He decides to increase the area allotted under the corn.
It will be able to implement this plan only when it reduces the area for planting potatoes.
Alternative costs In the manufacture of each future corn, in the specified situation, potato tubers may express potato tubers, which were subsequently involved in the use of potato land resources to increase the area under the corn.
But in this example, it was about two products. And how to do it properly, when it comes to dozens, hundreds, thousands of different products, unlike themselves? In such cases, money comes to the rescue that all possible products are among themselves.
What is included in alternative costs?
Alternative production costs can be a difference between profit, the possibility, for which the use of the most profitable alternative options for the application of the resource, and profits, which was actually received by entrepreneurs.
But not all costs of manufacturers fall under the concept of alternative costs. When cost resources are used, carrying by manufacturers in order of unconditional (for example, expenses for registration, rental of the room and the like) will not be treated alternative. Therefore, expenses are not alternative will not take part in the economic choice.
The main differences between implicit and explicit costs
Given the economic point of view of the costs of an alternative nature, it is customary to divide into two categories: explicit and implicit costs.
The first category, to obvious costs, include alternative costs, the form of which are cash payments in favor of suppliers for production factors and intermediate products. The complex of such costs includes:
- wages of workers (fee of money for working, providing production);
- financial costs for the work of purchases or payment for renting special equipment for production, structures, buildings in which the process of production of goods will be held (cash payments in favor of capital suppliers);
- payment of transport costs;
- payment of utilities (water, light, gas);
- fee for the use of insurance companies and banking institutions;
- calculations with resource providers who have material character - raw materials, semi-finished products, components.
Under the implicit costs, the costs of exceptionally alternatively, arising from the use of resources owned by the organization itself (unpaid cost). They can be represented in such types:
1) in the form of cash payments that could be obtained in the event of the most profitable investment of resources at the disposal of the company. Lacked profit, a fee that could be received by the owner during other work, interest on capital invested in various types of securities, rental payments for the use of land.
2) in the form of a normal profit as minimal remuneration in favor of the entrepreneur to keep it in the selected business industry.
For example, the entrepreneur is engaged in the production of furniture, and will consider sufficient profit, which is 15% of the total amount of capital invested in the production process.
When furniture production will give him a normal profit, which is less than 15%, then it will change the generation of activities, moving its capital to other industries capable of ensuring a higher level of profit.
3) for the owners of capital - in the form of profits, which could be obtained by them when attaching their own resources is not in this, but in any other matter.
For the owners of land plots, the essence of implicit costs - the rent, which could be obtained by passing its sites for rent.
For entrepreneurs (and those who lead ordinary labor) - an implicit cost may be that payment that could be obtained when working on other firms in the same time.
Thus, in production costs, Western economic theory also includes the income of entrepreneurs (Marx interprets it as an average profit on the invested capital).
Therefore, the receipt of this kind of income is considered as a fee for all possible risks like a remuneration for an entrepreneur, an incentive for him in keeping its financial assets, without leaving the limits created by the company, without distracting part of resources to use them for other purposes.
Differences of economic and accounting costs
Production costs, inclusive with a normal or average profit, make up a cost of costs, which is economic.
Economic, or imputed costs in the modern economy, are those that were implemented under the conditions to make the best solution for the company in the economic plan when using resources. They are considered an ideal, which should strive to achieve each company.
Of course, in most cases, in reality everything happens a little differently, because any ideal to achieve is very difficult, or almost unreal.
It is necessary to additionally note that economic costs are not equal to the concepts and values \u200b\u200bincluded in the accounting data. The amount of profit received by entrepreneurs will not be included in the accounting costs.
Internal costs have direct links with those costs that occur when using part of their own product for further provision of the production process.
For example, about half of the grain harvest, which was grown in the fields of the enterprise, was used when conducting sowing work on the most land areas from which it was previously collected.
Since this grain is the property of the firm, and is used to meet their own internal needs, payment will not be made.
The internal cost is in direct connection with the use of its own product, which Budy is turned into resources to further provide the production process in the company.
External cost is the financial cost, to obtain the necessary number of resources to maintain the production that are not owned by the owners of this company.
Costs arising in the production process may be subject to classification not only not only taking into account the resources used resources, or those that needed to pay. There are other classifications.
The costs of alternative selection appear due to limited resources and the actual unlimited needs of people. Only demand among consumers and the relevant price lead to the correct use of limited resources.
For the first time, the concept of "costs of alternative selection" appeared at the end of the 19th century, he was introduced into the scientific circulation of Friedrich Vier. The essence of the theory he put forward is that, producing some benefits, we will not receive many utilities from other useful things that could be made using the same amount of resource.
A person cannot have everything he wants. Therefore, you have to make a choice based on the size of your income. In most cases, a person is inclined to choose the goods after the acquisition that maximum satisfaction will be obtained.
To make the purchase of the selected product, a person must refuse himself in acquiring other things. Those goods from which you have to refuse, making the purchases of the selected things - the imputed (hidden) purchase costs. Buying goods, in most cases, in return is given to some amount of money.
In practice, it is necessary to abandon the following desired things that could be bought, spend the same amount.
Enterprises, like individual people, should also make their choice - what to spend their own funds. For example, profits can be given to charitable needs, pay dividends to persons who own shares. Management should determine the priority tasks, and deal with them.
Alternative costs: Accounting and Economic
Economically costs reflect the relationship of the issuance of a product and indicators affecting the production process. If the organization is involved own, and not acquired from other companies resources, the price of goods for the report is more convenient to install in one monetary unit.
The purpose of the calculation of costs - calculating the difference in the cost of the product and its price for the consumer. These calculations are based on costs during production and technological cycle. The change in the cost of resources and maintenance affects the minimum production costs. Figure 1 presents the main varieties of costs.
Fig.1 - production costs
Costs are divided into categories on different features. Consider such types of production costs like alternative, economic and accounting.
What are accounting costs?
Accounting costs - Financial expenses that the company spends on manufacturing needs. This cost category is the company's payments to specific suppliers from outside.
Consider their classification (Fig.2)
Fig.2 - Classification of accounting costs of production
Direct and indirect costs
The main categories of accounting costs are direct and indirect. The first type is the costs of directly manufacturing products, the second - finance spent on the purchase of funds and production resources. Excluding indirect costs are impracticable design procedures, compiling overhead and depreciation of the company.
Accounting costs depreciate fixed capital. Investments are always present in any economic industry. Their components: buildings and techniques, the necessary production of products. This is fixed capital.
Constructions are exposed to external influences, therefore, a specific period (several decades), as well as equipment (up to two years) are used.
The company's accounting is obliged to take into account the wear of components of fixed capital and take into account depreciation costs among the costs.
What is economic costs?
Economic (temporary) costs - The total costs of economic procedures performed by the firm during the issue of goods or the provision of services. For example, resources and raw materials not recorded in the market turnover.
Economic costs are:
- Internal. Expenses for the application of own resources of the company in the manufacturing process.
- External. The cost of purchasing resources for the production process on the side.
- Permanent. Associated with the factors of production that remained for a long time. They are formed as a result of the availability of technical devices and are covered even if the latter is not applied in production. It is possible to get rid of such expenses 100% possible only at the absolute stop of the company's work, in this situation, constant costs become irrevocated costs. For example, funds spent on advertising, rental of premises, depreciation. Such costs are present even if the company's profit is zero.
- Variables. Proportional volume of the manufactured product. The larger the amount of goods planned to be released, the greater the costs are expected. For example, finance for the purchase of raw materials, energy, fuel resources, transportation. The main percentage of variable costs falls on the purchase of materials and the salary of workers.
- Common gross costs- Cumulative amount of costs for the entire production period. Include constant and variable costs. The cost of product release, which are directly proportional to the increase in the volume of the latter. To find out whether the enterprise is profitable, it is necessary to analyze all cost changes, for which the change in variables and gross costs is compared with the gross velocity.
- Limit - Costs for unplanned goods or deviation from recorded aggregate expenses with quantitative growth of production. The value of the limit cost is inversely proportional to the dynamics of the product produced.
- Middle - Common cost for each released product. Applied as the rules in order to compare with the final price of the goods. To calculate this value, total gross variables are divided into the amount of product produced. These costs are dependent on parameters such as payback, cost, market value and income size.
Examples of calculating economic costs:
Suppose that the calculus of the costs do not do employees of accounting, but the owner of the company. His task is to find out whether it is profitable for him to continue to engage in entrepreneurship in this area.
Here you need to approach costs from an economic point of view.
Then not only real expenses are taken into account, but also those means that the company has lost, putting this capital and spending that time.
For example, you are a lawyer by profession. You receive a proposal to become the director of the legal service in another organization, where you will work with the same efforts that in your company, but receive 12 thousand rubles.
At the same time, you take 10 thousand from the incomes of your business, invest them in a bank deposit and ensure that annual income on this amount. Those., When using this option, you will get a total profit by 22 thousand, but by choosing the opening of your company, you miss this opportunity.
This amount will reflect your implicit costs. In order to calculate economic costs, fold the implicit costs with accounting: and (e) \u003d and (n) + and (b).
From the set of calculations it turns out that, using the most favorable factors such as time and capital, that is, choosing the best use of resources, the entrepreneur will receive an income of 82 thousand rubles.
Is its leader who receives accounting profit of 20 thousand, and economic - minus 2 thousand, is pleased with the work of his company? Naturally, no. In this case, resources were used incorrectly.
Economic costs in our lives
Economic costs are present every day in the life of any person when he has to make an economic choice.
For example, choosing, on what transport (car, rail, air) you will get to another city, do not forget not only about the explicit costs (ticket costs), but also about implicit - profits that you can earn during the move.
From this point of view, inexpensive transport is often the most expensive. That is why entrepreneurs try to move from one settlement in the other are the fastest, and not cheap ways.
Entering an educational institution, you need to take into account not only the payment of training, but also lost income that you lose to refuse other activities.
Economic costs for the provider of production resources are income. Paying them, the company eliminates the possibility of alternative use of resources.
For example, at your company there is a locksmith well knowledgeable Chinese. But to raise him salary, based only on this, you will not.
However, in the event of an appearance next to you, a Chinese company firm will have to increase the income of this worker so that it does not change the place of employment.
conclusions
So, we conclude that with the incorrect use of resources, the company "pays" an economic loss.
What will happen if you choose the right alternative opportunity to invest your funds? The amount of accounting profits will be the same as implicit costs, income from the resources used - the maximum, economic costs will begin to meet the company's profits.
Economic profits in this case seeks to zero, but the owner of the company should arrange such an indicator, because It does not go in a loss, stopping on this, and not any alternative opportunity.
Thus, the zero economic profit is the norm and corresponds to the average income. Under which circumstances, the company will have economic profits "in the plus"? If it maximizes the resources used by the correctly planned scenario.
Positive economic income is the result of the organizational talent of the entrepreneur, the Bonus, which he receives the use of the latest technology and technology, the proper management of the company.
Its part that is more accounting profits is called super-profile. It depends on it, in which area the main resources will be sent.
But with the increase in the number of resources, the market proposal increases, which reduces the price of products, leading economic profits to zero value.
(3
Also allocated two types of higher education costs: straight and alternative. Consider each of these species in more detail on the examples of modern society and personal experience.
To begin with, you will get acquainted with direct costs that can be fully attributed to the product or service. These include:
- * The cost of raw materials and materials used in the production and implementation of goods and services;
- * Wages of workers (piecework), directly occupied by the production of goods;
- * Other direct costs (all costs that are somehow directly related to the goods).
This definition is directly related to higher education, upon receipt of which direct costs occur. An example is the students who for one or another reasons are trained on a commercial basis. Each semester they must make a certain amount of money to continue learning. Do not forget that when successful studies and active participation in the social and scientific life of the university, you can go to the budget basis of training. In addition, it may be the cost of buying stationery and additional educational literature necessary for training. Every month, students must replenish the social card with the aim of unlimited travel.
Alternative costs
This term was introduced by Friedrich von Wizer, Austrian economist, in 1914. By definition, alternative costs mean missed benefits (profit, income), as a result of the choice of one of the alternative resource use options and, thereby, refusing other possibilities. The amount of missed benefits is determined by the utility (goods or service that satisfy human needs) the most valuable of the discarded alternatives.
In my own example, it can be noted that on full-time learning all the time is dedicated to classes. Each module / semester is changing the schedule that does not allow you to get a permanent job or attend additional classes, as there is not enough time. Because of this, many students miss the possibility of additional earnings and gaining experience during operation. Also, some cannot afford to visit various sections, for the development of their talents, or special courses aimed at preparing future specialists. As a result, they are not developing in other directions only in the fact that they chose at the university.
It can be assumed that in the modern world there could be even more discoveries in various spheres of our life, but due to lack of time or dedication to other classes, the scientific and technical process is not accomplished as quickly as it would be wanted.
An alternative option may be a correspondence form of training that allows you to devote most of the time not to study, but personal interests. Unfortunately, this type of training is not always complete and most often does not bring such a number of knowledge and experience as full-time.
