Energy industry of Russia. Largest energy companies

The global energy industry is facing big changes. Over the past 10 years, the world has seen a rapid push towards renewable energy sources. The growth rate of wind and solar energy in the world has been 30% or more for several years in a row, which exceeds the growth rate of traditional coal and gas energy by an order of magnitude. During the crisis years of 2008-2009. This growth not only did not weaken, it accelerated. And this happened against the backdrop of falling prices for traditional energy resources and the seemingly increased attractiveness of gas, coal and petroleum products.

The global energy sector is growing mainly due to the introduction of capacities based on renewable energy sources, while new generation based on fossil fuels, as a rule, only replaces obsolete and inefficient energy capacities. In 2009-2010 A significant event took place in the world of energy. For the first time in history, the total capacity of all commissioned renewable energy sources exceeded the total capacity of new fuel generation. The trends have finally intersected and will continue to move in opposite directions. Why?

Global trend, fashion. The governments of developed countries and the world's largest manufacturing companies have opted for renewable energy. The global elite is in search of a new direction for economic development, a new application of capital and knowledge. So far, renewable energy seems to be one of these promising areas.

Cost indicators. The era of cheap hydrocarbons is coming to an end. The extraction of oil, gas, and coal is moving further and further into the sea, into the taiga, to the north or south. The cream was skimmed off in the 20th century. There is no doubt that the resources of oil, gas and coal will last for hundreds of centuries, but these resources will be expensive. On the contrary, kW of installed renewable energy capacity has fallen in price by an order of magnitude over the past 30 years. In some cases, the price of electricity produced using renewable energy sources is already cheaper than electricity using hydrocarbon fuels.

Technical progress and new technologies. Technological progress has certainly affected all sectors of the world economy. But in the field of renewable energy sources, in recent years he has been noticeably ahead. The efficiency of equipment has increased several times with a constant reduction in its price. For example, wind generators installed in Europe 10 years ago are already morally and physically obsolete. In the fuel energy industry, on the contrary, new types of equipment are, as a rule, more sophisticated and more expensive than the previous ones.

Political risks. The world is becoming more and more unstable, which significantly affects the volatility of prices for traditional energy resources, the lion's share of which in the final price is the payment for the “mood” of investors and speculators.

Infrastructure risks. As a consequence of political risks, difficulties and disruptions arise with the supply of energy resources themselves, the production areas of which are remote from the areas of consumption. In the mid-twentieth century, the world was already going through a temporary stage of abandoning oil pipelines (for example, on the Arabian Peninsula) in favor of the development of tanker transportation due to political instability in the region. Apparently, the same thing awaits us in the near future. Gas pipeline megaprojects in Eurasia face a lot of market and political risks in transit countries, the influence of pirates on the seas is increasing, etc. All this increases the risk of fuel shortages, and accordingly, large costs are required for maintenance and storage of energy resources.

Terrorist risks. The fuel energy infrastructure is attracting increased attention from all kinds of extremist and radical communities. In this regard, in recent years the costs of their protection and safety have increased manifold. RES facilities from this point of view are less interesting: they are low-power, distributed over the territory, their destruction in no way threatens the lives of surrounding people (there is no point in blowing up an offshore wind farm, for example).

Distributed generation. All the risks listed above are gradually forming a new global trend - the growth of distributed generation capacities - the transition from large generating facilities to much smaller energy clusters. And energy based on renewable energy sources fits very well into this paradigm, which does not require the creation of expensive transport infrastructure for its own development (both for the supply of energy resources and for the transmission of electricity). Distributed generation using renewable energy sources logically fits into the problem of energy saving and increasing energy efficiency: most of the energy is consumed at the place of its production, which eliminates electricity losses during transport.

Environmental factors. Here, the advantages of energy based on renewable energy sources compared to fuel energy are indisputable. Renewable energy uses solar energy or human waste products as energy resources.

Pros and cons

Renewable energy cannot be fully equated with green energy. She also has her opponents - ecologists, political scientists, power engineers. Thus, it is widely believed that large-scale wind power is a source of low-frequency vibrations that are destructive to all living things. Countless birds have allegedly been harmed by wind turbines, and offshore wind farms are seriously disrupting the navigational thinking of migratory birds and preventing schools of fish from navigating the sea.

However, there are official statistics that say that, for example, in Germany, as many as 3 birds per year died from the operation of blades in 2009. And the “stupid” Germans stubbornly continue to build residential buildings right under the towers of megawatt-class wind power plants.

Solar energy is also not ideal from a green perspective. The technology for obtaining raw materials for solar modules is based on chlorine chemistry, which kills everything around. They say that at the production stage of solar modules the “green” effect of solar energy is completely exhausted.

For each type of alternative energy, similar counterarguments can be made.

It is customary to choose the lesser of two evils. Few people think about the pollution of the world space by such industries as mining, metallurgy, and traditional large-scale energy (fuel and non-fuel). We are just beginning to understand their “contribution.”

Solar and wind generation do have other, much more serious technological problems. The sun does not shine at night, solar modules do not work from the shine of the stars and the moon. The wind power plant does not operate in low winds or calm conditions. The variability of energy production over time is a truly serious problem in some sectors of non-traditional energy, which adversely affects the capacity factor of renewable energy power plants, and, consequently, the price and payback period of renewable energy projects. But for the development of renewable energy sources globally, this problem is not of great importance. The Danish experience is proof of this. In this small European country, over the past 5-7 years, the share of wind generation in the structure of the entire electric power industry in terms of capacity has been about 20-25%. Moreover, on some windy nights, wind energy covers all the country’s electricity needs! In calm weather, the share of wind energy never drops to zero and fluctuates at 5-10% of the country's total electricity needs. This is explained by the fact that wind power plants are relatively evenly distributed throughout the country and a complete absence of wind in all points is extremely unlikely. On calm days, the Danes cover the deficit of their own generation with electricity from Norway, generated at local hydroelectric power plants. The alternative energy option described above allows us to draw several interesting conclusions that are valid both for Denmark and for any other country:

Even in Denmark, energy based on renewable energy sources does not aim to completely displace traditional energy, although the global plan has approved targets to increase the share of wind energy in the country’s energy production structure to 50% by 2030.
- Alternative energy rather successfully complements traditional energy, allowing it to respond quite flexibly to changes in demand. Basic electricity generation, even in the most developed countries in terms of RES development, is still based on fuel generation. This situation will not change in the coming years, since technologies for storing and distributing large volumes of energy have not yet been invented and tested, and a network of small power plants based on renewable energy sources has not yet been developed everywhere.
- Energy based on renewable energy sources is most effective in the case of a combination of several of its types or in the case of a combination with traditional energy and the use of smart grids (smart grid)

Place of Russia

Where is Russia's place in the world of global renewable energy? In terms of installed renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydropower), the Russian Federation ranks close to the end of the top hundred; in terms of the share of renewable energy sources in the energy balance (less than 1%), we are already outside the top hundred countries. In more than a hundred countries around the world, support for energy from renewable energy sources is enshrined at the legislative level to one degree or another. Of all the developed countries of the world, only the Russian Federation actually lacks working legislative initiatives to support renewable energy sources, not to mention direct measures to stimulate renewable energy sources such as “green” tariffs. Russia is still on the sidelines... And this despite the fact that just a few decades ago, in the middle of the 20th century, the USSR was a pioneer in the development of energy based on renewable energy sources in the world.

What is the reason for this state of affairs? Perhaps we have our own special way of economic development? Maybe the West is bluffing, exaggerating the merits of alternative energy?

Conservatism of the political elite, reluctance to real develop the country, fear and distrust of new technologies. The powerful “anti-alternative” oil and gas lobby at the level of top government officials, as well as the total dominance of myths about the high cost, low efficiency and uncompetitiveness of energy based on renewable energy sources, based on information and statistics from the mid-1980s, in the relevant ministries led to complete stagnation in this regions in the Russian Federation. We are leaving ahead even the underdeveloped countries of Tropical Africa, Latin America and Oceania, where relevant laws are ripening like mushrooms after rain, programs to support the development of renewable energy sources are being adopted, and the first projects are being implemented. For developing countries, this is a chance to build a new energy sector and move to the next round of economic development, bypassing the hydrocarbon stage.
It is interesting that even such “hydrocarbon” giants as the UAE and Qatar are not shy about keeping up with the times regarding the development of renewable energy sources. Moreover, these countries, along with the developed countries of Europe and the United States, strive to take leading positions in this area of ​​energy. The MASDAR project is being developed in the UAE, which includes the world's first ultra-modern eco-city entirely powered by renewable energy sources, with a technological university specializing in renewable energy sources, residential, public, and commercial buildings.

Beijing and London, the Olympic capitals of 2008 and 2012, relied on the use of energy-saving technologies and renewable energy sources. In the Thames Estuary, by the opening of the Games, it is planned to launch the largest wind farm in the UK, and throughout Europe, London Array, with a capacity of over 1 GW. On the contrary, the concept of the Sochi Olympics contains “anti-green” principles: the transformation of the reserve into a construction site, the construction of thermal power plants, controversial solutions to the “garbage problem,” and even greater densification of the city of Sochi. Almost none of the initiatives for the use of renewable energy sources and modern energy saving solutions find support and are smashed against the wall of corruption gates.
And yet, energy based on renewable energy sources will exist in Russia. It is already developing and growth is gradually accelerating. There are objective reasons for this:

Resource potential. Russia has the largest renewable energy resources in the world, of almost all types. In some locations, a combination of local conditions contributes to almost immediate payback for projects based on renewable energy sources. For example, projects to supply energy to objects remote from infrastructure, biogas clusters, wood pellet production, zero-emission houses, etc. These areas of RES are already successfully developing even without special measures to support RES from the state.

Support. Until recently, the development of energy based on renewable energy sources in the Russian Federation came from below, by engineers, amateurs, small creative teams and enthusiasts. In recent years, powerful support for the development of renewable energy sources has also appeared “from above” - RusHydro, Renova, Rusnano, Rostekhnologii and Rosatom are gradually being included in the process of creating a renewable energy market in the Russian Federation.

Decay of infrastructure. It is becoming more and more difficult and expensive for new owners, builders and developers to agree on connections to energy networks and gas pipelines. There are significant limitations on available capacity. The country's energy grid requires large-scale modernization, which, apparently, will follow the path of development of decentralized generation.

Territory development and new construction. In areas where there is no ready-made infrastructure (electricity networks, gas pipelines), it is necessary to look for alternative ways to supply energy to new infrastructure facilities. In the most energy-scarce regions, the choice is increasingly being made in favor of own generation based on renewable energy sources. Heating with gasoline and diesel fuel is becoming more and more expensive every day.

Rising tariffs. The most important driver for the growth of generation based on renewable energy sources is the consistent bringing of domestic Russian prices for gas and electricity to Western levels. A complete transition to equal-income tariffs with European gas tariffs and liberalization of the electricity market will lead to the fact that without the use of generation based on renewable energy sources and energy saving, it will be difficult for Russian consumers to ensure their competitiveness.

alternative energy, biofuel, biogas, wind energy, solar energy, energy saving

Human energy consists of two streams. One pillar comes from below from the ground, and another from above from space. Each person has individual threads of energy. They cannot be torn away from him.

What is aura

There is a special device that can be used to photograph a person’s energy field. The latter is often called "aura". is formed by two streams, twisting around the body. Each of them must flow completely freely, passing through seven special centers, “Washing” all human organs and systems, energy “flowing” from the toes and hands. A very important point for health and mental well-being is unhindered behavior. If in some place there is a stop or inhibition of the flow of energy, then organs or tissues begin to ache. If its supply from space is blocked, then the person experiences depression. Any violation immediately affects our condition. Unfortunately, such failures happen all the time. They can be caused not only by external influences, but also by any of our negative thoughts. It is also true that serious disruptions are provoked only by a long-term stop of energy flows. That is, if you hate someone, then you harm not only him, but also yourself.

Negative human energy

When a person experiences failures or misfortunes, the execution of plans is regularly disrupted, then they say that his aura is polluted. This is possible if he has seriously sinned or if “black damage” has been artificially introduced into the field. People's energy is very receptive. The fact is that we constantly communicate with each other

another at the field level. People may not know each other, or even suspect each other’s existence, but our auras constantly interact. This process involves the exchange of some parts of our individual energy. Without knowing it, we can pour negative energy into another person. This happens when we experience envy, anger, pity or another emotion towards one or more people. Any thought directed at a person is accompanied by the transfer of energy to him. It happens that negative energy is introduced into the field intentionally (damage).

Cleansing human energy

In fact, caring about the purity of the aura in the modern world is just as normal

procedure, like hygiene or healthy lifestyle. Due to constant exchange, people’s energy is subject to some “clogging”. That is, we constantly “grab” other people’s negative programs. You need to get rid of them regularly. This is done in different ways. Believers purify themselves by prayer and keeping the commandments of the Lord. Esotericists have their own methods. You can also use the services of magicians who specialize in cleaning the field. The best way to preserve the natural purity of the aura is protection from negativity. And the best defense is love and a positive attitude. It is known that people at the peak of euphoria are very difficult to infect with negativity. He just bounces off them. It’s just that when you’re in love, the energy is so strong that someone else’s “minus” is simply not able to break through it.

So, a person is, essentially, an energy field. The higher and purer his aura, the brighter and calmer his life flows.

Energy is the basis of world civilization. Man is a man only due to his exceptional, unlike all living beings, ability to use and control the energy of nature.

The first type of energy mastered by man was the energy of fire. The fire made it possible to heat the home and cook food. By learning to make and maintain fire on their own and by improving the technology of tool production, people were able to improve the hygiene of their bodies by heating water, improve home heating, and also use the energy of fire to make tools for hunting and attacking other groups of people, that is, in the “military” purposes.

One of the main sources of energy in the modern world is the energy of combustion of petroleum products and natural gas. This energy is widely used in industry and technology; the use of internal combustion engines of vehicles is based on it. Almost all modern types of transport are powered by the combustion energy of liquid hydrocarbons - gasoline or diesel fuel.

The next breakthrough in the development of energy occurred after the discovery of the phenomenon of electricity. Having mastered electrical energy, humanity has made a huge step forward. Currently, the electric power industry is the foundation for the existence of many sectors of the economy, providing lighting, communication (including wireless), television, radio, electronic devices, that is, everything without which it is impossible to imagine modern civilization.

Nuclear energy is of great importance for modern life, since the cost of one kilowatt of electricity generated by a nuclear reactor is several times less than when generating a kilowatt of electricity from hydrocarbons or coal. Atomic energy is also used in space programs and medicine. However, there is a serious danger of using atomic energy for military or terrorist purposes, therefore, careful control over nuclear energy facilities is required, as well as careful handling of reactor elements during its operation.

The civilizational problem of humanity is that the natural reserves of oil, gas, as well as coal, which is also widely used in industry and chemical production, will sooner or later run out. Therefore, the issue of searching for alternative energy sources is urgent; a lot of scientific research is being conducted in this direction. Unfortunately, oil and gas companies are not interested in curtailing oil and gas production, since the entire modern world economy is based on this. However, someday a solution will be found, otherwise energy and environmental collapse will become inevitable, which will result in serious troubles for all of humanity.

We can say that energy for humanity is heavenly fire, the gift of Prometheus, which can heat, bring light, protect from darkness and lead to the stars, or can burn the whole world to ashes. The use of various types of energy requires a clear mind, conscience and iron will of people.

Energy- the area of ​​human economic activity, a set of large natural and artificial subsystems that serve for the transformation, distribution and use of energy resources of all types. Its goal is to ensure energy production by converting primary, natural energy into secondary, for example, electrical or thermal energy. In this case, energy production most often occurs in several stages:

Electric power industry

Electric power is a subsystem of the energy sector, covering the production of electricity at power plants and its delivery to consumers via power transmission lines. Its central elements are power plants, which are usually classified according to the type of primary energy used and the type of converters used for this. It should be noted that the predominance of one or another type of power plant in a particular state depends primarily on the availability of appropriate resources. Electric power industry is usually divided into traditional And unconventional.

Traditional electric power

A characteristic feature of traditional electric power is its long-standing and good development; it has undergone long-term testing in a variety of operating conditions. The main share of electricity throughout the world is obtained from traditional power plants; their unit electrical power very often exceeds 1000 MW. Traditional electric power industry is divided into several areas.

Thermal energy

In this industry, electricity production is carried out at thermal power plants ( TPP), using the chemical energy of organic fuel for this purpose. They are divided into:

Thermal power engineering on a global scale predominates among traditional types; 46% of the world's electricity is generated from coal, 18% from gas, another 3% from the combustion of biomass, oil is used for 0.2%. In total, thermal stations provide about 2/3 of the total output of all power plants in the world

The energy of such countries as Poland and South Africa is almost entirely based on the use of coal, and the Netherlands - gas. The share of thermal power engineering in China, Australia, and Mexico is very large.

Hydropower

In this industry, electricity is produced from hydroelectric power plants ( hydroelectric power station), using the energy of water flow for this purpose.

Hydroelectric power plants predominate in a number of countries - in Norway and Brazil, all electricity generation occurs on them. The list of countries in which the share of hydroelectric power generation exceeds 70% includes several dozen.

Nuclear energy

An industry in which electricity is produced from nuclear power plants ( NPP), using for this purpose the energy of a controlled nuclear chain reaction, most often uranium and plutonium.

France is the leader in terms of the share of nuclear power plants in electricity generation, about 70%. It also prevails in Belgium, the Republic of Korea and some other countries. The world leaders in the production of electricity from nuclear power plants are the USA, France and Japan.

Non-traditional power industry

Most areas of non-traditional electric power are based on completely traditional principles, but the primary energy in them is either local sources, such as wind, geothermal, or sources that are under development, such as fuel cells or sources that can be used in the future, such as thermonuclear energy. The characteristic features of non-traditional energy are their environmental friendliness, extremely high capital construction costs (for example, for a solar power plant with a capacity of 1000 MW it is necessary to cover an area of ​​about 4 km² with very expensive mirrors) and low unit power. Directions of non-traditional energy:

• Fuel cell installations

You can also highlight an important concept due to its widespread use - small energy, this term is not currently generally accepted, along with it the terms local energy, distributed energy, autonomous energy etc. Most often, this is the name given to power plants with a capacity of up to 30 MW with units with a unit capacity of up to 10 MW. These include both the environmentally friendly types of energy listed above and small power plants using fossil fuels, such as diesel power plants (among small power plants they are the vast majority, for example in Russia - approximately 96%), gas piston power plants, low-power gas turbine units using diesel and gas fuel.

Electricity of the net

Electrical network- a set of substations, switchgears and power lines connecting them, designed for the transmission and distribution of electrical energy. The electrical network provides the possibility of issuing power from power plants, transmitting it over a distance, converting electricity parameters (voltage, current) at substations and distributing it throughout the territory up to direct power consumers.

Electrical networks of modern energy systems are multi-stage, that is, electricity undergoes a large number of transformations on the way from electricity sources to its consumers. Also typical for modern electrical networks multi-mode, which means the variety of loads of network elements on a daily and annual basis, as well as the abundance of modes that arise when various network elements are brought into scheduled repairs and during their emergency shutdowns. These and other characteristic features of modern electrical networks make their structures and configurations very complex and diverse.

Heat supply

The life of a modern person is associated with the widespread use of not only electrical, but also thermal energy. In order for a person to feel comfortable at home, at work, or in any public place, all premises must be heated and supplied with hot water for domestic purposes. Since this is directly related to human health, in developed countries suitable temperature conditions in various types of premises are regulated by sanitary rules and standards. Such conditions can be realized in most countries of the world only with a constant supply of heating to the object ( heat sink) a certain amount of heat, which depends on the temperature of the outside air, for which hot water is most often used with a final temperature for consumers of about 80-90 ° C. Also, various technological processes of industrial enterprises may require the so-called industrial steam with a pressure of 1-3 MPa. In general, the supply of heat to any object is provided by a system consisting of:

• heat source, such as a boiler room;
• heating network, for example from hot water or steam pipelines;
• heat sink, for example a water heating battery.

District heating

A characteristic feature of centralized heat supply is the presence of an extensive heating network, from which numerous consumers (factories, buildings, residential premises, etc.) are powered. For district heating, two types of sources are used:

• Thermal power plants ( CHP);
• Boiler houses, which are divided into:
  • Hot water;
  • Steam.

Decentralized heat supply

A heat supply system is called decentralized if the heat source and heat sink are practically combined, that is, the heat network is either very small or absent. Such heat supply can be individual, when separate heating devices are used in each room, for example, electric, or local, for example, heating the building using its own small boiler house. Typically, the heating capacity of such boiler houses does not exceed 1 Gcal/h (1.163 MW). The power of individual heating sources is usually quite small and is determined by the needs of their owners. Types of decentralized heating:

• Small boiler houses;
• Electrical, which is divided into:
  • Direct;
  • Accumulative;

Heating network

Heat network is a complex engineering and construction structure that serves to transport heat using a coolant, water or steam, from a source, a thermal power plant or boiler house, to thermal consumers.

Energy fuel

Since most of the traditional power plants and heating sources produce energy from non-renewable resources, the issues of extraction, processing and delivery of fuel are extremely important in the energy sector. Traditional energy uses two fundamentally different types of fuel.

Organic fuel

Gaseous

natural gas, artificial:

• Blast gas;
• Petroleum distillation products;
• Underground gasification gas;

Liquid

The natural fuel is oil; the products of its distillation are called artificial:

Solid

Natural fuels are:

• Fossil fuel:
• Vegetable fuel:
  • Wood waste;
  • Fuel briquettes;

Artificial solid fuels are:

Nuclear fuel

The main and fundamental difference between nuclear power plants and thermal power plants is the use of nuclear fuel instead of organic fuel. Nuclear fuel is obtained from natural uranium, which is mined:

• In mines (France, Niger, South Africa);
• In open pits (Australia, Namibia);
• By underground leaching method (Kazakhstan, USA, Canada, Russia).

Energy systems

Energy system (energy system)- in a general sense, a set of energy resources of all types, as well as methods and means for their production, transformation, distribution and use, which ensure the supply of consumers with all types of energy. The energy system includes electric power, oil and gas supply systems, coal industry, nuclear energy and others. Typically, all these systems are combined on a national scale into a single energy system, and on the scale of several regions into unified energy systems. The integration of individual energy supply systems into a single system is also called intersectoral fuel and energy complex, it is primarily due to the interchangeability of various types of energy and energy resources.

Often, an energy system in a narrower sense is understood as a set of power plants, electrical and thermal networks that are interconnected and connected by common modes of continuous production processes for the conversion, transmission and distribution of electrical and thermal energy, which allows for centralized management of such a system. In the modern world, consumers are supplied with electricity from power plants, which may be located close to consumers or may be located considerable distances away from them. In both cases, the transmission of electricity is carried out through power lines. However, if consumers are remote from the power plant, transmission must be carried out at a higher voltage, and step-up and step-down substations must be built between them. Through these substations, using electrical lines, power plants are connected to each other for parallel operation on a common load, also through heating points using heat pipelines, only at much shorter distances, thermal power plants and boiler houses are connected to each other. The totality of all these elements is called energy system, with such a combination, significant technical and economic advantages arise:

• significant reduction in the cost of electricity and heat;
• significant increase in the reliability of electricity and heat supply to consumers;
• increasing the efficiency of operation of various types of power plants;
• reduction of the required reserve capacity of power plants.

Such enormous advantages in the use of energy systems led to the fact that by 1974, only less than 3% of the world's total electricity was generated by separately operating power plants. Since then, the power of energy systems has continuously increased, and powerful integrated systems have been created from smaller ones.

see also

Notes

1. 2017 Key World Energy Statistics(undefined)(PDF). http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/ 30. IEA (2017).
2. Under the general editorship of corresponding member. RAS

Probably everyone has paid attention to the division of people according to the degree of success and attractiveness for material wealth. Some can easily create a happy family, others earn a lot of money without straining. What is most interesting is that it is much more difficult to find a person who is successful in all areas at once, so that there is happiness in the family and money flows like a river. But a lot of individuals complain about success in only one area. As a rule, achieving success in another area is much more difficult, and sometimes even impossible. This happens because each of us has the energy of one dominant color. The color of energy determines what earthly resources we will attract. Each person has one primary color in their energy system, which serves as a magnet for its inherent benefits. However, this same color cannot attract benefits that are not characteristic of it.

What is energy? What determines its color?.

Energy is a shell of the energy surrounding us, which we create ourselves. All our thoughts, goals, priorities, attitude towards ourselves and the world around us, principles and actions influence its color and richness. If a person is self-confident, loves himself, has high self-esteem, knows his way, is energetic, successful and lucky, then his energy will be yellow. If he is energetic, sexy, loves to rule and dominate, and knows how to work to his full potential, then his energy will most likely be red.

There are 10 such colors in total. Of these, three colors are not successful and not pure: brown, black and gray. The others include: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. To summarize: the color of our energy depends on the direction of our thinking and perception of the world. Thus, we are attracted to the benefits that are characteristic of our color. It works as follows: the direction of our thoughts is reflected in the unconscious, which triggers a certain energy center, and that in turn begins to produce a certain energy color. The degree of attraction of related benefits depends on the saturation of the energy shell and its color. The saturation of energy, in turn, is determined by the degree of satisfaction with oneself, one’s life, energy breakdowns and weeds. By learning to think in a certain way, it is possible to change or saturate the energy.

What is energy? Primary colors.

Most often, one energy color dominates in each person, but sometimes another one is mixed in, but in a weaker form. For example, a mixture of yellow energy with orange or green with an admixture of blue is often found. Now let’s take a closer look at the main colors of energy.

Red energy is characteristic of people who are strong-willed, powerful, selfish, loving and able to dominate, as well as occupy leading positions. They are often assertive, sexy, hard-working and aggressive. The energy of these people attracts power, sex with various partners, an active and busy life, and sometimes even extreme adventures. People with red energy tend to achieve their goals without being shy about the methods of achieving it.

Orange color of energy suits individuals who are selfish, loving and know how to enjoy life, often lazy. They love calmness, leisurely decision-making, wrap themselves in comfort and try not to overwork themselves. The energy of such people attracts pleasure and enjoyment of life, tranquility, work for pleasure, comfort and coziness.

Yellow energy is characteristic of individuals who are selfish, self-confident, self-loving, have high self-esteem, are able to enjoy success and believe in good luck. The energy of these people attracts luck, success, money, fame, as well as the good attitude of other people. Yellow energy tends to be the center of attention and at the peak of success.

Green energy is inherent in people who love all living things around them. As a rule, such people are altruistic, fair and principled. The energy of such people attracts love, justice, and goodness. Green energy can easily build strong and happy family relationships.

Blue energy is characteristic of individuals who are light-hearted, creative and sociable. Carriers of blue energy attract ease in business and life. They strive for creative self-realization.

Blue energy is inherent in people who rely on their intellect, think through their actions one step ahead, and have developed logical thinking. Blue energy attracts intellectual work and a clearly planned life with a minimum of emotions. People with blue energy are prone to professional growth. They accept only the logical world, while rejecting logically inexplicable information.

Violet energy is characteristic of spiritually developed individuals who prefer the spiritual world to the material world, have considerable wisdom, have a rich inner world and have a huge influence on the people around them. Typical representatives of violet energy are sages. Violet energy attracts spiritual knowledge and provides the opportunity to influence the development of other people.

Now a few words about unsuccessful energy drinks, which include black, brown and gray. Unfortunately, more than sixty percent of the people on earth are carriers of such energies. But there is also a positive aspect - the percentage of bad energy drinks is decreasing. This happens thanks to the rising standard of living and the gradual spiritual improvement of people.

Black energy is characteristic of people who are angry, envious, vengeful, dissatisfied with themselves and their lives, negative, with a strong blackness. Black energy brings evil to the world, wishing the worst for people. This energy attracts everything that it desires for others.

People with brown energy include people who have a pessimistic outlook on life, with developed complexes, who do not love themselves, who do not respect themselves, and who have low self-esteem. Often such people are not bad, and sometimes even fair and noble, but developed blackness interferes with a pure perception of the world, which introduces negativity, develops complexes and brings bad luck. Brown energy attracts failures, disappointments, stress, stagnation in business and a difficult personal life.

Gray energy is characteristic of people with a broken energy shell, which deprives a person of vital energy and strength. The breakdown occurs due to the individual’s dissatisfaction with himself or the world around him, self-flagellation and other influences of blackness. Gray energy tries to hide in its world from the surrounding adversities and people, which primarily blocks success, luck and other benefits of the modern world from them. Gray energy is so devoid of energy that it makes it invisible to the universe.

What is energy? How to develop it.

Any energy can be developed and made more attractive for the benefits of the universe. Energy can not only be forged and saturated, but also even changed depending on the circumstances. It is possible to train your energy both by working on your thinking and perception of the world, and by influencing energy centers. There is a wonderful and unique method for developing energy. You can find out by attending the “Four Leaps to Success” training. You can study the details of the “four leaps to success” training by clicking on.

Before we begin to consider the issues of the electric power industry, it is necessary to understand what energy is in general, what problems it solves, what role it plays in human life?

Energy is an area of ​​human activity that includes the receipt (extraction), processing (conversion), transportation (transmission), storage (except electrical energy), distribution and use (consumption) of energy resources and energy carriers of all types. Energy has developed, deep, internal and external connections. Its development is inseparable from all aspects of human activity. Such complex structures with various external and internal connections are considered as large systems.

The definition of a large energy system (LSE) contains the conditions for dividing a large system into subsystems - the hierarchy of its structure, the development of connections between subsystems, the unity of tasks and the presence of independent goals for each subsystem, and the subordination of particular goals to the general one. Such subsystems include fuel energy, nuclear energy, hydropower, thermal energy, electric power and other subsystems. Electric power engineering occupies a special place in this series, not only because it is the subject of our study, but mainly because electricity is a special type of energy with specific properties that should be discussed in more detail.

1.2. Electricity is a special type of energy

The specific properties of electricity include:

– the possibility of obtaining it from other (virtually any) types of energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical, solar and others);

– the possibility of converting it into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical, light, and other types of energy);

– the ability to convert it into electrical energy of any required parameters (for example, voltage from microvolts to hundreds and even thousands of kilovolts - “The highest voltage three-phase alternating current line, 1610 km long, was laid in Russia and Kazakhstan and transmits current with a voltage of 1200 (1150) kV " );

– the ability to transmit over significant (thousands of kilometers) distances;

– high degree of automation of production, transformation, transmission, distribution and consumption;

– impossibility (for now) of storing large quantities for a long time: the process of production and consumption of electrical energy is a one-time act;

– relative environmental cleanliness.

Such properties of electricity have led to its widespread use in industry, transport, everyday life, and in almost any field of human activity - this is the most common type of energy consumed.

1.3. Electrical energy consumption. Consumer load schedules

A large number of different consumers are involved in the process of consuming electrical energy. The energy consumption of each of them is uneven throughout the day and year. It can be long-term or short-term, periodic, regular or random, depending on working days, weekends and holidays, on the operation of enterprises in one, two or three shifts, on the duration of the daylight hours, air temperature, etc.

The following main groups of electrical energy consumers can be distinguished: – industrial enterprises; - construction; – electrified transport; - Agriculture; – household consumers and the service sector of cities and workers’ settlements; – own needs of power plants, etc. Receivers of electricity can be asynchronous electric motors, electric furnaces, electrothermal, electrolysis and welding installations, lighting and household appliances, air conditioning and refrigeration units, radio and television installations, medical and other special-purpose installations. In addition, there is a technological consumption of electricity associated with its transmission and distribution in electrical networks.

Rice. 1.1. Daily load charts

Electricity consumption mode can be represented by load graphs. A special place among them is occupied by daily load graphs, which are a continuous graphical representation of the consumer’s electricity consumption during the day (Fig. 1.1, A). It is often more convenient to use stepwise approximated load graphs (Fig. 1.1, b). They received the greatest use.

Each electrical installation has a load schedule characteristic of it. As an example in Fig. Figure 1.2 shows daily graphs: utility consumers of the city with predominantly lighting load (Fig. 1.2, a); light industry enterprises operating in two shifts (Fig. 1.2, b); oil refinery with three shifts (Fig. 1.2, c).

Graphs of electrical loads of enterprises in various industries, cities, and workers' settlements make it possible to predict the expected maximum loads, mode and size of electricity consumption, and to reasonably design the development of the system.

Due to the continuity of the process of production and consumption of electricity, it is important to know how much electricity needs to be generated at any given time and to determine the dispatch schedule for electricity generation by each power plant. For the convenience of drawing up dispatch schedules for electricity generation, daily electricity consumption schedules are divided into three parts (Fig. 1.1, a). The lower part, where R<R night min is called the base. Here there is a continuous consumption of electricity throughout the day. The middle part, where R night min<R< R days min is called half-peak. Here the load increases in the morning and decreases in the evening. The upper part, where P > P days min is called peak. Here, during the daytime, the load constantly changes and reaches its maximum value.

1.4. Production of electrical energy. Participation of power plants in electricity generation

Currently, in our country, as well as throughout the world, most of the electricity is produced at powerful power plants, in which some other type of energy is converted into electrical energy. Depending on the type of energy that is converted into electricity, there are three main types of power plants: thermal (CHP), hydraulic (HPP) and nuclear power plants (NPP).

On thermal power plants The primary source of energy is organic fuel: coal, gas, fuel oil, oil shale. Among thermal power plants, condensing power plants (CPS) should be highlighted first. These are, as a rule, powerful power plants located near the production of low-calorie fuel. They bear a significant share in covering the load of the power system. The efficiency of IES is 30...40%. The low efficiency is explained by the fact that most of the energy is lost along with the hot exhaust steam. Special thermal power plants, the so-called combined heat and power plants (CHP), allow a significant part of the energy of exhaust steam to be used for heating and technological processes in industrial enterprises, as well as for domestic needs (heating, hot water supply). As a result, the efficiency of the thermal power plant reaches 60...70%. Currently, in our country, thermal power plants provide about 40% of all electricity produced. Features of the technological process at these power plants, where steam turbine units (STUs) are used, require a stable operating mode without sudden and profound load changes, and operation in the base part of the load schedule.

In recent years, gas turbine units (GTUs), in which gaseous or liquid fuel, when burned, create hot exhaust gases that spin the turbine, have become increasingly common at thermal power plants. The advantage of thermal power plants with gas turbines is that they do not require feed water and, as a consequence, a whole range of related devices. In addition, gas turbine units are very mobile. They require several minutes to start and stop (several hours for PTU), they allow deep regulation of the generated power and therefore can be used in the half-peak part of the load curve. The disadvantage of gas turbine plants is the absence of a closed coolant cycle, in which a significant amount of thermal energy is released with the exhaust gases. At the same time, the efficiency of the gas turbine unit is 25...30%. However, installing a waste heat boiler at the gas turbine exhaust can increase the efficiency to 70...80%.

On hydroelectric power stations The energy of moving water in a hydraulic turbine is converted into mechanical energy, and then into electrical energy in a generator. The power of the station depends on the difference in water levels created by the dam (pressure) and on the mass of water passing through the turbines per second (water flow). Hydroelectric power plants provide more than 15% of all electricity generated in our country. A positive feature of hydroelectric power plants is their very high mobility (higher than gas turbine plants). This is explained by the fact that the hydraulic turbine operates at ambient temperature and does not require time to warm up. Consequently, hydroelectric power plants can be used in any part of the load curve, including peak load.

Pumped storage power plants (PSPPs) occupy a special place among hydroelectric power plants. The purpose of pumped storage power plants is to level out the daily load schedule of consumers and increase the efficiency of thermal power plants and nuclear power plants. During the hours of minimum load, PSPP units operate in pumping mode, pumping water from the lower reservoir to the upper one and thereby increasing the load of thermal power plants and nuclear power plants; During peak load hours, they operate in turbine mode, releasing water from the upper reservoir and unloading thermal power plants and nuclear power plants from short-term peak loads. This increases the efficiency of the system as a whole.

On nuclear power plants The technology for producing electrical energy is almost the same as at IES. The difference is that nuclear power plants use nuclear fuel as the primary source of energy. This imposes additional security requirements. After the Chernobyl disaster, these power plants should be built no closer than 30 km from populated areas. The operating mode should be like at IES - stable, without deep regulation of the generated power.

The load of all consumers must be distributed among all power plants whose total installed capacity slightly exceeds the highest maximum load. Coverage of the base part of the daily schedule is assigned to: a) nuclear power plants whose power regulation is difficult; b) at thermal power plants, the maximum efficiency of which occurs when the electrical power corresponds to the thermal consumption (the passage of steam in the low-pressure stage of the turbines to the condensers should be minimal); c) at hydroelectric power stations in an amount corresponding to the minimum water flow required by sanitary requirements and navigation conditions. During a flood, the participation of hydroelectric power stations in covering the base part of the system schedule can be increased so that after filling the reservoirs to the design levels, excess water is not uselessly discharged through spillway dams. Covering the peak part of the schedule is assigned to hydroelectric power plants, pumped storage power plants and gas turbine units, the units of which allow frequent switching on and off, and rapid load changes. The rest of the graph, partially leveled by the load of pumped storage power plants when operating in pumping mode, can be covered by CES, the operation of which is most economical with a uniform load (Fig. 1.3).

In addition to those discussed, there are a significant number of other types of power plants: solar, wind, geothermal, wave, tidal and others. They can use renewable and alternative energy sources. Throughout the modern world, these power plants are receiving significant attention. They can solve some problems facing humanity: energy (reserves of fossil fuels are limited), environmental (reducing emissions of harmful substances during electricity production). However, these are very costly technologies for generating electricity because alternative energy sources are, as a rule, low-potential sources. This circumstance makes them difficult to use. In our country, alternative energy accounts for less than 0.1% of electricity generation.

In Fig. 1.4 shows the participation of various types of power plants in the production of electricity.

Rice. 1.4.

1.5. Electric power system

The development of the electric power industry began in the second half of the 19th century with the construction of small power plants near and for specific consumers. This was mainly the lighting load: the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Kremlin in Moscow, etc. Electricity supply was carried out mainly on direct current. However, the invention in 1876 by P.N. Yablochkov. transformer determined the further development of alternating current energy. The ability to change voltage parameters by transformers made it possible, on the one hand, to coordinate the parameters of generators and combine them for parallel operation, and on the other hand, to increase the voltage and transmit energy over significant distances. With the advent of a three-phase asynchronous electric motor in 1889, developed by M.O. Dolivo-Dobovolsky, the development of electrical engineering and power engineering received a powerful impetus.

The widespread use of simple and reliable asynchronous electric motors in industrial enterprises has led to a significant increase in the electrical power of consumers, and after them, the power of power plants. IN 1914 the highest power of turbogenerators was 10 MW, the largest hydroelectric power station had the capacity 1.35 MW, the largest thermal power plant had a capacity 58 MW, the total power of all power plants in Russia is 1.14 GW. All power plants operated in isolation; cases of parallel operation were exceptional. The highest voltage mastered before the First World War was 70 kV.

December 22, 1920 At the 8th Congress of Soviets, the GOELRO plan was adopted, designed for 10-15 years and providing for the construction of 30 new regional thermal power plants and hydroelectric power stations with a total capacity 1.75 GW and network construction 35 and 110 kV for transmitting power to load nodes and connecting power plants for parallel operation. IN 1921 created first power systems: MOGES in Moscow and "Electrotok" in Leningrad. The energy system is understood as a set of power plants, power lines, substations and heating networks, connected by common modes and continuity of processes of production, conversion, transmission, distribution of electrical and thermal energy.

When operating several power plants in parallel, it was necessary to ensure economical load distribution between stations, regulate the voltage in the network, and prevent disruptions to stable operation. The obvious solution to these problems was centralization: subordinating the work of all stations of the system to one responsible engineer. Thus the idea of ​​dispatch control was born. In the USSR, for the first time, the functions of a dispatcher began to be performed in 1923 by the duty engineer of the 1st Moscow station, and in 1925, a dispatch center was organized in the Mosenergo system. In 1930, the first control centers were created in the Urals: in the Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk and Perm regions.

The next stage in the development of energy systems was the creation of powerful power transmission lines that unite individual systems into larger integrated energy systems (IES).

By 1955, three IPSs were operating in the USSR, unrelated to each other:

- EPS Center(Moscow, Gorky, Ivanovo, Yaroslavl energy systems);

- IPS South(Donbass, Dnieper, Rostov, Volgograd energy systems);

- UPS of the Urals(Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, Perm energy systems).

In 1956, two long-distance power transmission circuits were put into operation 400 kV Kuibyshev – Moscow, connecting the IPS Center and the Kuibyshev energy system. With this unification of the parallel operation of power systems of various zones of the country (Center and Middle Volga), the formation of the Unified Energy System (UES) of the European part of the USSR was laid. In 1957, the ODU of the Center was renamed into the ODU of the UES of the European part of the USSR.

In July 1958, the first section was put into operation ( Kuibyshev – Bugulma) single-circuit long-distance power transmission 400 kV Kuibyshev – Ural. The power systems of the Cis-Ural region (Tatar and Bashkir) were connected to parallel operation with the Center's IPS. In September 1958, the second section was put into operation ( Bugulma – Zlatoust) 400 kV power transmission Kuibyshev - Ural. The energy systems of the Urals were connected to parallel operation with the Center's IPS. In 1959, the last section was put into operation ( Zlatoust – Shagol - South) 400 kV power transmission Kuibyshev - Ural. The normal mode of the UES in the European part of the USSR was the parallel operation of the power systems of the Center, Middle Volga, Cis-Urals and Urals. By 1965, as a result of the unification of the energy systems of the Center, South, Volga region, Urals, North-West and three Transcaucasian republics, the creation of the Unified Energy System of the European part of the USSR was completed, the total installed capacity of which exceeded 50 million kW.

The beginning of the formation of the Unified Energy System of the USSR should be dated back to 1970. At this time, the UES operates in parallel with the IPS of the Center (22.1 GW), the Urals (20.1 GW), the Middle Volga (10.0 GW), the North-West (12.9 GW), the South (30.0 GW) ), the North Caucasus (3.5 GW) and Transcaucasia (6.3 GW), including 63 energy systems (including 3 energy districts). Three IPS - Kazakhstan (4.5 GW), Siberia (22.5 GW) and Central Asia (7.0 GW) - operate separately. IPS East (4.0 GW) is in the formation stage. The gradual formation of the Unified Energy System of the Soviet Union through the connection of unified energy systems was basically completed by 1978, when the Unified Energy System of Siberia, which by that time was already connected to the United Energy System of the East, joined the Unified Energy System.

In 1979, the parallel work of the UES of the USSR and the ECO of the CMEA member countries began. With the inclusion of the unified power system of Siberia, which has electrical connections with the power system of the Mongolian People's Republic, into the Unified Energy System of the USSR, and the organization of parallel operation of the Unified Energy System of the USSR and the Unified Energy System of the CMEA member countries, a unique interstate association of power systems of socialist countries was created with an installed capacity of more than 300 GW, covering a vast territory from Ulaanbaatar to Berlin.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 into a number of independent states led to catastrophic consequences. The planned socialist economy collapsed. The industry has practically stopped. Many businesses have closed. The threat of complete collapse looms over the energy sector. However, at the cost of incredible efforts, it was possible to preserve the Unified Energy System of Russia, restructure it, and adapt it to new economic relations.

The modern Unified Energy System of Russia (Fig. 1.5) consists of 69 regional energy systems, which, in turn, form 7 integrated energy systems: East, Siberia, Urals, Middle Volga, South, Center and North-West. All power systems are connected by intersystem high-voltage power lines with voltages of 220...500 kV and higher and operate in synchronous mode (in parallel). The electric power complex of the UES of Russia includes more than 600 power plants with a capacity of over 5 MW. At the end of 2011, the total installed capacity of power plants of the UES of Russia amounted to 218,235.8 MW. Every year, all stations generate about one trillion kWh of electricity. The network infrastructure of the UES of Russia includes more than 10,200 power transmission lines with a voltage class of 110...1150 kV.

In parallel with the UES of Russia, the energy systems of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Ukraine and Estonia operate. The energy systems of Central Asia - Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan - operate through the energy system of Kazakhstan in parallel with the Unified Energy System of Russia. Through the construction of the Vyborg Converter Complex, together with the Unified Energy System of Russia, the Finnish energy system, which is part of the Nordel energy system interconnection of Scandinavia, operates. Electrical networks in Russia also supply electricity to selected areas of Norway and China.

Rice. 1.5. Unified Energy System of the Russian Federation

The integration of individual energy systems into the country's Unified Energy System provides a number of technical and economic benefits:

The reliability of energy supply to consumers increases due to more flexible maneuvering of the reserves of individual power plants and systems, the total power reserve is reduced;

It is possible to increase the unit capacity of power plants and install more powerful units on them;

The overall maximum load of the combined system is reduced, since the combined maximum is always less than the sum of the maximums of the individual systems;

The installed capacity of the integrated energy system is reduced due to the different times of load peaks in energy systems located at a considerable distance in the direction from east to west (“latitudinal effect”);

It makes it easier to set economically more profitable modes for any power plants;

The efficiency of using various energy resources increases.

1.6. Electricity of the net

The unified energy system, as shown above, has a clear hierarchical structure: it is divided into unified energy systems, which in turn are divided into regional energy systems. Each power system is an electrical network.

Electrical networks are an intermediate link in the source-consumer system; they ensure the transmission of electricity from sources to consumers and its distribution. Electrical networks are conventionally divided into distribution (consumer), regional (supply) and system-forming.

Electrical receivers or large-scale consumers of electricity (factory, enterprise, industrial complex, agricultural enterprise, etc.) are directly connected to distribution electrical networks. The voltage of these networks is 6…20 kV.

District electrical networks are intended for the transport and distribution of electricity in the territory of some industrial, agricultural, oil and gas production, and (or) the like. district. These networks, depending on the local characteristics of a particular power system, have a rated voltage of 35...110 kV.

System-forming electrical networks with main power transmission lines at voltages of 220...750 (1150) kV provide powerful connections between large nodes of the energy system, and in the unified energy system - connections between energy systems and energy associations.

1. Thermal power engineering

The majority of the world's electricity is still generated at thermal power plants (TPPs) - in the world > 60% (63), in the CIS > 70%, in the Kyrgyz Republic< 20 % (все данные без учета АЭС)

Energy conversion mechanism at thermal power plants: thermal energy  mechanical  electrical

The main disadvantage of all thermal power plants is the use of non-renewable energy sources.

Condensing power plants (CPS) ) make up the majority of thermal power plants, which is why they are often called thermal power plants.

Let's consider negative IES parties

intense air pollution in a relatively small area (in addition, CPPs often use low-grade, high-ash coal, which aggravates the situation)

depletion of natural resources (valuable organic raw materials)

These were environmental disadvantages, but... environmental management is “economics + ecology”, it is necessary to consider the economic side of the issue

low efficiency (30-35%)

IES are strongly tied to fuel sources, because transporting low-quality coal (with a carbon content of about 30%) is unprofitable. Therefore, it is burned at mining sites, and the electricity is transported

remoteness from the consumer (most coal deposits are located far from the centers of the economy - the main consumer of electricity, and the resources available near industrial centers have long been exhausted)

losses of electricity during transportation (in the USSR in 1990 - 3%)

In addition to the negative aspects, IES also has positive

Uniform energy production regardless of natural conditions, seasons of the year and time of day

Distance from the consumer contributes to air pollution in sparsely populated areas (where there are few other sources of pollution - which satisfies the principle of uniform distribution of waste), which contributes to better self-purification of the atmosphere and does not adversely affect the health of large masses of people

Combined heat and power plants (CHP)

In addition to electricity, they generate heat in the form of hot water (domestic needs, heating) and water steam (chemical industry, construction) =>

Efficiency about 70%

gravitate towards the consumer (attachment), are built no further than 20-30 km from the consumer

pollute the atmosphere in crowded places (especially coal-fired ones; gas is cleaner)

significant costs for fuel delivery

dependence on other countries and regions

3. Nuclear power

A specific branch of thermal power engineering, therefore it is often separated into an independent industry.

The mechanism of energy conversion at nuclear power plants is somewhat more complicated: atomic (nuclear) energy  thermal  mechanical  electrical.

With the right approach, it can be the most environmentally friendly energy sector.

The fission reaction of uranium was discovered in 1939. The “tests” of the first atomic bombs took place on August 6 and 9, 1945 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the USSR, the atomic bomb was created in 1949 (on Kadzhisay uranium - Kyrgyzstan). The first nuclear power plant in the world was launched in June 1954 in the USSR - Obninsk NPP, with a capacity of 5,000 kW. The capacity of modern nuclear power plants reaches 4 million kW (Leningrad, Kursk)

Nowadays there are nuclear power plants in more than 30 countries of the world and they produce about 17% of the world's electricity. The share of nuclear power plants in these countries is different: Lithuania - 80%, France - 78% (1997 - 91%), Germany - 35%, EU - 34%, USA - 33%, Japan - 30%, RF - 10%, b. USSR – 12%, KR – 0%.

Nuclear energy uses uranium-235 (isotope), and development of uranium-238 is underway. In terms of energy released, 1 kg of uranium-235 is equivalent to 2,500,000 kg of the best coal.

Despite the unfavorable attitude towards nuclear energy among the majority of the world's population, it has a lot of positive crap And benefits:

Nuclear power plants are built where there are no other energy sources

The ability to get as close to the consumer as possible

Low cost of energy produced

Relatively low transport costs

Saving exhaustible and non-renewable, but very necessary fuel resources for humans (which are high time to transfer from fuel to organic raw materials - it was not for nothing that D.I. Mendeleev noted that burning oil is the same as heating a stove with banknotes)

Huge, practically inexhaustible reserves of raw materials (10 14 tons with annual consumption of no more than 10 4 tons)

Does not consume oxygen

Requires minimal transport costs

Relatively small amount of waste, possibility of its enrichment and reuse

Negative traits NPPs have significantly less (but what are they!):

quality of waste, its danger and persistence, radioactive disposal

severe consequences of accidents

However, modern scientific and technological advances make it possible to reduce the negative impact of nuclear power plants to a minimum.

Radioactive waste (RAW)

Initially, radioactive waste was buried in containers in the deep-sea parts of the World Ocean; a lot of waste remained in tailings dumps (Mailisayskoye and Kadzhisaiskoye are known in Kyrgyzstan). Containers in the ocean have already begun to collapse, tailings ponds occupy huge areas, are washed away by floods, threatening to fall (and end up) into water bodies. This is a real disaster, the fight against which requires enormous resources. However, more worthy options for disposing of radioactive waste have now been found.

Solid. The ideal option is reuse (if recently this was quite expensive, now there are relatively inexpensive technologies). This also saves valuable raw materials. If you still decide to bury it (according to the principle “if you die, then you die” or “the doctor said to the morgue, then to the morgue”), then it is necessary to build underground storage facilities for radioactive waste or to use waste mines economically, enclosing the waste in a lead-reinforced concrete sarcophagus.

Liquid(the most common). They are evaporated, mixed with cement, concrete or bitumen, turning them into solids, and then as solids.

Gaseous(most rare). They are filtered, again turning into solids, etc.

Accidents at nuclear power plants

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) developed (in 1989) the International (7-level) Nuclear Power Plant Accident Scale. The first three levels are called incidents, because do not pose a significant danger to public health or the environment. This danger begins to increase sharply from the fourth level - these are accidents.

1st – minor incidents at nuclear power plants

2nd – incidents of moderate severity

3rd – serious incidents

4th – accidents within nuclear power plants

5th – accidents with a risk to the environment

6th – severe accidents

7th – global accident (catastrophe)

In total, since the start of operation of nuclear power plants in 14 countries around the world, more than 150 incidents and accidents of varying degrees of complexity have occurred. The most typical of them: in 1957 - in Windscale (England), in 1959 - in Santa Susanna (USA), in 1961 - in Idaho Falls (USA), in 1979 - at the Tri nuclear power plant -Mile Island (5th level - USA), in 1986 - at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (7th level, disaster - former USSR, now Ukraine). This causes great distrust among the majority of the inhabitants of the Earth towards a rather promising energy sector.

Thermal power engineering (and sometimes hydro) also includes geothermal power plants (geothermal power plants), using non-traditional energy sources, so we will consider them in the “Alternative Energy” section.

By relying on the construction of large power plants, we are forced to build extensive networks for energy transmission. Their cost, maintenance, as well as transmission losses lead to an increase in tariff by 4-5 times compared to the cost of energy produced.

Vladimir Mikhailov, member of the expert council on delimitation of powers under the President of Russia

There are people who claim that low-energy energy is good.

There are others who argue that small-scale energy is “heresy” and the only correct option is large-scale energy. They say that there is an effect of scale, as a result of which “big electricity” is cheaper.

Take a look around. Both in the West and in the East, small power plants are being actively built, both in addition to large stations and instead of them.

Small power plants today are slightly inferior to their “big brother” in terms of efficiency, but they have a significant advantage in flexibility of operation, as well as speed of construction and commissioning.

Actually, in this publication I will show that today the “big” energy industry is unlikely to be able to single-handedly cope with the task of reliable and inexpensive power supply to Russian consumers. Including, for specific reasons not directly related to energy.

69,000 rub. per kW - the cost of the Sochi CHPP...

As you know, the larger the construction site, the cheaper its unit cost. For example, the cost of creating small power plants with heat recovery is about $1,000 per kilowatt of installed electrical capacity. The cost of large stations should be within 600-900 dollars/kW.

And now how things stand in Russia.

The unit cost of the Sochi CHPP (2004) was about $2,460 per kilowatt.

Installed electrical power: 79 MW, thermal power: 25 Gcal/hour.

Investment volume: 5.47 billion rubles.

Construction was carried out within the framework of the federal target program "South of Russia"

Investment program of RAO "UES of Russia" (date of publication - autumn 2006): plans to spend 2.1 trillion (2,100,000,000,000) rubles for the construction of power plants and networks. This is the most expensive program in Russia. It exceeds all investment expenditures of the federal budget together with the investment fund for the next year (807 billion rubles). It is larger than the Stabilization Fund (2.05 trillion rubles).

On average, it costs about $1,100 to build one kilowatt of power.

Former Deputy Minister of Energy, ex-Chairman of the Board of Directors of RAO UES Viktor Kudryavy; "The investment program of RAO UES is overestimated by 600-650 billion rubles."

UES paid the German Siemens about 80 million euros for the new dispatch system, although, according to Igor Tekhnarev, an expert at the Center for the Study of Regional Problems, similar products have already been developed by domestic specialists and cost from 1 to 5 million euros. RAO UES gave Microsoft another almost $7 million for the legalization of the holding's corporate software. As one of Ko’s interlocutors joked, even the presidential administration cannot afford this.

Conclusion: the cost of construction of power plants is artificially inflated by RAO UES by two to four times. It is clear that the money goes into the “right pocket”. Well, they are taken from the budget (read, our taxes) or included in the cost of tariffs and connection fees.

Boris Gryzlov: “The management of RAO UES of Russia pays more attention to paying bonuses to its employees than to developing the industry”

The statement that the Management of RAO UES of Russia is concerned with the well-being of not the company, but the Management itself is obvious to many:

1. Chairman of the State Duma Boris Gryzlov (October 11, 2006): “Unfortunately, we must state that the measures that have been taken by RAO UES of Russia to date have not led to eliminating the danger of serious accidents and the danger of a significant increase in tariffs for the population. There are statements about upcoming winter power outages in a number of regions. It is not difficult to imagine what consequences such outages could lead to, for example, during frosts - we are talking about the health and even the lives of our citizens.
2. Head of the Institute for Globalization Problems Mikhail Delyagin: “The reform of the electric power industry diverts all the forces of RAO UES and many related business structures to the redistribution of assets, “cutting” of financial flows and diverting them into their own pockets. All other issues remained on the periphery of the attention of the management of RAO UES "- not because it is bad, but because this is how the reform was conceived and structured."

And the Management does not hesitate to talk about the catastrophic state of the energy sector, for which RAO UES of Russia, of course, is not to blame:

1. Member of the Board of RAO UES of Russia Yuri Udaltsov: “In 2004, RAO UES of Russia satisfied only 32% of all applications for connection. In 2005, this figure dropped to 21%. It is expected that the number connected to the electricity supply will continue to increase. fall: in 2006 to 16%, and in 2007 to 10%."
2. Anatoly Borisovich Chubais: “The physical capabilities of the country’s energy system are coming to an end, as they warned about several years ago.”

Conclusion: in a situation where

• The country's electricity industry is collapsing
• those who must build are cutting financial flows

To say that there is no alternative to the “big” energy sector is, to put it mildly, unreasonable.

An energy accident at the Chagino substation affected Moscow and four regions

Unfortunately, there is no need to talk about the reliability of power supply today. The wear and tear of power industry equipment is around 70-80%.

Many people remember the accident at the Chagino substation, after which rolling blackouts swept across the European part of Russia. Let me just remind you of some of the consequences of this event:

1. As a result of numerous accidents at substations, electricity was cut off in most parts of the Russian capital. In the south of Moscow - in the areas of Kapotnya, Maryino, Biryulyovo, Chertanovo - the electricity went out around 11:00. There was also no electricity on Leninsky Prospekt, Ryazanskoye Highway, Entuziastov Highway and in the Ordynka area. Orekhovo-Borisovo, Lyubertsy, Novye Cheryomushki, Zhulebino, Brateevo, Perovo, Lyublino were left without electricity...
2. Electricity went out in 25 cities in the Moscow region, in Podolsk, in the Tula region, and in the Kaluga region. Residential buildings and industrial facilities were left without electricity. Accidents occurred in some particularly dangerous industries.
3. Air conditioning systems did not work, electricity was cut off in hospitals and morgues. City transport has stopped. The traffic lights on the streets turned off and traffic jams formed on the roads. In a number of Moscow districts, residents were left without water. There was no electricity supplied to the pumping stations, and accordingly, the water supply stopped. Stalls and shops have closed in the city, as even refrigerators in supermarkets are melting.
4. Direct losses of the Petelinskaya poultry farm RUB 14,430,000. (422,000 euros) - 278.5 thousand birds died.
5. The URSA plant almost lost its main equipment - a glass melting furnace. However, there were still production and financial losses: the plant did not produce 263 tons of fiberglass. The production downtime amounted to 53 hours, the losses from which exceeded 150 thousand euros.

The Moscow accident on May 25, 2005 is the most famous, but it is one of hundreds of small and large accidents that occur in Russia every year.

On the website “Electricity Supply of Russian Regions” in the section “Reliability of Traditional Electricity Supply” you can see a selection of materials from the press about accidents and energy shortages in your region.

The selection is not a complete collection of facts, but you can get some idea of ​​the situation with the reliability of power supply.

By the way, one of the loudest was the statement by the Chairman of the Board of RAO UES of Russia, Anatoly Chubais, about a list of 16 regions of Russia that may experience restrictions in electricity consumption in the winter of 2006-2007.

These are Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Dagestan, Karelian, Komi, Kuban, Leningrad (including St. Petersburg), Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Perm, Sverdlovsk, Saratov, Tyvinsk, Tyumen, Ulyanovsk and Chelyabinsk energy systems.

Last year, only the Moscow, Leningrad and Tyumen energy systems were at risk...

Conclusion: accidents and statements by Chubais A.B. inform us about the low reliability of traditional electricity supply. Unfortunately, we are expecting new accidents...

A little about small energy

Small energy has its advantages

Firstly, a huge advantage of rapid commissioning of facilities (lower capital costs, shorter production times for equipment and construction of the “box”, smaller volumes of fuel, much lower costs for power lines)

This will make it possible to “mute” a very significant energy deficit before the commissioning of large energy facilities

Secondly, competition always has a beneficial effect on the quality and cost of services

I hope that the successes of small-scale energy will push for more active increases in the efficiency of “big” energy

Third, small power plants require less space and do not lead to high concentrations of harmful emissions

This fact can and should be used in the process of providing electricity and heat to our future winter Pearl, the capital of the 2014 Olympic Games - the city of Sochi

Due to the fact that small gas energy is a fairly young industry, there are also problems, the presence of which must be recognized and addressed:

Firstly, lack of a legislative framework in relation to small power plants (for autonomous heat-generating sources there is at least something)

Secondly, the actual impossibility of selling excess electricity to the Network

Third, significant difficulties in obtaining fuel (in the vast majority of cases natural gas)

Conclusion: small-scale energy in Russia has significant potential, the full development of which will take time

Results

I am sure that energy companies of different “weight” categories should coexist in our country. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses.

And only through cooperation can we obtain effective Energy.

A source of information -