Forms of scientific knowledge presentation. Methods of scientific knowledge

Postgraduate student of the Department of Educational Methodology, SSU named after. N.G. Chernyshevsky,

Master (Teacher Education)

E.V. Akchurina

A method is a set of ways by which a goal is achieved.

In modern science, these various scientific methods are distinguished on special grounds. And first of all, those that are used at different levels of scientific research - empirical and theoretical - are distinguished. Thus, at the initial empirical level, research usually distinguishes a whole group of methods.

observation;
experiment;
description;
measurement.

Purposeful and organized perception of the external world, providing primary material for scientific research. Observation can be simple and complex, direct and indirect, intertwined with experiment. Observation presupposes the possibility of using devices and instruments, thus compensating for the natural limitations of human senses.

The study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study. With the development of science and technology, the scope of experimentation is steadily expanding.

Recording observational or experimental data using certain notation systems. The description is made both by ordinary language and by special means that make up the language of science (symbols, matrices, graphs, etc.).

Determination of the main characteristics of objects using appropriate measuring instruments. Most often this is the determination of weight, length, coordinates, speed, etc. material objects. Ultimately, measurement comes down to comparing the measured quantity with some homogeneous quantity accepted as a unit or standard.

Using empirical methods of scientific research, scientists accumulate primary empirical material, which requires further processing and generalization, which is carried out at the theoretical level of analysis.
Here we should highlight a whole group of the most important theoretical research methods.

formalization;
axiomatization;
hypothetico-deductive method.

Mapping the results of thinking into precise concepts or statements. It is usually carried out through the fact that with the objects, phenomena, processes of a given area of reality being studied, certain material structures are compared in a certain way, which have a relatively stable character and therefore allow one to identify and record the essential and natural aspects of the objects under consideration.

Building theories based on certain axioms (statements that do not require proof of their truth). This method has a long history, dating back to Ancient Greece. In modern conditions, axiomatization is carried out through a number of sequential logical operations.

Putting forward certain statements as hypotheses and testing these hypotheses with facts. Evaluation of the initial hypothesis based on such a procedure is quite complex and multi-stage in nature, since only a long process of testing the hypothesis can lead to its justified acceptance and justified rejection or refutation.

Along with empirical and theoretical methods of science, science of science also distinguishes general, general scientific and specific scientific methods. Among them, universal methods are of particular interest.

analysis and synthesis;
induction and deduction;
abstraction;
generalization;
analogy;
modeling;
classification.

The processes of mental or actual decomposition of a whole into its component parts and the reunification of the whole from its parts. This method plays a very important role in the cognitive process and is carried out at all its stages. In mental operations, analysis and synthesis act as logical methods of thinking, performed with the help of abstract concepts and closely related to a number of mental operations: abstraction, generalization, etc.

Movement from the particular to the general, from individual facts to general provisions (induction) or, on the contrary, movement from the general to the particular, from one statement to another based on the laws of logic (deduction).

Abstraction from certain properties and relationships of the phenomenon being studied that are unimportant in a given context. The process of abstraction is a necessary condition for the formation of a wide variety of concepts. Moreover, all cognition in general is associated with processes of abstraction. Without them, revealing the essence and logical penetration into the depths of the subject are impossible.

The logical process of transition from individual to general, from less general to more general knowledge. Obtaining generalized knowledge means a deeper reflection of reality, penetration into its essence.

A method of cognition with the help of which the similarity of non-identical objects is discovered in some significant aspects and relationships.

Reproduction of the characteristics of an object on another object specially created for its study (model). The need for modeling arises when studying the object itself is impossible, difficult, expensive, takes too long, etc. There must be a certain similarity between the model and the object of interest to the researcher.

Dividing all the subjects being studied into some groups in accordance with the characteristics that are significant for this study. The classification is intended for permanent use in any science or field of practical activity. Usually, as the basis for division in the classification, characteristics that are essential for these items and objects are chosen.

In the history of natural science, the problem of methods of scientific knowledge arises already in ancient times, but is especially acute in modern times, during the period of searching for optimal methods of scientific knowledge.

Methods and forms of scientific knowledge Prepared by: 2nd year student 904 gr. Vorobey K.V. Checked by: Muravyov I.B. Tyumen 2011

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Chapter 1. Scientific knowledge 1.1 Objectives of scientific knowledge 1.2 Features of scientific knowledge Chapter 2. Levels of scientific knowledge Chapter 3. Methods of the empirical level NP 3.1 Observation 3.2 Experiment 3.3 Facts, analysis, synthesis Chapter 4. Methods of the theoretical level NP 4.1 Research method Chapter 5. Forms scientific knowledge Tests for self-test Bibliography

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Problems of scientific knowledge

Description Explanation Prediction Chapter 1. 1.1 Problems of scientific knowledge

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Chapter 1.1.2 Features of scientific knowledge

Reliable summary of facts; Objective truth; Focus on implementation in practice; A holistic developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws; Use of specific material resources (devices, tools); Strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, reliability of the conclusions.

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F. Bacon R. Descartes

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Chapter 2. Levels of scientific knowledge

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Chapter 3. Methods of the empirical level of scientific knowledge. 3.1 Observation.

Observation Unambiguity of purpose, plan Consistency in observation methods Objectivity Possibility of control

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Chapter 3.3.2 Experiment.

Experiment Qualitative Measuring (quantitative) Social Mental

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Chapter 3.3.3 Facts, analysis, synthesis.

Facts Analysis Synthesis

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Chapter 4. Methods - theoretical level of scientific knowledge.

Abstraction Analogy Modeling Subject Analogue Sign Mental Model experiment Deduction Induction

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Chapter 4. 4.1 Research method.

Research method (system approach) Studying the phenomenon of integrity and establishing the composition of the whole and its elements; Study of the patterns of connecting elements into a system, i.e. the structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach; In close connection with the study of structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system; Study of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems.

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Chapter 5. Forms of scientific knowledge

Theory is the most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and essential connections of a certain area of reality.

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A problem is a form of knowledge, the content of which is something that has not yet been known by man, but that needs to be known.

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A hypothesis is a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is not determined and needs to be proven.

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Self-tests

There are two levels in scientific knowledge: 1) empirical and theoretical; 2) innovative and reproductive; 3) dialectical and metaphysical; 4) eclectic and monistic. The empirical level of knowledge includes: 1) analysis of facts; 2) putting forward hypotheses; 3) building a picture of the world; 4) theory building. Methods of the theoretical level of knowledge do NOT include: 1) systems approach; 2) experiment; 3) structural and functional analysis; 4) modeling. Name the forms of scientific knowledge.

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Bibliography

Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy. Textbook. M., 1997. Ch. XIV Golubintsev V.O., Dantsev A.A., Lyubchenko V.S. "Philosophy for technical universities." Rostov - n/a: Phoenix, 2001 Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. Textbook. M., 1999. Ch. XII

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1) Not every person can become a subject of scientific knowledge, but only one who has undergone special specialized training necessary for research activities.

2) Scientific knowledge is specifically focused on the discovery of laws and phenomena hitherto unknown. The knowledge obtained in this way is substantiated, systematically organized, and expressed using an artificial language.

3) In scientific knowledge, a specialized language is used - compared to the language of everyday communication, it is characterized by a higher degree of unambiguity of words and expressions, greater compactness, accuracy and consistency of rules.

Specificity of scientific knowledge

4) Scientific knowledge involves the use of specialized tools: special material means (reagents, experimental installations, control devices, etc.), information processing and communication means, vehicles, power plants, etc.

5) Scientific knowledge is regulated by a certain set of methods and other types of normative knowledge (principles, ideals, norms, etc.).

6) The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth.

7) Scientific knowledge is aimed at predicting future events, states and properties of the objects under study. Science strives to create a foundation of knowledge for future forms of practical exploration of the world.

Structure of scientific knowledge

Three main levels:

Empirical

Theoretical Metatheoretical

Specifics of empirical knowledge

Empirical research is fundamentally aimed at studying phenomena and the connections between them.

Empirical research is based on direct practical interaction between the researcher and the object being studied. The means of empirical research include means of observation, measurement and experiment (instruments, experimental installations, special equipment and premises, etc.).

Specifics of theoretical knowledge

At the level of theoretical knowledge, the essential connections of an object in its pure form are isolated. The essence of an object is the interaction of a number of laws to which this object is subject.

direct practical interaction with objects; the object is studied indirectly. This is achieved by presenting the subject of research in the form of a system of abstract ideal objects, in which the phenomena and processes of interest to the researcher are presented in their pure form by excluding the real conditions of their existence (for example, a material point in mechanics, an absolutely rigid body in physics, an ideal gas in thermodynamics, almost all mathematical objects).

Specifics of metatheoretical knowledge

All the diversity of knowledge is united into integrity. This is ensured not only by the relationship between the metatheoretical foundations of science (the scientific picture of the world, the ideals and norms of scientific research, the philosophical foundations of science). The metatheoretical foundations of science act as a system-forming block of scientific knowledge.

Functions of metatheoretical foundations of science:

Determining the strategy of scientific research in a certain historical era, taking into account the dominant type of scientific rationality;

Systematization of existing scientific knowledge;

Ensuring the inclusion of scientific knowledge in the culture of the relevant historical era.

Forms of empirical knowledge

Observation data- reflect the very presence of the objects under study, their properties, types of relationships with other objects in

providing for the statement of reliable, objective information. The transition from observational data to empirical fact involves the following operations:

Finding stable content in observation data;

The need to interpret the stable content revealed in observations.

Forms of theoretical knowledge

A problem is a form of theoretical knowledge, the content of which is a contradictory situation in the field of scientific knowledge that requires a solution.

A hypothesis is a form of theoretical knowledge that contains a scientific assumption about the essential characteristics and deep necessary connections of the phenomena and processes being studied.

Theory is a form of scientific knowledge that contains generalizing abstract constructs and a set of concepts and laws that reproduce an object in the form of a certain structured set of idealized objects and their relationships.

Forms of metatheoretical knowledge

Scientific picture of the world– a form of scientific knowledge that expresses the features of the systemic organization of the reality under study. It is formed as a result of the synthesis of knowledge obtained in various sciences, and contains general ideas about the world developed at the corresponding stages of the development of science.

Ideals and norms of scientific research . They express the value and goal orientations of science, answering the questions: why are certain cognitive actions needed, what type of knowledge should be obtained as a result, in what way to obtain this knowledge.

Philosophical foundations of science. They include philosophical ideas and principles that justify both the ideals and norms of science and meaningful representations of the scientific picture of the world, and also ensure the inclusion of scientific knowledge in culture. It's all about performance

O general premises and general orientation

cognitive processes.

The concept of the method of scientific knowledge

A method is a set of various techniques, operations and means of practical and theoretical mastery of reality.

The scientific method has the following characteristics:

1) clarity or accessibility;

2) lack of spontaneity in application;

4) fruitfulness or the ability to achieve not only the intended, but also no less significant side results;

5) reliability or the ability to provide the desired result with a high degree of reliability;

6) efficiency or the ability to produce results with the least amount of money and time.

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COGNITION

RULES Create a “Joint Stock Company”. Select the president of the joint-stock company, the banker of the joint-stock company. Select the lot (the price corresponds to it). You buy the lot by depositing funds into the State. Bank. For a correct answer the amount is doubled, for an incorrect answer the amount remains in the bank. “Bankrupts” can take the amount from State Bank at 50%. For incorrect behavior on the exchange, a fine of 100 USD will be charged.

GRADING CRITERIA FOR LESSON 4 1 00 thousand. – “3” 6 1 00 thousand.e. – “4” 8 1 00 thousand.e. - "5"

STARTING CAPITAL You have texts on your desks. Read the text and complete the tasks for it. Each correct answer will bring AO $200. Each incorrect answer is a fine of 50 USD.

Ordinary Mythological Philosophical Religious Scientific Artistic Define the forms of knowledge of the world. Each correct answer is worth 100 USD. Each incorrect answer is a fine of 50 USD. You can buy the answer from your opponent for $200.

Having received the starting capital, get ready for the auction. If a JSC doubts the correctness of its answer, another JSC has the right to buy back the answer by paying 50 USD for it. more.

“Super” - Tasks 500 500 500 5 00 500 1 500 400 300 200 2 00 2 500 400 300 200 2 00 3 500 400 300 200 2 00 Repayment of the “Fine”

Name any two functions of science (scientific knowledge) and give one example of the implementation of each of them.

Give two examples of the influence of modern science on the development of society

Name and illustrate with examples two features of the empirical level of scientific knowledge

A15. Rational is knowledge: 1) through observation 2) direct contact 3) through intuition 4) through thinking

A7. Rational cognition, in contrast to sensory cognition, 1) expands knowledge about the world around us 2) forms a visual image of an object 3) is carried out in the form of sensations and perceptions 4) uses logical inferences

A1. Both sensory and rational cognition 1) forms knowledge and ideas about the subject 2) uses logical conclusions 3) begins with sensation 4) gives a visual image of the subject

A2. Both religious and scientific knowledge about the world are characterized by the fact that they 1) are objective in nature 2) involve evidence 3) can be transmitted from generation to generation 4) are necessary for a person to act rationally

A21. “Plants owe their green color to chlorophyll.” This statement is an example of: ordinary knowledge mythological knowledge empirical knowledge scientific knowledge

A34. Both religious and scientific knowledge: 1) has an objective nature 2) is necessary for a person to act rationally 3) can be transmitted from generation to generation 4) requires evidence

Below is a list of characteristics. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to methods of cognition. 1) observation of the phenomenon; 2) dissemination of opinion; 3) fiction; 4) mental modeling; 5) conducting an experiment; 6) description of the object.

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, represent methods of the theoretical level of scientific knowledge. 1) logical model; 2) experiment; 3) putting forward a hypothesis; 4) analogy; 5) classification; 6) measurement

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, represent methods of scientific knowledge of the world. Write down these words (phrases). observation; sensation; judgment; putting forward a hypothesis; conducting an experiment; empirical description.

Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts in the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated. 1) knowledge 2) theories 3) legends 4) myths 5) hypotheses

Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts in the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated. 1) sensory cognition 2) cognitive activity 3) subject of cognition 4) object of cognition 5) rational cognition

Find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts in the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated. 1) scientific knowledge 2) systematic knowledge 3) reliance on experiments 4) rationalistic arguments 5) objectivity

B24. Establish a correspondence between the mental processes involved in the process of cognition and their brief descriptions. 1) sensation A) “direct discretion”, knowledge that arises without awareness of the ways and conditions of its acquisition; a certain insight that befalls a person who, as a rule, skillfully, persistently and systematically masters one or another area of reality 2) perception B) construction based on a combination of his ideas of new, previously non-existent images 3) representation C) image, reflection, a copy, a snapshot of a separate property of an object and a phenomenon of the objective world 4) imagination D) indirect and generalized reflection in the human brain of essential properties, causal relationships and natural connections of things 5) intuition D) “traces” in memory from which a person reconstructs when he needs images of objects and phenomena that once affected his senses 6) thinking E) a holistic image of an object affecting his senses

1) analysis A) establishing the similarity or difference of objects 2) synthesis B) mental decomposition of an object into its constituent parts 3) comparison C) a form of thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something about something is affirmed or denied 4) concept D ) a thinking process that allows one to derive a new judgment from two or more judgments 5) judgment D) a thought reflecting objects in their general and essential characteristics 6) inference E) mental unification into a whole of elements dissected by analysis

The famous navigator Magellan was looking for the shortest route to India. He used a map that showed the strait connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. However, Magellan did not find the strait in the place marked on the map. Then he, having studied the descriptions compiled by his predecessors, suggested that this strait should be further south. He explored every bay, every bay - and discovered a strait between the mainland and the Tierra del Fuego archipelago. What levels of scientific knowledge are being discussed in this passage? Name any method of scientific knowledge used by Magellan.

AT 7. Match: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding one from the second. CHARACTERISTICS OF KNOWLEDGE TYPE OF TRUTH 1. Reliable knowledge, independent of the opinions and biases of people A. Objective truth 2. Comprehensive, complete and reliable knowledge about the objective world B. Relative truth 3. Knowledge that gives an approximate and incomplete reflection of reality C. Absolute truth 4 . Limited knowledge about the object at any given moment 5. Information corresponding to the actual state of affairs

The famous designer of railway bridges Brant spent a long time looking for a solution to the problem of throwing a bridge across a fairly wide and extremely deep chasm. There could be no question of erecting supports at the bottom of the abyss or along its edges. Exhausted by his futile search for a solution, he went out into the yard to get some fresh air. It was autumn, and thin autumn cobwebs were floating in the air. One of them stuck to the inventor's face. Without ceasing to think about his task, he mechanically began to remove the cobweb that was firmly caught and stuck to his cheek. And then a thought suddenly flashed: if a spider is able to throw a web-bridge across a deep and wide abyss for him, then with the help of similar thin threads, immeasurably stronger (steel), could a person throw a bridge across the abyss? What level of scientific knowledge is being discussed in this passage? Name the method of scientific knowledge used by Brant.

AT 9. Insert the missing word: “Cognition is... the reflection or reproduction of reality in the human mind.” AT 10 . Finish the phrase: “An inference in which, based on the similarity of objects in one respect, a conclusion is drawn about their similarity in another, is called...”. AT 11 . Finish the phrase: “The mental connection of several judgments and the derivation of a new judgment from them is called...”. AT 12 . Complete the sentence by inserting the phrase: Inferences can be inductive, deductive and...” B13. Insert the missing word: “Knowledge about society and social phenomena is always loaded with evaluation, therefore, it is ... knowledge.”

“Super” - Tasks 1 AO test 2 AO test 3 AO test