The youngest Nobel Prize winners in physics. Nobel Prize in Physics
The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually in Stockholm (Sweden), as well as in Oslo (Norway). They are considered the most prestigious international awards. They were founded by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish inventor, linguist, industrial magnate, humanist and philosopher. It has gone down in history as (which was patented in 1867) playing a major role in the industrial development of our planet. The drafted will stated that all his savings would form a fund, the purpose of which was to award prizes to those who managed to bring the greatest benefit to humanity.
Nobel Prize
Today, prizes are awarded in the fields of chemistry, physics, medicine, and literature. The Peace Prize is also awarded.
Russia's Nobel laureates in literature, physics and economics will be presented in our article. You will get acquainted with their biographies, discoveries, and achievements.
The price of the Nobel Prize is high. In 2010, its size was approximately $1.5 million.
The Nobel Foundation was founded in 1890.
Russian Nobel Prize laureates
Our country can be proud of the names that have glorified it in the fields of physics, literature, and economics. The Nobel laureates of Russia and the USSR in these fields are as follows:
- Bunin I.A. (literature) - 1933.
- Cherenkov P. A., Frank I. M. and Tamm I. E. (physics) - 1958.
- Pasternak B. L. (literature) - 1958.
- Landau L.D. (physics) - 1962.
- Basov N. G. and Prokhorov A. M. (physics) - 1964.
- Sholokhov M. A. (literature) - 1965.
- Solzhenitsyn A.I. (literature) - 1970.
- Kantorovich L.V. (economics) - 1975.
- Kapitsa P. L. (physics) - 1978.
- Brodsky I. A. (literature) - 1987.
- Alferov Zh. I. (physics) - 2000.
- Abrikosov A. A. and L. (physics) - 2003;
- Game Andre and Novoselov Konstantin (physics) - 2010.
The list, we hope, will be continued in subsequent years. The Nobel laureates of Russia and the USSR, whose names we cited above, were not fully represented, but only in such areas as physics, literature and economics. In addition, figures from our country also distinguished themselves in medicine, physiology, chemistry, and also received two Peace Prizes. But we'll talk about them another time.
Nobel laureates in physics
Many physicists from our country have been awarded this prestigious prize. Let's tell you more about some of them.
Tamm Igor Evgenievich
Tamm Igor Evgenievich (1895-1971) was born in Vladivostok. He was the son of a civil engineer. For a year he studied in Scotland at the University of Edinburgh, but then returned to his homeland and graduated from the Faculty of Physics of Moscow State University in 1918. The future scientist went to the front in the First World War, where he served as a brother of mercy. In 1933, he defended his doctoral dissertation, and a year later, in 1934, he became a research fellow at the Institute of Physics. Lebedeva. This scientist worked in areas of science that were little explored. Thus, he studied relativistic (that is, related to the famous theory of relativity proposed by Albert Einstein) quantum mechanics, as well as the theory of the atomic nucleus. At the end of the 30s, together with I.M. Frank, he managed to explain the Cherenkov-Vavilov effect - the blue glow of a liquid that occurs under the influence of gamma radiation. It was for this research that he later received the Nobel Prize. But Igor Evgenievich himself considered his main achievements in science to be his work on the study of elementary particles and the atomic nucleus.
Davidovich
Landau Lev Davidovich (1908-1968) was born in Baku. His father worked as an oil engineer. At the age of thirteen, the future scientist graduated from technical school with honors, and at nineteen, in 1927, he became a graduate of Leningrad University. Lev Davidovich continued his education abroad as one of the most gifted graduate students on a People's Commissar's permit. Here he took part in seminars conducted by the best European physicists - Paul Dirac and Max Born. Upon returning home, Landau continued his studies. At the age of 26 he achieved the degree of Doctor of Science, and a year later he became a professor. Together with Evgeniy Mikhailovich Lifshits, one of his students, he developed a course for graduate and undergraduate students in theoretical physics. P. L. Kapitsa invited Lev Davidovich to work at his institute in 1937, but a few months later the scientist was arrested on a false denunciation. He spent a whole year in prison without hope of salvation, and only Kapitsa’s appeal to Stalin saved his life: Landau was released.
The talent of this scientist was multifaceted. He explained the phenomenon of fluidity, created his theory of quantum liquid, and also studied the oscillations of electron plasma.
Mikhailovich
Prokhorov Alexander Mikhailovich and Gennadievich, Russian Nobel laureates in the field of physics, received this prestigious prize for the invention of the laser.
Prokhorov was born in Australia in 1916, where his parents lived since 1911. They were exiled to Siberia by the tsarist government and then fled abroad. In 1923, the entire family of the future scientist returned to the USSR. Alexander Mikhailovich graduated with honors from the Faculty of Physics of Leningrad University and worked since 1939 at the Institute. Lebedeva. His scientific achievements are related to radiophysics. The scientist became interested in radio spectroscopy in 1950 and, together with Nikolai Gennadievich Basov, developed so-called masers - molecular generators. Thanks to this invention, they found a way to create concentrated radio emission. Charles Townes, an American physicist, also conducted similar research independently of his Soviet colleagues, so the committee members decided to divide this prize between him and Soviet scientists.
Kapitsa Petr Leonidovich
Let's continue the list of "Russian Nobel laureates in physics." (1894-1984) was born in Kronstadt. His father was a military man, a lieutenant general, and his mother was a folklore collector and a famous teacher. P.L. Kapitsa graduated from the institute in St. Petersburg in 1918, where he studied with Ioffe Abram Fedorovich, an outstanding physicist. In conditions of civil war and revolution, it was impossible to do science. Kapitsa's wife, as well as two of his children, died during the typhus epidemic. The scientist moved to England in 1921. Here he worked in the famous Cambridge university center, and his scientific supervisor was Ernest Rutherford, a famous physicist. In 1923, Pyotr Leonidovich became a Doctor of Science, and two years later - one of the members of Trinity College, a privileged association of scientists.
Pyotr Leonidovich was mainly engaged in experimental physics. He was especially interested in low temperature physics. A laboratory was built especially for his research in Great Britain with the help of Rutherford, and by 1934 the scientist created an installation designed to liquefy helium. Pyotr Leonidovich often visited his homeland during these years, and during his visits the leadership of the Soviet Union persuaded the scientist to stay. In 1930-1934, a laboratory was even built especially for him in our country. In the end, he was simply not released from the USSR during his next visit. Therefore, Kapitsa continued his research here, and in 1938 he managed to discover the phenomenon of superfluidity. For this he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.
Game Andre and Novoselov Konstantin
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, Russian Nobel laureates in physics, received this honorary prize in 2010 for their discovery of graphene. This is a new material that allows you to significantly increase the speed of the Internet. As it turned out, it can capture and also convert into electrical energy an amount of light 20 times greater than all previously known materials. This discovery dates back to 2004. This is how the list of “Nobel laureates of Russia of the 21st century” was replenished.
Literature Prizes
Our country has always been famous for its artistic creativity. People with sometimes opposing ideas and views are Russian Nobel laureates in literature. Thus, A.I. Solzhenitsyn and I.A. Bunin were opponents of Soviet power. But M.A. Sholokhov was known as a convinced communist. However, all Russian Nobel Prize laureates were united by one thing - talent. For him they were awarded this prestigious award. “How many Nobel laureates are there in Russia in literature?” you ask. We answer: there are only five of them. Now we will introduce you to some of them.
Pasternak Boris Leonidovich
Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (1890-1960) was born in Moscow into the family of Leonid Osipovich Pasternak, a famous artist. The mother of the future writer, Rosalia Isidorovna, was a talented pianist. Perhaps that is why Boris Leonidovich dreamed of a career as a composer as a child; he even studied music with A. N. Scriabin himself. But his love for poetry won. Poetry brought fame to Boris Leonidovich, and the novel “Doctor Zhivago,” dedicated to the fate of the Russian intelligentsia, doomed him to difficult trials. The fact is that the editors of one literary magazine, to which the author offered his manuscript, considered this work anti-Soviet and refused to publish it. Then Boris Leonidovich transferred his creation abroad, to Italy, where it was published in 1957. Soviet colleagues sharply condemned the publication of the novel in the West, and Boris Leonidovich was expelled from the Writers' Union. But it was this novel that made him a Nobel laureate. Since 1946, the writer and poet were nominated for this prize, but it was awarded only in 1958.
The awarding of this honorary award to such, in the opinion of many, anti-Soviet work in the homeland aroused the indignation of the authorities. As a result, Boris Leonidovich, under the threat of expulsion from the USSR, was forced to refuse to receive the Nobel Prize. Only 30 years later, Evgeny Borisovich, the son of the great writer, received a medal and diploma for his father.
Solzhenitsyn Alexander Isaevich
The fate of Alexander Isaevich Solzhenitsyn was no less dramatic and interesting. He was born in 1918 in the city of Kislovodsk, and the childhood and youth of the future Nobel laureate were spent in Rostov-on-Don and Novocherkassk. After graduating from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Rostov University, Alexander Isaevich was a teacher and at the same time received his education by correspondence in Moscow, at the Literary Institute. After the start of the Great Patriotic War, the future laureate of the most prestigious peace prize went to the front.
Solzhenitsyn was arrested shortly before the end of the war. The reason for this was his critical remarks about Joseph Stalin, found in the writer’s letters by military censorship. Only in 1953, after the death of Joseph Vissarionovich, was he released. The magazine "New World" in 1962 published the first story by this author, entitled "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", which tells about the life of people in the camp. Most of the following literary magazines refused to publish. Their anti-Soviet orientation was cited as the reason. But Alexander Isaevich did not give up. He, like Pasternak, sent his manuscripts abroad, where they were published. In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The writer did not go to the award ceremony in Stockholm, since the Soviet authorities did not allow him to leave the country. Representatives of the Nobel Committee, who were going to present the prize to the laureate in his homeland, were not allowed into the USSR.
As for the future fate of the writer, in 1974 he was expelled from the country. At first he lived in Switzerland, then moved to the USA, where he was awarded the Nobel Prize, much belatedly. Such famous works of his as “The Gulag Archipelago”, “In the First Circle”, “Cancer Ward” were published in the West. Solzhenitsyn returned to Russia in 1994.
These are the Nobel laureates of Russia. Let’s add one more name to the list, which is impossible not to mention.
Sholokhov Mikhail Alexandrovich
Let's tell you about another great Russian writer - Mikhail Alexandrovich Sholokhov. His fate turned out differently than that of the opponents of Soviet power (Pasternak and Solzhenitsyn), since he was supported by the state. Mikhail Alexandrovich (1905-1980) was born on the Don. He later described the village of Veshenskaya, his small homeland, in many works. Mikhail Sholokhov completed only the 4th grade of school. He took an active part in the civil war, leading a subdetachment that took away surplus grain from wealthy Cossacks. The future writer already felt his calling in his youth. In 1922, he arrived in Moscow, and a few months later began publishing his first stories in magazines and newspapers. In 1926, the collections “Azure Steppe” and “Don Stories” appeared. In 1925, work began on the novel "Quiet Don", dedicated to the life of the Cossacks during a turning point (civil war, revolutions, World War I). In 1928, the first part of this work was born, and in the 30s it was completed, becoming the pinnacle of Sholokhov’s work. In 1965, the writer was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Russian Nobel laureates in economics
Our country has shown itself in this area not as large as in literature and physics, where there are many Russian laureates. So far, only one of our compatriots has received a prize in economics. Let's tell you more about it.
Kantorovich Leonid Vitalievich
Russia's Nobel laureates in economics are represented by only one name. Leonid Vitalievich Kantorovich (1912-1986) is the only economist from Russia awarded this prize. The scientist was born into a doctor's family in St. Petersburg. His parents fled to Belarus during the civil war, where they lived for a year. Vitaly Kantorovich, father of Leonid Vitalievich, died in 1922. In 1926, the future scientist entered the aforementioned Leningrad University, where, in addition to natural disciplines, he studied modern history, political economy, and mathematics. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics at the age of 18, in 1930. After this, Kantorovich remained at the university as a teacher. At the age of 22, Leonid Vitalievich already becomes a professor, and a year later - a doctor. In 1938, he was assigned to a plywood factory laboratory as a consultant, where he was tasked with creating a method for allocating various resources to maximize productivity. This is how the foundry programming method was founded. In 1960, the scientist moved to Novosibirsk, where at that time a computer center was created, the most advanced in the country. Here he continued his research. The scientist lived in Novosibirsk until 1971. During this period he received the Lenin Prize. In 1975, he was awarded jointly with T. Koopmans the Nobel Prize, which he received for his contribution to the theory of resource allocation.
These are the main Nobel laureates of Russia. 2014 was marked by the receipt of this prize by Patrick Modiano (literature), Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano, Shuji Nakamura (physics). Jean Tirol received an award in economics. There are no Russian Nobel laureates among them. 2013 also did not bring this honorary prize to our compatriots. All laureates were representatives of other states.
Nobel laureates in physics - abstract
INTRODUCTION 2
1. NOBEL LAUREATES 4
Alfred Nobel 4
Zhores Alferov 5
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz 16
Peter Kapitsa 18
Marie Curie 28
Lev Landau 32
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen 38
Albert Einstein 41
CONCLUSION 50
REFERENCES 51
In science there is no revelation, no permanent dogmas; everything in it, on the contrary, moves and improves.
A. I. Herzen
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, knowledge of the basics of physics is necessary for everyone in order to have a correct understanding of the world around us - from the properties of elementary particles to the evolution of the Universe. For those who have decided to connect their future profession with physics, studying this science will help them take the first steps towards mastering the profession. We can learn how even seemingly abstract physical research gave birth to new areas of technology, gave impetus to the development of industry and led to what is commonly called scientific and technological revolution.
The successes of nuclear physics, solid state theory, electrodynamics, statistical physics, and quantum mechanics determined the appearance of technology at the end of the twentieth century, such areas as laser technology, nuclear energy, and electronics. Is it possible to imagine in our time any areas of science and technology without electronic computers? Many of us, after graduating from school, will have the opportunity to work in one of these areas, and whoever we become - skilled workers, laboratory assistants, technicians, engineers, doctors, astronauts, biologists, archaeologists - knowledge of physics will help us better master our profession.
Physical phenomena are studied in two ways: theoretically and experimentally. In the first case (theoretical physics), new relationships are derived using mathematical apparatus and based on previously known laws of physics. The main tools here are paper and pencil. In the second case (experimental physics), new connections between phenomena are obtained using physical measurements. Here the instruments are much more diverse - numerous measuring instruments, accelerators, bubble chambers, etc.
Which of the many areas of physics should you prefer? They are all closely related. You cannot be a good experimentalist or theorist in the field of, say, high-energy physics without knowing low-temperature physics or solid-state physics. New methods and relationships that have appeared in one area often give impetus to the understanding of another, at first glance, distant branch of physics. Thus, theoretical methods developed in quantum field theory revolutionized the theory of phase transitions, and vice versa, for example, the phenomenon of spontaneous symmetry breaking, well known in classical physics, was rediscovered in the theory of elementary particles and even the approach to this theory. And of course, before you finally choose any direction, you need to study all areas of physics well enough. In addition, from time to time, for various reasons, you have to move from one area to another. This especially applies to theoretical physicists who are not involved in their work with bulky equipment.
Most theoretical physicists have to work in various fields of science: atomic physics, cosmic rays, metal theory, atomic nucleus, quantum field theory, astrophysics - all areas of physics are interesting.
Now the most fundamental problems are being solved in the theory of elementary particles and in quantum field theory. But in other areas of physics there are many interesting unsolved problems. And of course, there are a lot of them in applied physics.
Therefore, it is necessary not only to become more familiar with the various branches of physics, but, most importantly, to feel their interconnection.
It was not by chance that I chose the topic “Nobel laureates”, because in order to learn new areas of physics, in order to understand the essence of modern discoveries, it is necessary to thoroughly understand already established truths. It was very interesting for me in the process of my work on the abstract to learn something new not only about great discoveries, but also about the scientists themselves, about their lives, work paths, and fate. In fact, it is so interesting and exciting to find out how discoveries happened. And I was once again convinced that many discoveries occur completely by accident, within an hour even in the process of completely different work. But despite this, the discoveries do not become less interesting. It seems to me that I have completely achieved my goal - to discover for myself some secrets from the field of physics. And, I think, studying discoveries through the life path of great scientists, Nobel Prize winners, is the best option. After all, you always learn the material better when you know what goals the scientist set for himself, what he wanted and what he finally achieved.
1. NOBEL LAUREATES
Alfred Nobel
ALFRED NOBEL, a Swedish experimental chemist and businessman, inventor of dynamite and other explosives, who wished to establish a charitable foundation to award a prize in his name, which brought him posthumous fame, was distinguished by incredible inconsistency and paradoxical behavior. Contemporaries believed that he did not correspond to the image of a successful capitalist during the era of rapid industrial development in the second half of the 19th century. Nobel gravitated towards solitude and peace, and could not tolerate the hustle and bustle of the city, although he lived most of his life in urban conditions, and he also traveled quite often. Unlike many of the business world tycoons of his day, Nobel can be called more
“Spartan”, since he never smoked, did not drink alcohol, and avoided cards and other gambling.
At his villa in San Remo, overlooking the Mediterranean Sea and surrounded by orange trees, Nobel built a small chemical laboratory, where he worked as soon as time permitted. Among other things, he experimented in the production of synthetic rubber and artificial silk. Nobel loved San Remo for its amazing climate, but also kept warm memories of the land of his ancestors. In 1894 he acquired an ironworks in Värmland, where he simultaneously built an estate and acquired a new laboratory. He spent the last two summer seasons of his life in Värmland. Summer of 1896 his brother Robert died. At the same time, Nobel began to suffer from heart pain.
At a consultation with specialists in Paris, he was warned about the development of angina pectoris associated with insufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscle. He was advised to go on vacation. Nobel moved again to San Remo. He tried to complete unfinished business and left a handwritten note of his dying wish. After midnight December 10
1896 he died from a cerebral hemorrhage. Apart from the Italian servants who did not understand him, no one close to him was with Nobel at the time of his death, and his last words remained unknown.
The origins of Nobel's will with the wording of the provisions on awarding awards for achievements in various fields of human activity leave many ambiguities. The document in its final form represents one of the editions of his previous wills. His dying gift for awarding prizes in the field of literature and the field of science and technology logically follows from the interests of Nobel himself, who came into contact with the indicated aspects of human activity: physics, physiology, chemistry, literature.
There is also reason to assume that the establishment of prizes for peacekeeping activities is connected with the desire of the inventor to recognize people who, like him, steadfastly resisted violence. In 1886, for example, he told an English acquaintance that he had “a more and more serious intention of seeing the peaceful shoots of the red rose in this splitting world.”
So, the invention of dynamite brought Nobel a huge fortune. On November 27, 1895, a year before his death, Nobel bequeathed his fortune of $31 million to encourage scientific research around the world and to support the most talented scientists. According to Nobel's will, the Swedish Academy of Sciences names the laureates every autumn after careful consideration of the candidates proposed by major scientists and national academies and a thorough check of their work. The awards are presented on December 10, the day of Nobel's death.
Zhores Alferov
I’m not even sure that in the 21st century it will be possible to master
“fusion” or, say, defeat cancer
Boris Strugatsky,
writer
ZHORES ALFEROV was born on March 15, 1930 in Vitebsk. In 1952 he graduated with honors from the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute named after V.I.
Ulyanov (Lenin) with a degree in electric vacuum technology.
At the A.F. Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences he worked as an engineer, junior, senior researcher, head of a sector, head of a department. In 1961, he defended his thesis on the study of powerful germanium and silicon rectifiers. In 1970, he defended his thesis based on the results of research on heterojunctions in semiconductors for the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences.
In 1972 he was elected a corresponding member, and in 1979 - a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Since 1987 - Director of the Physico-Technical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Editor-in-Chief of the journal "Physics and Technology of Semiconductors".
Zh. Alferov is the author of fundamental works in the field of semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, semiconductor and quantum electronics. With his active participation, the first domestic transistors and powerful germanium rectifiers were created. The founder of a new direction in the physics of semiconductors - semiconductor electronics - semiconductor heterostructures and devices based on them. On the scientist's account
50 inventions, three monographs, more than 350 scientific articles in domestic and international journals. He is a laureate of the Lenin (1972) and State
(1984) USSR prizes.
The Franklin Institute (USA) awarded Zh. Alferov the gold medal S.
Ballantyne, the European Physical Society awarded him the Hewlett Prize.
Packard." The physicist was also awarded the A.P. Karpinsky Prize, the H. Welker Gold Medal (Germany) and the International Prize of the Gallium Arsenide Symposium.
Since 1989, Alferov has been Chairman of the Presidium of Leningrad - St.
St. Petersburg Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Since 1990 – Vice-President of the USSR Academy of Sciences (RAN). Zh. Alferov – Deputy of the Russian State Duma
Federation (fraction of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation), member of the Committee on Education and Science.
Zh. Alferov shared the prize with two foreign colleagues - Herbert
Kremer of the University of California at Santa Barbara and Jack S. Kilby of Texas Instruments in Dallas. Scientists were awarded for the discovery and development of opto- and microelectronic elements, on the basis of which parts of modern electronic devices were subsequently developed. These elements were created on the basis of so-called semiconductor heterostructures - multilayer components of high-speed diodes and transistors.
One of Zh. Alferov’s “associates”, an American of German origin
G. Kremer, back in 1957, developed a heterostructure transistor.
Six years later, he and Zh. Alferov independently proposed the principles that formed the basis for the design of a heterostructure laser. In the same year, Zhores Ivanovich patented his famous optical injection quantum generator. Third Physicist Laureate – Jack
S. Kilby made a huge contribution to the creation of integrated circuits.
The fundamental work of these scientists made it fundamentally possible to create fiber-optic communications, including the Internet. Laser diodes based on heterostructure technology can be found in CD players and barcode readers.
High-speed transistors are used in satellite communications and mobile phones.
The award amount is 9 million. Swedish kronor (about nine hundred thousand dollars). Jack S. Kilby received half of this amount, the other was shared by Jaurès
Alferov and Herbert Kremer.
What are the Nobel laureate's predictions for the future? He is convinced that
The 21st century will be the century of nuclear energy. Hydrocarbon energy sources are exhaustible, but nuclear energy knows no limits. Safe nuclear energy, as Alferov says, is possible.
Quantum physics, solid state physics - this, in his opinion, is the basis of progress. Scientists have learned to stack atoms one to one, literally build new materials for unique devices. Amazing quantum dot lasers have already appeared.
How is Alferov’s Nobel discovery useful and dangerous?
The research of our scientist and his fellow laureates from Germany and the USA is a major step towards the development of nanotechnology. It is to her, according to world authorities, that the 21st century will belong. Hundreds of millions of dollars are invested in nanotechnology every year, and dozens of companies are engaged in research.
Nanorobots - hypothetical mechanisms tens of nanometers in size
(these are millionths of a millimeter), the development of which began not so long ago.
A nanorobot is assembled not from the parts and components we are familiar with, but from individual molecules and atoms. Like conventional robots, nanorobots will be able to move, perform various operations, and will be controlled externally or by a built-in computer.
The main tasks of nanorobots are to assemble mechanisms and create new substances. Such devices are called an assembler or replicator.
The crowning achievement will be nanorobots that independently assemble copies of themselves, that is, capable of reproducing. The raw materials for reproduction will be the cheapest materials literally lying underfoot - fallen leaves or sea water, from which nanorobots will select the molecules they need, just as a fox looks for food in the forest.
The idea of this direction belongs to Nobel laureate Richard
Feynman and was expressed in 1959. Devices have already appeared that can operate with a single atom, for example, rearrange it to another place.
Separate elements of nanorobots have been created: a hinge-type mechanism based on several DNA chains, capable of bending and unbending in response to a chemical signal, samples of nanotransistors and electronic switches consisting of a few atoms.
Nanorobots introduced into the human body will be able to cleanse it of microbes or nascent cancer cells, and the circulatory system of cholesterol deposits. They will be able to correct the characteristics of tissues and cells.
Just as DNA molecules, during the growth and reproduction of organisms, assemble their copies from simple molecules, nanorobots will be able to create various objects and new types of matter - both “dead” and “living”. It is difficult to imagine all the possibilities that will open up for humanity if it learns to operate with atoms as with screws and nuts. Making eternal parts of mechanisms from carbon atoms arranged in a diamond lattice, creating molecules rarely found in nature, new engineered compounds, new drugs...
But what if a device designed to treat industrial waste malfunctions and begins to destroy useful substances in the biosphere? The most unpleasant thing will be that nanorobots are capable of self-reproduction. And then they will turn out to be a fundamentally new weapon of mass destruction. It is not difficult to imagine nanorobots programmed to manufacture already known weapons. Having mastered the secret of creating a robot or somehow obtained one, even a lone terrorist will be able to produce them in incredible quantities. Nanotechnology's unfortunate consequences include the creation of devices that are selectively destructive, for example targeting certain ethnic groups or geographic areas.
Some consider Alferov a dreamer. Well, he likes to dream, but his dreams are strictly scientific. Because Zhores Alferov is a real scientist. And a Nobel laureate.
Americans won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000
Alan Heeger (UC Santa Barbara) and Alan
McDiarmid (University of Pennsylvania), as well as Japanese scientist Hideki
Shirakawa (University of Tsukuba). They received the highest scientific honor for their discovery of electrical conductivity in plastics and the development of electrically conductive polymers, which are widely used in the production of photographic film, computer monitors, television screens, reflective windows and other high-tech products.
Of all the theoretical paths, Bohr's path was the most significant.
P. Kapitsa
NIELS BOR (1885-1962) - the greatest physicist of our time, the creator of the original quantum theory of the atom, a truly unique and irresistible personality. He not only sought to understand the laws of nature, expanding the limits of human knowledge, not only felt the ways of development of physics, but also tried by all means available to him to make science serve peace and progress. The personal qualities of this man - deep intelligence, the greatest modesty, honesty, justice, kindness, the gift of foresight, exceptional perseverance in the search for truth and its upholding - are no less attractive than his scientific and social activities.
These qualities made him Rutherford's best student and colleague, Einstein's respected and indispensable opponent, Churchill's opponent and the mortal enemy of German fascism. Thanks to these qualities, he became a teacher and mentor to a large number of outstanding physicists.
A vivid biography, a history of brilliant discoveries, a dramatic struggle against Nazism, a struggle for peace and the peaceful use of atomic energy - all this attracted and will continue to attract attention to the great scientist and most wonderful person.
N. Bohr was born on October 7, 1885. He was the second child in the family of Christian Bohr, a professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen.
At the age of seven, Nils went to school. He studied easily, was an inquisitive, hardworking and thoughtful student, talented in the field of physics and mathematics. The only problem with his essays in his native language was that they were too short.
Since childhood, Bohr loved to design, assemble and disassemble something.
He was always interested in the workings of large tower clocks; he was ready to watch the work of their wheels and gears for a long time. At home, Nils fixed everything that needed repair. But before disassembling anything, I carefully studied the functions of all parts.
In 1903, Niels entered the University of Copenhagen, and a year later his brother Harald also entered there. The brothers soon developed a reputation as very capable students.
In 1905, the Danish Academy of Sciences announced a competition on the topic:
"Use of jet vibration to determine the surface tension of liquids." The work, expected to take a year and a half, was very complex and required good laboratory equipment. Nils took part in the competition. As a result of hard work, his first victory was won: he became the owner of a gold medal. In 1907, Bohr graduated from the university, and in
In 1909, his work “Determination of the surface tension of water by the method of jet oscillation” was published in the proceedings of the Royal Society of London.
During this period, N. Bor began to prepare for the master's exam.
He decided to devote his master's thesis to the physical properties of metals. Based on electronic theory, he analyzes the electrical and thermal conductivity of metals, their magnetic and thermoelectric properties. In the middle of the summer of 1909, the master's thesis, 50 pages of handwritten text, was ready. But Bohr is not very happy with it: he discovered weaknesses in the electronic theory. However, the defense was successful, and Bohr received a master's degree.
After a short rest, Bohr returned to work, deciding to write a doctoral dissertation on the analysis of the electronic theory of metals. In May 1911, he successfully defended it and in the same year he went on a year-long internship at
Cambridge to J. Thomson. Since Bohr had a number of unclear questions in electronic theory, he decided to translate his dissertation into English so that Thomson could read it. “I am very concerned about Thomson’s opinion of the work as a whole, as well as his attitude towards my criticism,” Bohr wrote.
The famous English physicist kindly received a young trainee from Denmark.
He suggested that Bohr work on positive rays, and he set about assembling an experimental setup. The installation was soon assembled, but things went no further. And Nils decides to leave this work and start preparing for the publication of his doctoral dissertation.
However, Thomson was in no hurry to read Bohr's dissertation. Not only because he didn’t like to read at all and was terribly busy. But also because, being a zealous supporter of classical physics, I felt in the young Bohr
"dissident". Bohr's doctoral dissertation remained unpublished.
It is difficult to say how all this would have ended for Bohr and what his future fate would have been if the young, but already laureate, had not been nearby
Nobel Prize to Professor Ernest Rutherford, whom Bohr first saw in October 1911 at the annual Cavendish dinner. “Although I was not able to meet Rutherford this time, I was deeply impressed by his charm and energy - qualities with which he was able to achieve almost incredible things wherever he worked,” Bohr recalled. He decides to work together with this amazing man, who has an almost supernatural ability to accurately penetrate into the essence of scientific problems. In November 1911, Bohr visited
Manchester, met with Rutherford and talked with him. Rutherford agreed to accept Bohr into his laboratory, but the issue had to be settled with Thomson. Thomson gave his consent without hesitation. He could not understand Bohr's physical views, but apparently did not want to disturb him.
This was undoubtedly wise and far-sighted on the part of the famous
"classic".
In April 1912, N. Bohr arrived in Manchester, to Rutherford's laboratory.
He saw his main task in resolving the contradictions of Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom. He willingly shared his thoughts with his teacher, who advised him to more carefully carry out theoretical construction on such a foundation as he considered his atomic model. The time for departure was approaching, and Bohr worked with increasing enthusiasm. He realized that it would not be possible to resolve the contradictions of Rutherford's atomic model within the framework of purely classical physics. And he decided to apply the quantum concepts of Planck and Einstein to the planetary model of the atom. The first part of the work, together with a letter in which Bohr asked Rutherford how he managed to use classical mechanics and quantum radiation theory simultaneously, was sent to
Manchester on March 6, requesting its publication in the magazine. The essence of Bohr's theory was expressed in three postulates:
1. There are some stationary states of the atom, in which it does not emit or absorb energy. These stationary states correspond to well-defined (stationary) orbits.
2. The orbit is stationary if the angular momentum of the electron (L=m v r) is a multiple of b/2(= h. i.e. L=m v r = n h, where n=1. 2, 3, ...
- whole numbers.
3. When an atom transitions from one stationary state to another, one energy quantum hvnm==Wn-Wm is emitted or absorbed, where Wn, Wm is the energy of the atom in two stationary states, h is Planck’s constant, vnm is the radiation frequency. For Wп>Wт quantum emission occurs, at Wn
, Nobel Peace Prize and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen "in recognition of his extraordinary services to science, expressed in the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named in his honor." This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and is widely considered the most prestigious award a physicist can receive. It is awarded in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.
Purpose and selection
No more than three laureates can be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics. Compared to some other Nobel prizes, nomination and selection for the physics prize is a long and rigorous process. That is why the prize became more and more prestigious over the years and eventually became the most important physics prize in the world.
Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee in Physics, which consists of five members elected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. At the first stage, several thousand people propose candidates. These names are studied and discussed by experts before the final selection.
Forms are sent to approximately three thousand people inviting them to submit their nominations. The names of the nominees are not publicly announced for fifty years, nor are they communicated to the nominees. Lists of nominees and their nominators are kept sealed for fifty years. However, in practice, some candidates become known earlier.
Applications are reviewed by a committee, and a list of approximately two hundred preliminary candidates is forwarded to selected experts in these fields. They trim the list down to about fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations to the relevant institutions. While posthumous nominations are not permitted, the award can be received if the person died within a few months between the award committee's decision (usually in October) and the ceremony in December. Until 1974, posthumous awards were permitted if the recipient died after they were made.
The rules for the Nobel Prize in Physics require that the significance of an achievement be "tested by time." In practice, this means that the gap between discovery and prize is usually about 20 years, but can be much longer. For example, half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 was awarded to S. Chandrasekhar for his work on the structure and evolution of stars, which was done in 1930. The disadvantage of this approach is that not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognized. For some important scientific discoveries, this prize was never awarded because the discoverers died by the time the impact of their work was appreciated.
Awards
The winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics receives a gold medal, a diploma stating the award and a sum of money. The monetary amount depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation in the current year. If the prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is divided equally between them; in the case of three laureates, the money can also be divided into half and two quarters.
Medals
Nobel Prize medals minted Myntverket in Sweden and the Norwegian Mint since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal has an image of Alfred Nobel's left profile on the obverse. Nobel Prize medals in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature have the same obverse showing an image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death (1833-1896). Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Nobel Peace Prize medal and the Economics Prize medal, but with a slightly different design. The image on the reverse side of the medal varies depending on the awarding institution. The reverse side of the Nobel Prize medal for chemistry and physics has the same design.
Diplomas
Nobel laureates receive a diploma from the hands of the King of Sweden. Each diploma has a unique design developed by the awarding institution for the recipient. The diploma contains an image and text that contains the recipient's name and usually a quote about why they received the award.
Premium
Laureates are also given a sum of money when they receive the Nobel Prize in the form of a document confirming the amount of the award; in 2009 the cash bonus was SEK 10 million (USD 1.4 million). The amounts may vary depending on how much money the Nobel Foundation may award this year. If there are two winners in a category, the grant is divided equally among the recipients. If there are three recipients, the award committee has the option of dividing the grant into equal parts or awarding half the amount to one recipient and one quarter each to the other two.
Ceremony
The committee and institutions serving as the selection committee for the award typically announce the names of the recipients in October. The prize is then awarded at an official ceremony held annually at Stockholm City Hall on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The laureates receive a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the cash prize.
Laureates
Notes
- "What the Nobel Laureates Receive". Retrieved November 1, 2007. Archived October 30, 2007 on the Wayback Machine
- "The Nobel Prize Selection Process", Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed November 5, 2007 (Flowchart).
- FAQ nobelprize.org
- Finn Kydland and Edward Prescott’s Contribution to Dynamic Macroeconomics: The Time Consistency of Economic Policy and the Driving Forces Behind Business Cycles (undefined) (PDF). Official website of the Nobel Prize (October 11, 2004). Retrieved December 17, 2012. Archived December 28, 2012.
- Gingras, Yves. Wallace, Matthew L. Why it has become more difficult to predict Nobel Prize winners: A bibliometric analysis of nominees and winners of the chemistry and physics prizes (1901–2007) // Scientometrics. - 2009. - No. 2. - P. 401. - DOI:10.1007/s11192-009-0035-9.
- A noble prize (English) // Nature Chemistry: journal. - DOI:10.1038/nchem.372. - Bibcode: 2009NatCh...1..509..
- Tom Rivers. 2009 Nobel Laureates Receive Their Honors | Europe| English (undefined) . .voanews.com (December 10, 2009). Retrieved January 15, 2010. Archived December 14, 2012.
- The Nobel Prize Amounts (undefined) . Nobelprize.org. Retrieved January 15, 2010. Archived July 3, 2006.
- "Nobel Prize - Prizes" (2007), in Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 15 January 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online:
- Medalj – ett traditionellt hantverk(Swedish). Myntverket. Retrieved December 15, 2007. Archived December 18, 2007.
- "The Nobel Prize for Peace" Archived September 16, 2009 on the Wayback Machine, "Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors, and Medals", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
Names of Nobel Prize laureates in physics. According to Alfred Nobel's will, the prize is awarded to "whoever makes the most important discovery or invention" in this field.
The editors of TASS-DOSSIER have prepared material about the procedure for awarding this prize and its laureates.
Awarding the Prize and Nominating Candidates
The prize is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, located in Stockholm. Its working body is the Nobel Committee on Physics, consisting of five to six members who are elected by the Academy for three years.
Scientists from different countries have the right to nominate candidates for the prize, including members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and Nobel Prize laureates in physics who have received special invitations from the committee. Candidates can be proposed from September until January 31 of the following year. Then the Nobel Committee, with the help of scientific experts, selects the most worthy candidates, and in early October the Academy selects the laureate by a majority vote.
Laureates
The first prize was received in 1901 by William Roentgen (Germany) for the discovery of radiation named after him. Among the most famous laureates are Joseph Thomson (Great Britain), recognized in 1906 for his studies of the passage of electricity through gases; Albert Einstein (Germany), who received the prize in 1921 for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect; Niels Bohr (Denmark), awarded in 1922 for his atomic research; John Bardeen (USA), two-time winner of the prize (1956 for research into semiconductors and the discovery of the transistor effect and 1972 for the creation of the theory of superconductivity).
To date, there are 203 people on the list of recipients (including John Bardeen, who was awarded twice). Only two women were awarded this prize: in 1903, Marie Curie shared it with her husband Pierre Curie and Antoine Henri Becquerel (for studying the phenomenon of radioactivity), and in 1963, Maria Goppert-Mayer (USA) received the award together with Eugene Wigner (USA ) and Hans Jensen (Germany) for work in the field of the structure of the atomic nucleus.
Among the laureates are 12 Soviet and Russian physicists, as well as scientists who were born and educated in the USSR and who took second citizenship. In 1958, the prize was awarded to Pavel Cherenkov, Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm for their discovery of the radiation of charged particles moving at superluminal speeds. Lev Landau became a laureate in 1962 for the theories of condensed matter and liquid helium. Since Landau was in the hospital after being seriously injured in a car accident, the prize was presented to him in Moscow by the Swedish Ambassador to the USSR.
Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were awarded the prize in 1964 for the creation of a maser (quantum amplifier). Their work in this area was first published in 1954. In the same year, the American scientist Charles Townes, independently of them, came to similar results, and as a result, all three received the Nobel Prize.
In 1978, Pyotr Kapitsa was awarded for his discovery in low temperature physics (the scientist began working in this area in the 1930s). In 2000, Zhores Alferov became the laureate for developments in semiconductor technology (shared the award with German physicist Herbert Kremer). In 2003, Vitaly Ginzburg and Alexey Abrikosov, who took American citizenship in 1999, were awarded the prize for their fundamental work on the theory of superconductors and superfluids (the award was shared with the British-American physicist Anthony Leggett).
In 2010, the prize was awarded to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, who conducted experiments with the two-dimensional material graphene. The technology for producing graphene was developed by them in 2004. Game was born in 1958 in Sochi, and in 1990 he left the USSR, subsequently receiving Dutch citizenship. Konstantin Novoselov was born in 1974 in Nizhny Tagil, in 1999 he left for the Netherlands, where he began working with Game, and was later granted British citizenship.
In 2016, the prize was awarded to British physicists working in the United States: David Thoules, Duncan Haldane and Michael Kosterlitz "for their theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter."
Statistics
In 1901-2016, the prize in physics was awarded 110 times (in 1916, 1931, 1934, 1940-1942 it was not possible to find a worthy candidate). 32 times the prize was divided between two laureates and 31 times between three. The average age of the laureates is 55 years. Until now, the youngest winner of the physics prize is 25-year-old Englishman Lawrence Bragg (1915), and the oldest is 88-year-old American Raymond Davis (2002).
Nobel Prize-winning discovery could be used to treat cancerThis year's laureate discovered and described the mechanism of autophagy, the fundamental process of removing and recycling cell components. Disturbances in the process of autophagy, or the removal of waste from cells, can lead to the development of diseases such as cancer and neurological diseases.British physicist David James Thouless was born in 1934 in Bearsden, Scotland (UK).
In 1955 he received a bachelor's degree from the University of Cambridge (UK). In 1958 he received his PhD degree from Cornell University (USA).
After defending his doctoral dissertation, he worked at the universities of Berkeley and Birmingham.
From 1965 to 1978 he was professor of mathematical physics at the University of Birmingham, where he collaborated with physicist Michael Kosterlitz.
Thawless and Kosterlitz in the early 1970s overturned existing theories that suggested that the phenomena of superconductivity and superfluidity could not be observed in thin layers. They demonstrated that superconductivity can occur at low temperatures and explained the phase transitions that cause superconductivity to disappear at higher temperatures.
Since 1980, Towless has been a professor of physics at the University of Washington in Seattle (USA). He is currently Professor Emeritus at Washington State University.
Dr. Thouless is a Fellow of the Royal Society, a Fellow of the American Physical Society, a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a Fellow of the American National Academy of Sciences.
Recipient of the Maxwell Medal and the Paul Dirac Medal, awarded by the British Institute of Physics; Holweck Medal from the French Physical Society and the Institute of Physics. Winner of the Fritz London Award, which is awarded to scientists who have made outstanding contributions to the field of low temperature physics; the Lars Onsager Prize from the American Physical Society and the Wolf Prize.
October 4, 2016 David Thouless was for the discovery of topological transitions and topological phases of matter.
Kosterlitz Michael
British physicist John Michael Kosterlitz was born in 1942 in Aberdeen, Scotland (UK).
In 1965 he received a bachelor's degree, in 1966 a master's degree from the University of Cambridge (UK), and in 1969 a doctorate in high energy physics from the University of Oxford (UK).
Michael Kosterlitz was awarded the Maxwell Medal of the British Institute of Physics (1981), and is a laureate of the Lars Onsager Prize of the American Physical Society (2000).
Haldane Duncan
British physicist Duncan Haldane was born on September 14, 1951 in London (UK).
In 1973 he received a bachelor's degree and in 1978 a doctorate in physics from the University of Cambridge (UK).
From 1977-1981 he worked at the International Laue-Langevin Institute in Grenoble, France.
In 1981-1985 - Associate Professor of Physics at the University of Southern California, USA.
In 1985-1987 he worked at the French-American research center Bell Laboratories.
From 1987 to 1990, he was a professor in the Eugene Higgins Department of Physics at the University of California at San Diego, USA.
Since 1990, he has been a professor in the Eugene Higgins Department of Physics at Princeton University, USA.
He was involved in the development of a new geometric description of the fractional quantum Hall effect. Haldane's research areas included the effect of quantum entanglement, topological insulators.
Since 1986 - member of the American Physical Society.
Since 1992 - member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston).
Since 1996 - Member of the Royal Society of London.
Since 2001 - member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
In 1993, Duncan received the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Physics Prize from the American Physical Society. In 2012, he was awarded the Dirac Medal by the Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics.
In 2016, Duncan Haldane (together with David Towless and Michael Kosterlitz) was awarded in physics for the discovery of topological transitions and topological phases of matter. As noted in a press release from the Nobel Committee, the current laureates have “opened the door to an unknown world” in which matter may be in an unusual state. We are talking, first of all, about superconductors and thin magnetic films.
