Commodity-money relations in society. Market as a manifestation of commodity-money relations The main category of commodity-money relations
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COMMODITY-MONEY RELATIONS
TovArno-detender relationshipenia, social relations that arise between people in the process of production and sale goods . They appeared already during random acts of exchange of surplus products between communities. In these conditions commodity production there was no such thing. However, there was a commodity exchange. “As is known,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “commodity circulation precedes commodity production and constitutes one of the conditions (but not the only condition) for the emergence of this latter” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 3 , p. 553). Only as a result of the long historical development of the social division of labor does commodity production arise, in which the exchange of goods is regular and not random. There is a transition from a simple exchange of goods for goods, expressed by the formula T-- T, To exchange of goods through money, expressed by the formula T-- D-- T. This process of formation and development of T.-d. O. found its expression in the development of forms cost .
T.-d. O. exist under different modes of production and express the production relations of a given mode of production, primarily property relations. Therefore, the content of T.-d. O. and the set of characteristics that characterize them does not remain unchanged during the transition from one method of production to another. They do not remain unchanged within the same production method. At the same time, in the content of T.-d. O. There are common features that allow us to characterize them as commodity-money. “...The production of goods and the circulation of goods,” wrote K. Marx, “are phenomena characteristic of the most diverse methods of production, although their volume and significance are far from the same” (Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 23, p. 124, note).
T.-d. O. not only experience the influence of certain methods of production, but also actively influence the system of production relations of these methods of production. So, T.-d. O. contributed to the decomposition of primitive communal, slave-owning and feudal modes of production, which were characterized by natural economy , and T.-d. O. were of a subordinate nature. The greatest role of T.-d. O. play under capitalism when they acquire a universal character and express the basic production relation - the relation of exploitation of wage labor by the capitalist. The hired worker acts as a seller work force , and the capitalist as its buyer.
Under socialism, T.-dem. also exist and develop. O. With the transformation of social relations on socialist principles, the essence and role of commodity-money categories change. T.-d. O. express fundamentally different social connections and perform new functions. They represent a form of production and a means of exchanging the activities of workers of collective production. T.-d. O. have socialist content. Scope of action of T.-d. O. narrowed as a result of the fact that labor, land, its subsoil, etc. ceased to be a commodity. T.-d. O. in a socialist society they are of a subordinate nature and are not a universal and dominant form. At the same time, they are an important means of functioning of the socialist mode of production, distribution and exchange of activities. Therefore, relations characterized by such commodity-money categories as production cost , price , profit , profitability , money , salary, credit , economic calculation etc., are deliberately used in the process management national economy and, above all, in the planning system. The socialist state routinely sets and changes prices for goods, regulates the movement of credit resources, determining their volume, direction, as well as the interest rate, regulates fees for funds, the basic principles of profit distribution, and centrally organizes the wage system. Place and role of T.-d. O. in the socialist economic system were clarified on the basis of the practice of socialist management in the course of lengthy discussions and extensive research work. At the same time, revisionist theories of “market socialism” were criticized, leading to the undermining of the laws of planned development of the socialist economy. The opinions that commodity-money forms are incompatible with the nature of socialism and especially at the stage of a developed socialist society are also rejected. T.-d. O. under socialism they are used to build a higher phase of communist society when there is no need for them.
History of money
Money as a social relation, i.e. connection in society, historically appear before finance. The appearance of money is caused social division of labor and development of exchange. The emergence of such social relations as finance is associated with the formation of the state.
In the early stages of the development of exchange, money - the universal equivalent - became the product most in demand in a given area. In countries where there were deposits of gold and silver, these metals began to be used in ancient times as money. Thus, clay tablets found in the ruins of the city of Ur (Mesopotamia) contain information that almost 3.5 thousand years BC. e. silver served as money.
In the 19th century The lag of the extraction of precious metals from the needs of the growing trade turnover in means of payment led to the spread of paper money issued by governments, as well as credit money issued by banks. After the First World War (1914-1918), the entire monetary turnover was made up of paper-credit money supply. Thus, the development of money has gone from commodity money to so-called fiat money with purchasing power established by the state.
Traditional money was defined as a commodity, spontaneously isolated from the world of goods to serve as a universal equivalent.
However It is very difficult to define modern maternity money. They tried to express their essence in different formulations. For example, “Money is what it does.” Or: “Money is the reservoir of purchasing power.” It is unlikely that such definitions can be considered successful. In order to correctly say what money is, it is necessary to pay attention to the following circumstance. Money, as is known, there are four functions: measure of value; medium of exchange; means of storage; instrument of payment. But it is very difficult to give a formulation that unites all these functions. After all, money is banknotes, numbers in a savings book, and electronic credit card codes.
In the doctrine of money at the beginning of the 19th century. Two main directions have emerged. The first, predominant one, argued that only gold can be full-fledged money, and paper money is a substitute for gold. The suspension of the exchange of paper money for precious metal, according to representatives of this trend, could only be temporary. Such views were shared by A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J. Mill, K. Marx. This direction had many supporters in the 20th century. For its representatives, it was a complete surprise that the collapse of gold circulation in England, France and Germany after the First World War and the final abolition of the gold content of the dollar in 1971 However, there was another theoretical direction that argued that paper money could be in circulation without a gold base. In 1923, in his work “Treatise on Monetary Reform,” J. Keynes wrote that “ the gold standard is only a barbaric relic of the past"Under the Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte, the Russian government set a course for the introduction of a gold currency. This was motivated by the fact that in the conditions of paper money it is impossible to ensure the stability of the ruble exchange rate to foreign currency. And so, the development of exchange leads to the emergence of an equivalent product. In In a later historical period, the process of formation of state principles takes place. To provide material support for public administration, rulers begin to levy taxes from their subjects. The income generated from them is spent on certain purposes: the construction of defensive structures, the maintenance of troops, judges, etc.
From the money collected in the form of taxes, funds begin to be formed for subsequent spending. They make up public finances. Thus, in the definition of finance, the key word becomes the word “funds.” Individuals and their associations also form their own monetary funds. This is how the finances of business entities-organizations appear, as well as the finances of households. Continuing the theme of the history of the origin and evolution of money, let us consider the development of commodity-money relations.
Development of commodity-money relations
commodity money relation
Money- the result of the development of the process of exchange of goods.
Product is a thing produced for exchange.
Commodity and money exchange-- an objective pattern of development of exchange relations.
Appearance commodity exchange, first random, and then systematic, separated into a separate sector of socio-economic relations the relations associated with the evaluation of things and goods. As soon as a thing begins to be produced for exchange (purchase and sale), and not for personal consumption, relations of commodity exchange arise, simple or mediated by money. The first exchange option is simple exchange relations, and the second - commodity-money exchange relations(Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Schemes of simple and commodity-money exchange
In a simple commodity exchange (goods for goods), one way or another takes place subjective the nature of assessing the possibility and equivalence of the exchange of goods for goods. The assessment of the degree of usefulness of a particular thing-good is made by individual participants in the exchange, and for others the goods may not be of equal size at all. Therefore, simple commodity exchange objectively developed in the direction of searching single a commodity that could serve as a universal equivalent for the entire set of things produced for exchange (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Exchange of goods through goods - universal equivalent
At the early stages of the development of commodity-money relations, the intermediary product does not yet have universal versatility.
The versatility of the intermediary product-- the main accelerator of the development of commodity-money relations.
First historical property of money- to be a measure of the value of all other goods, and the first historical form of money is one of the goods for which the owners of all other goods are willing to exchange.
The initial stage of development of commodity-money relations through an intermediary product presupposed a long period of searching for a partner who possessed the necessary product - the purpose of the exchange - and who agreed to make an exchange through this intermediary product. The main inconvenience was the length of the search period for such a direct exchange partner. Therefore, in the formula of commodity-money exchange relations it is not yet possible to indicate a specific, single intermediary commodity in the exchange, and it looks like this:
i.e. for exchange of goods A for goods N through an intermediate intermediary product (B, C, D ... etc.) it was necessary to find such an intermediary product in exchange that would be sufficiently acceptable for all participants in commodity-money relations. Such acceptability meant that all commodity producers entering the market agreed to accept a single product as a universal intermediary. The universality of the intermediary product (i.e., its acceptability for all participants in the exchange) greatly simplifies the exchange procedure, since long searches for the appropriate partner and the desired product are replaced by a quick exchange of one’s product for the intermediary product, and the intermediary product for the necessary product. As a result, the intermediary product turns into a single measure of the value of all other goods, i.e. into money, and commodity-money relations take the form
T - D - T."
The emergence of an intermediary product, in which all participants in the exchange began to express their assessments of other goods, made all subjective assessments comparable and it was possible to establish the proportions of the exchange in which goods (money) were exchanged for an amount of other goods corresponding in value:
Standing out from the diverse world of goods goods - universal equivalent(money) - the exchange process has been simplified and accelerated. A scale for measuring the value of goods produced for purchase and sale, acceptable to all participants in the exchange, has emerged. Since the basis for determining the price of goods is their price, or the amount of labor spent on their production, then in the value of the commodity - the universal equivalent (money) are expressed in the process of purchase and sale (exchange) of the value of all other goods.
WITHsqueakliterature used
1. Andreev B.F. Systematic course of economic theory. Microeconomics. Macroeconomics. Tutorial. / Ed. V. A. Petrishcheva. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1998.
2. Ryabtsevich V.N. What do the coins tell about? Ed. Doctor of Historical Sciences A.P. Ignatenko. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - Mn.: Nar. Asveta, 1978
3. Finance, money circulation and credit. Textbook / Ed. N.F. Samsonova. - M.: INFRA, 2001.
4. Economics. Textbook manual / Edited by M. I. Plotnitsky. - M.: New knowledge, 2001.
5. Borisov E. F., Volkov F. M. “Fundamentals of economic theory.” - M.: ed. "Higher School", 1993.
6. Lipshits I. V. “Introduction to economics and business (economics for economists).” - M.: ed. "Vita-press", 1997.
7. Raizberg B. A. “Market economics.” - LLP Editorial Board of the magazine “Business Life”. - M., 1993.
8. Ruzavin G.I. “Fundamentals of a market economy.” - M.: ed. "UNITY", 1996.
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The essence of price is an economic category, meaning the amount of money for which the seller wants to sell, and the buyer is ready to buy the product, as well as a concept that mediates all commodity-money relations. Study of the price function in modern economics.
Commodity-money relations, social relations that arise between people in the process of production and sale goods . They appeared already during random acts of exchange of surplus products between communities. In these conditions commodity production there was no such thing. However, there was a commodity exchange. “As is known,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “commodity circulation precedes commodity production and constitutes one of the conditions (but not the only condition) for the emergence of this latter” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 3, p. 553). Only as a result of the long historical development of the social division of labor does commodity production arise, in which the exchange of goods is regular and not random. There is a transition from a simple exchange of goods for goods, expressed by the formula T- T, To exchange of goods through money, expressed by the formula T- D- T. This process of formation and development of T.-d. O. found its expression in the development of forms cost .
T.-d. O. exist under different modes of production and express the production relations of a given mode of production, primarily property relations. Therefore, the content of T.-d. O. and the set of characteristics that characterize them does not remain unchanged during the transition from one method of production to another. They do not remain unchanged within the same production method. At the same time, in the content of T.-d. O. There are common features that allow us to characterize them as commodity-money. “...The production of goods and the circulation of goods,” wrote K. Marx, “are phenomena characteristic of the most diverse methods of production, although their volume and significance are far from the same” (Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed. ., vol. 23, p. 124, note).
T.-d. O. not only experience the influence of certain methods of production, but also actively influence the system of production relations of these methods of production. So, T.-d. O. contributed to the decomposition of primitive communal, slave-owning and feudal modes of production, which were characterized by natural economy , and T.-d. O. were of a subordinate nature. The greatest role of T.-d. O. play under capitalism when they acquire a universal character and express the basic production relation - the relation of exploitation of wage labor by the capitalist. The hired worker acts as a seller work force , and the capitalist is its buyer.
Under socialism, T.-dem. also exist and develop. O. With the transformation of social relations on socialist principles, the essence and role of commodity-money categories change. T.-d. O. express fundamentally different social connections and perform new functions. They represent a form of production and a means of exchanging the activities of workers of collective production. T.-d. O. have socialist content. Scope of action of T.-d. O. narrowed as a result of the fact that labor, land, its subsoil, etc. ceased to be a commodity. T.-d. O. in a socialist society they are of a subordinate nature and are not a universal and dominant form. At the same time, they are an important means of functioning of the socialist mode of production, distribution and exchange of activities. Therefore, relations characterized by such commodity-money categories as production cost , price , profit , profitability , money , salary, credit , economic calculation etc., are deliberately used in the process management national economy and, above all, in the planning system. The socialist state routinely sets and changes prices for goods, regulates the movement of credit resources, determining their volume, direction, as well as the interest rate, regulates fees for funds, the basic principles of profit distribution, and centrally organizes the wage system. Place and role of T.-d. O. in the socialist economic system were clarified on the basis of the practice of socialist management in the course of lengthy discussions and extensive research work. At the same time, revisionist theories of “market socialism” were criticized, leading to the undermining of the laws of planned development of the socialist economy. The opinions that commodity-money forms are incompatible with the nature of socialism and especially at the stage of a developed socialist society are also rejected. T.-d. O. under socialism they are used to build a higher phase of communist society when there is no need for them.
Lit.: see under articles Price , Product .
O. V. Katikhin.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia M.: "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1969-1978
Lecture 7 Commodity-money relations in society
COMMODITY PRODUCTION AND PRODUCT
For a long time, NATURAL PRODUCTION dominated people's lives. Moreover, each economic unit (family, community, etc.) ran a closed economy, producing for itself the entire set of necessary products. With the development of productive forces and the social division of labor, this inefficient universal production was gradually replaced by an increasingly specialized and more productive commodity economy. Commodity production- this is the production of products not for one’s own consumption, but for exchange, for sale.
The word “product” is quite familiar to all of us. However, can everything that surrounds us be called a commodity? First of all, let's analyze: WHAT is the result of human activity. Sausage, ink, radio, theater performance, doctor's advice and prescriptions, car... This list is endless. And all these are the results of human activity, appearing in two forms: MATERIAL GOODS and INTANGIBLE GOODS. Their difference is that material benefits are always some specific THING, and intangible benefits are an ACTIVITY (SERVICE).
To answer the question of what is a commodity, it is necessary to remember the purpose of the sphere of exchange, and how commodity farming differs from natural farming.
We can bake pies for ourselves and eat them with appetite at breakfast. We can do ourselves a favor - wash the window in our room (even better - in the entire apartment) or take our beloved dog for a walk. In this case, we satisfy OUR needs or the needs of OUR family. The things we have produced and the services we have provided do not enter the sphere of public exchange. If we start selling our pies in a busy place near a metro station to other people (in exchange for money) or walk someone else’s dog at the request of its owner (in exchange for money or “pleasures”), the dog’s owner will treat you once a week ice cream at your own expense), then our product (pies, dog walking service) will satisfy the needs of other people.
This is where the difference between a product and the entire abundance of things and services lies.
Conclusion 1. A GOODS IS A LABOR PRODUCT PRODUCED FOR SALE, WITH THE PURPOSE OF EXCHANGE FOR OTHER LABOR PRODUCTS OR MONEY IN THE MARKET.
During the exchange process, the product exhibits two properties.
1. The property of satisfying any human needs, of being useful to the consumer, i.e., of having SOCIAL USEFULITY ( CONSUMER VALUE).
2. The ability to be exchanged for another product (money) in certain quantitative proportions, i.e. to possess EXCHANGE VALUE.
Some goods satisfy PRODUCTION NEEDS for machines, equipment, raw materials, and semi-finished products. Other goods satisfy our needs for food, clothing, housing, reading, music, etc., i.e. PERSONAL NEEDS of a material and spiritual nature.
Conclusion 2. ALL GOODS ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO LARGE GROUPS: GOODS TO MEET PRODUCTION NEEDS AND GOODS TO MEET PERSONAL NEEDS.
We all get acquainted with the exchange process in stores. Prices are indicated on product labels, in price tags, called sellers. We resent very high prices and are suspicious of goods with very low prices. But these are just our subjective feelings and opinions about prices.
Thus: The product of commercial production is called goods. Every product has two economic properties: use value and cost. * Use value- This is the specific utility of the product. Let's say the use value of a book is that it satisfies the spiritual needs of people; machine - in its ability to produce other necessary goods, etc. * Price- this is the labor of people embodied in goods. The real assessment of this labor occurs in exchange, when a given product is exchanged for other goods. It is then that it becomes clear how necessary it is for consumers. In this case, the quantitative ratio in which the exchange of goods takes place is called exchange value. For example, if 5 axes are exchanged for 30 kg of grain, then the exchange value of the ax is 6 kg of grain.
At the same time, with the advent of money, this value appears in the form of price. Price, therefore, there is a monetary expression of the value of the product.
However, before accepting the modern commodity-money form, exchange relations went through a long path of mostly spontaneous development.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMMODITY EXCHANGE RELATIONS
In the process of this development, three main stages can be distinguished. 1. At the beginning, when commodity production was just emerging, a variety of labor products were directly exchanged for each other. The simplest formula for such an exchange: T - T (goods for goods) (Fig. Then, among the growing mass of goods, special goods stood out - GENERAL equivalents. These were the most popular local intermediary goods (grain, furs, livestock, metals, etc.) , for which other goods were exchanged. Here is the exchange formula: T - t - T, where t is an intermediary product. 3. Finally, with the further development of commodity production and the expansion of international trade, the role of a general equivalent (already for many nations) began to be played by metals ( primarily gold and silver). They became UNIVERSAL equivalents and turned into money. And the exchange formula acquired a modern commodity-money form: T - M - T (commodity - money - commodity). So, money can be defined as a general commodity equivalent, which 1) expresses the value of all goods and 2) serves as an intermediary in their exchange. Money has also gone through its own development path, in which two main stages are distinguished: the stage of full-fledged money and the stage of inferior money.
Rice. 1. Main milestones in the development of trade relations
(1 Barter - commodity exchange transaction) - direct exchange of goods for goods or through a third product (without the mediation of money)).
FULL MONEY
Full money- this is real money, the role of which was played by the monetary commodity itself, which has its own value. In this regard, it is necessary to distinguish between a) the OWN value of money, determined by the costs of its production, and b) the NOMINAL (or nominal) value of money, which is indicated on them. For example, if you take a conventional gold coin, then the inscription on it, say, “10 rubles” is its nominal value, and the actual costs of producing this coin are its own, real value. For full-fledged money, the nominal and intrinsic values approximately corresponded to each other.
The history of money began precisely with its full-fledged version - with real monetary goods (grain, furs, metals, etc.). As a result of development, the role of money was assigned to metals - primarily gold and silver. At the same time, there were both BIMETALLISM (when both of these metals were in circulation) and MONOMETALLISM (in which one metal was used as money - either gold or silver). In particular, during the formation of capitalism in Europe, bimetallism became widespread. However, the difficulties of double money and prices ultimately predetermined the transition to gold monometallism. Choice gold was not accidental. This precious and noble metal does not rust like iron; does not “turn green” like copper; does not tarnish like silver. It is homogeneous, easily divisible, preserves well, and has a high concentration of value (a small coin can represent a significant face value).
Life, however, has shown that the denomination of money does not necessarily correspond to its real value. Along with standard, full-weight coins, inferior coins - worn out, or even deliberately cut off - were successfully circulated. Noticing this, the authorities began deliberately “damaging coins” - issuing increasingly lightweight or low-grade coins while maintaining their previous denomination. Then paper money appeared (in Russia in 1769). So gradually society switched to inferior money.
POOR MONEY AND DEMONETIZATION OF GOLD
Bad money- these are substitutes for full-fledged money, banknotes, the intrinsic value of which is insignificant and, as a rule, does not correspond to their face value. For example, it is obvious that the cost of producing a US $100 bill is minuscule compared to its face value. Nevertheless, this bill regularly serves as money, since the American state has legislatively endowed it with a certain monetary status. Thus, if full-fledged money circulated due to its own value, then inferior money acts in accordance with its official purpose. Main species inferior money are 1) PAPER MONEY - paper banknotes, 2) BILLON COINS, or billons - metal banknotes in the form of coins made of base metals (base silver, nickel, copper, etc.), and also 3) CREDIT MONEY , covering bills, checks, credit cards and other similar forms. Depending on what kind of money (full or inferior) is used in circulation, there are two main types of monetary systems (Fig. 2).
Full-fledged money dominated circulation for a long time until they began to be replaced by banknotes. At the same time, for a number of centuries both of them circulated together. The pinnacle of their successful joint functioning was the so-called gold standard , which by the end of the 19th century. strengthened almost everywhere (in Russia in 1897). At that time, gold coins occupied the main place in monetary circulation. Defective money was freely exchanged for it at face value. However, later the rapid growth of trade turnover led to an increase in the volume of paper credit money and their gradual displacement of gold from active circulation. The exchange of inferior money for full-fledged money was increasingly limited, and the global economic crisis of the 1st year. almost completely destroyed the gold standard system (although, for example, the US dollar formally maintained a direct connection with gold until 1971). Thus, in our time there has been demonetization of gold, that is, its “removal” from the performance of monetary functions, and paper-credit money absolutely dominates in modern circulation.
Rice. 2. Full and defective money and types of monetary systems
At the same time, they increasingly appear in their new, “electronic” form - in the form of computer calculations using plastic cards and entries in computer memory. Such convenient monetary payments have already begun through the global computer network Internet (for example, when ordering airline tickets or hotel rooms).
FUNCTIONS OF MONEY AND THE LAW OF MONEY CIRCULATION
In a developed commodity economy, four main functions of money can be distinguished (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Basic functions of money
Liquidity (from Latin liquildus - fluid) - marketability (of goods, securities, real estate, etc.).
Forward: from English. forward - advance; future (for a period).
Futures: from English. futures - fixed-term contracts.
Hedging: from English. hedge - to fence.
Deposit: from lat. depositum - a thing given for storage.
Mortgage (from the Greek hypotheke - mortgage, pledge): 1) pledging land and other real estate to obtain a loan; 2) mortgage debt; 3) mortgage - a document certifying the surrender of property as collateral.
Discount (from the English discount - discount; reduce, reduce): 1) accounting of bills (discounting); 2) discount rate of bank interest; 3) discount (for example, from the price).
Leasing (from the English lease - rent) is a long-term lease or rental of production facilities, machinery and other equipment (sometimes with subsequent purchase by the tenant of the leased property).
Factoring, or factoring (from the English factor - agent, intermediary) - factor operations (for example, intermediary services for the resale of the right to collect debts, the very collection of money from debtors, etc.).
1. Evolution of forms of value and the emergence of money
Money plays a very important role in our life. In fact, this is one of the most remarkable inventions of mankind. Without representing any significant value in themselves, they serve as a measure of the value of all the things around us. “Money is the only commodity that cannot be used except to free oneself from it. They won't feed you, shelter you, or entertain you until you spend or invest them. People will do almost anything for money, and money will do almost anything for people. Money is a fascinating, repeating, mask-changing riddle.”
Money originates from goods. They are inextricably linked with the commodity, as well as with commodity production and exchange. A product is any product of human labor intended not for direct use by the manufacturer himself, but for exchange for other products or for sale. The properties of a product, expressed in the ability to satisfy certain human needs, are called use value. It is different for each product. An object that has no use value is not a commodity, because no one needs a useless thing.
In the early stages of human development, commodity production was random. Everything that was produced on the farm was produced for internal needs. Only occasionally did surplus production appear, which was used for exchange. Therefore, determining the value of a few goods was relatively easy. Subsequently, the improvement of tools and production methods led to an expansion of the range of products. The number of goods began to grow, and the process of exchange began to become more complex. The need to endlessly equate a variety of objects with each other actually excluded the possibility of normal functioning of markets. It was necessary to find a product with which it would be possible to determine the value of any things, regardless of their purpose and value. This caused the separation of certain products from the commercial mass. These products, in contrast to all others, became universal equivalents of value, that is, they could be exchanged for any other product. This is how the “product of goods” appeared, i.e. money. The evolution of exchange can be represented as the following shape change diagram
1. Simple (random) form of value - exchange of goods for goods;
2. Full (expanded) form of value - the exchange of one product for a number of goods;
3. The general form of value is the exchange of all goods (within the scale of a given market) for one product;
4. The monetary form of value is the exchange of all goods for money.
Money arose precisely at the last stage. They arose spontaneously from an exchange, and not by agreement of the parties. Various goods acted as money, but precious metals - silver and gold - turned out to be more suitable.
Money by its origin is a commodity. Having separated from the general commodity mass, they retain their commodity nature and have the same two properties as any other commodity: they have a consumer value (for example, gold in the form of money can be used for decoration and satisfy a person’s aesthetic needs) and cost, since the production of goods -money (gold) a certain amount of social labor was spent.
Money resolved the contradiction of commodity production: between use value and value. With the advent of money, the commodity world split into two parts: one commodity - money and all other goods. Use value is concentrated on the side of all goods, and their value is concentrated on the side of money. The goods participating in the exchange act as use values. Money becomes the expression of these use values.
Evolution of monetary forms.
The commodity - money, had to, first of all, meet two basic requirements:
1. Be fairly common (but not excessive);
2. Have a relatively high and constant value, ensured by the labor intensity of their production.
Thus, we see that the establishment of the suitability of a particular object for fulfilling the role of money resulted from objective circumstances beyond the control of people. That is why the attempt of the Roman emperor Gaius Julius Caesar Caligula (37-41) to declare seashells as money failed.
Different peoples in different periods used a variety of goods as money. These goods had to be of generally recognized value in the area.
Thus, in the Middle Ages in Western Europe, pepper quite often acted as money: individual taxes were calculated in weight quantities of pepper. Hence the derisive nickname for very rich people - “bag of pepper”. In the XII-XIII centuries. in Novgorod, customs duties on transit goods were also levied on pepper.
Grodno nobleman A.K. Bulatovich, who made 4 trips to Ethiopia (1896-1911), reports in his diaries that bars of salt served as the monetary unit in Central and Southern Ethiopia Ryabtsevich V.N. What do the coins tell about. - Mn., 1978. - P. 13..
On one of the Caroline Islands - the island of Yap - the so-called. "fairies". This money is very valuable: it is made from aragonite mined on the island of Pulau, which is located about 480 km away. from Yap. Moreover, the diameter of the fairy (they are similar in shape to European millstones) can reach several meters, and the weight - 1 ton. Dimensions and weight determine the method of calculation. After the transaction, the seller marks the fairy, who is in the open air, with his sign and goes home: it is very difficult to steal such a monetary unit.
The three examples described above are no exception. Here is a short list of various items that were used by different peoples in the form of money:
1. In Iceland until the 15th century. - fish;
2. In Kievan Rus, Scandinavia, Western Europe in the early Middle Ages - furs;
3. In Mongolia until the 20th century. - a mixture of tea leaves and some wild plants, soaked in calf's blood and pressed into a brick. The weight of this monetary unit was approx. 1.5 kg;
4. In China until the 19th century. - jade;
5. In India until the 20th century. - pearls;
6. On the island of Borneo until the 20th century. - cow skulls;
7. On the island of New Guinea to this day - the so-called. “pig money” Tusks and tails of pigs, teeth of dogs, kangaroos and dolphins, glass beads, shells and feathers of parrots strung on a cord;
8. On the Solomon Islands until the 20th century. - human skulls;
9. On the Caroline Islands to this day - whale teeth and woven men's belts;
10. Among the Indian tribes of North America until the 19th century. - “wampum” Leather belt with shells sewn on it.;
11. In Nicaragua until the 19th century. - bags of cocoa beans.
However, it is quite obvious that even such common things are not very convenient. We needed more convenient and reliable money that would have the following qualities:
1. Higher and constant cost, expressed in the known labor intensity of its production;
2. Limited, in comparison with other goods, use value;
3. Compactness (quite significant cost in a small volume, and as a consequence of this - convenience for long-distance transportation);
4. The ability to be split into small parts and combined in any quantities while fully maintaining their qualities;
5. Physical durability.
Only metals, especially noble ones, met and meet all these requirements to an excellent extent. That is why they ultimately became “leading” in fulfilling the role of money and its personification in general. The transition to the use of metals as money marked the beginning of the fourth stage in the development of exchange (the phase of monetary value).
At the beginning, metal money appeared in the form of shapeless ingots or a variety of products. However, gradually, with the development of the economy, domestic and foreign markets, a transition is planned to the unification of metal money and the minting of coins of a single type. The spread and consolidation of metallic money was accompanied by the process of formation of the following main functions:
1. Measures of value, expressed in the ability to evaluate any product;
2. Medium of circulation, which manifests itself as an intermediary in the exchange of one product for another;
3. Means of accumulation, i.e. the formation of monetary reserves that are temporarily not involved in circulation;
4. Means of payment, which consists in the ability to enter into circulation regardless of the circulation of goods (usury, payment of taxes, etc.);
5. World money (free circulation of money from precious metals outside their national borders).
Money as a universal equivalent measures the value of all goods. But it is not money that makes goods comparable, but the amount of socially necessary labor expended; comparison of their cost is possible, because money itself has it. In metallic circulation, this function was performed by real money (gold and silver), but they expressed the value of goods ideally, i.e. mentally imagined money.
At the stage of formation of commodity relations, money played the role of a means of equating other goods to money, making them commensurable not just as products of human labor, but as parts of the same monetary material - gold or silver. As a result, goods began to relate to each other in constant proportion, i.e. a price scale arose as a certain weight of gold and silver, fixed as a unit of measurement. To compare prices during the development of exchange relations, states began to establish fixed price scales, i.e. quantity of gold and silver accepted in the country as a monetary unit. For example, in the USA, by the act of the gold standard, 1.50463 pure gold was accepted per dollar in 1900, but with further devaluations of the dollar, the gold content in it decreased three times: in 1934 - to 0.889 g, in December 1971. - up to 0.818 g and in February 1973 - up to 0.737 g.
With the establishment of the dominance of fiat credit money, the scale of prices underwent significant changes. The state establishes:
1. the name of the monetary unit, the procedure for its issue and withdrawal, as well as its “banknote”;
2. the procedure for issuing a smaller monetary unit, made, as a rule, from cheap metals, determining its ratio to the main monetary unit;
3. rules for the circulation of cash and non-cash money;
4. the exchange rate of the national currency to foreign ones, based on the demand for its currency, and publishes it in the official press.
2. Market, its essence and structure
In the process of formation and development of commodity-money relations, such an important institutionally organized and system-forming element as the market is formed. Therefore, the reasons for the emergence of commodity-money relations, to a certain extent, explain the formation and formation of commodity circulation and the market. At the same time, the market as an independent phenomenon is a complex formation that has its own structure, specific conditions of functioning and development. Since the emergence of the market, various directions and schools of economic thought have ambiguously interpreted its essence.
The first attempt to give a scientific interpretation of the market by determining its location was made by the French economist O. Cournot. In his opinion, this is any area where the relationship between buyers and sellers is so free that prices for the same goods tend to equalize easily and quickly. The English economist A. Marshall argued that the more perfect the market, the stronger the tendency to pay the same price for the same thing at all its points at the same time.
The two definitions focus on the tendency of the market to equalize prices and thus highlight its important function. At the same time, the market should not be limited only to the sphere of commodity exchange, since the market also includes money circulation, including the circulation of securities. In modern political economy, in accordance with the subject of this science, when determining the essence of the market, the characteristics of the corresponding system of economic relations come to the fore. An attempt is also made to connect the essence of the market with its certain functions, for example, the formation of supply and demand, prices for goods. To reveal the essence of the market, it is necessary to find out who the main subjects are and how the relationships between them arise and develop?
Summarizing the above, the essence of the modern market can be defined as a set of economic relations between households, various types of firms and organizations and the state (including supranational bodies), acting as sellers or buyers regarding the purchase and sale of goods and services in the sphere of circulation, as well as the mechanism implementation of these relations in accordance with the laws of commodity production and monetary circulation.
The essence of the market is revealed in its main functions. These include:
-- pricing-- determination of the market value of goods and services and their selling prices;
-- reproductive-- ensuring the continuity of the reproduction process (in particular, the connection between production and consumption), the formation of the integrity of the national economic system and its connections with other national economies on the global economy scale;
-- stimulating-- encouraging producers of goods and services to reduce
individual expenses in comparison with socially necessary ones, increasing the social utility of goods and services, their quality and consumer properties;
-- regulating-- influencing the relationship between various
spheres and sectors of the economy, bringing into line the “solvent
supply and demand, accumulation and consumption, other proportions;
-- controlling the rationality of production by price level;
-- competitive-- forming competitive relations between producers of goods and services within individual countries and the world economy;
-- sanitizing-- ensuring the cleansing of the economic system from ineffective and unviable enterprises through the mechanism of competition. This eliminates or significantly reduces the likelihood of production as an end in itself, and therefore the costly nature of the economy; -- information-corrective, with the help of which you can quickly make changes to business plans.
Market structure. Market structure - is a collection of individuallocal markets within the borders of the country’s national economy (domestic market),and also - national markets within the world economy and its individualregions, their relationship and interaction between them. There are: markets for tools, natural resources, objects of labor, land, labor, labor, technology, information, goods, real estate, services, intellectual property, financial resources, etc. Most of them can function in the form of local markets. In turn, the goods market is divided into wholesale and consumer; intellectual property market - the market for patents, licenses, know-how, software programs, etc.; financial - to the investment markets (long-term loans), money (short-term loans), currency, securities, gold. Depending on the degree of monopolization, they distinguish monopolized And oligopolistic markets. In a monopolized market, one or two producers (sellers) can concentrate in their hands the entire mass of manufactured products, the entire range of a certain type of goods, and dictate prices on the market. In a non-monopolized market, there are many sellers, each of which individually is not able to influence the pricing process. In an oligopolistic market, several sellers of certain goods or services can agree among themselves (in writing or orally) to divide market segments and influence the price level, that is, to exercise a group monopoly. A common feature of monopolized and regulated markets is their highly organized nature. The difference between these types of markets is that the first covers the fully monopolized sector of the economy and only partially covers the non-monopolized, and regulated – the entire economy in the unity of all its sectors, including the state, although each of them to an unequal extent. In addition, the market-forming subject in a monopolized market is a monopoly or oligopoly, and the regulated subject is the state and supranational bodies (EU, OPEC, etc.).
Finally, the purpose of regulating a monopolized market is to appropriate monopoly high profits, and the purpose of state regulation is to stabilize the economic system, harmonize private, collective and public interests, solve national problems, and also promote the process of capital accumulation. In addition, there is an organizational and functional structure of the market, which includes a contractual procurement system at exchanges, fairs, exhibitions and other intermediary structures for the sale of goods; direct connections between manufacturers and sales organizations; marketing, advertising, etc.
Complex direct and indirect connections are established between different types of markets and their subjects, which are regulated by the economic laws of development and functioning of the modern market.
A market system is a single set of many markets for various purposes. This combination was formed under the influence of a number of factors. Firstly, in the conditions of industrial and post-industrial production, the market space has expanded many times in the following directions: natural production on a large scale has turned into a commodity economy; the labor force of the main part of the workers became the subject of purchase and sale; the sphere of paid spiritual goods and services quickly developed; the final results of scientific research (scientific and experimental developments) turned into a commercial product. Secondly, modern production creates a huge number of various useful goods that satisfy the needs of a comprehensively developed person.
Thirdly, it intensified in the second half of the 20th century. The social division of labor has gone beyond production and embraced the market sphere. Specialized markets have emerged in it, which promote special goods and services to their consumers.
Fourthly, the widespread development of joint stock companies has led to the fact that shares and other securities are sold on a special securities market.
Finally, the accelerated growth of international economic relations required the creation of a developed foreign currency market.
Consequently, the market that developed in the second half of this century is unthinkable without a system of division of labor in the sphere of circulation. In the latter, large types of differentiation of economic activity are manifested: general (between large industries or spheres) and private (between sub-sectors and types of trading enterprises) division of labor. The general breakdown of the market is clearly presented in Fig. 6.1.
Rice. 6.1. Modern market system
In the market system, the following large sectors are quite clearly distinguished: the consumer products market (it is divided into many sub-sectors selling food and non-food goods, the housing market, etc.);
market for means of production (material factors of production are purchased here: equipment, vehicles, buildings, structures, raw materials, fuel, electricity, etc.);
services market (this includes various types of services: public and consumer services, financial and insurance transactions, commercial, social, cultural, spiritual and other services);
labor market (for employers and employees);
market for scientific and experimental developments (scientific research products ready for development in production);
market for loan capital (the sphere of purchase and sale of temporarily free funds used for production purposes);
securities market (stocks, bonds and other income-generating documents);
currency market (national and international institutions through which the purchase, sale, exchange of foreign monetary units and monetary settlements with other states are carried out);
market for spiritual goods (the area of purchase and sale of products of intellectual activity of scientists, writers, artists, etc.).
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