How to learn Latin on your own. Learn Latin from scratch! Learning Latin letters for beginners

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Latin (lingua latīna) is an ancient language with Indo-European roots. Many people consider Latin to be a "dead" language because it is rarely spoken outside of specialized courses or certain religious services. However, Latin is not a truly “dead” language. She has influenced languages ​​such as French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, English and many others. In addition, knowledge of Latin is essential in many literary studies. By learning how to learn Latin, you will be able to better understand many modern languages, gain status as an accomplished scholar of foreign classics, and become part of a tradition that has been around for thousands of years.

Steps

Part 1

Getting to know the Latin vocabulary

Learn Latin verbs. In Russian, a verb is usually an action, but in Latin a verb can describe an action, the state of something, or any change in a person, place, or thing. Latin verbs consist of a word stem and a corresponding ending (the part of the word that makes it functional) and express the use of one of four categories:

• person (first: I/we, second: you/you, third: he/she/it)
• time (past, present, future)
• voice (active or passive)
• mood (indicative, conditional, imperative)

1. Learn Latin nouns. Nouns are a little more difficult than verbs, but they also do not pose any particular difficulties. The endings of nouns indicate number (singular and plural), gender (masculine/feminine/neuter), and case (nominative/genitive/dative/accusative/instrumental/vocative).

   Understand Latin adjectives. In Latin, adjectives are inflected in the same way as nouns, usually according to either the first and second declension (e.g. magnus, magna and magnum are all forms of the adjective "great") or, at times, the third declension (e.g. acer, acris and acre are all forms of the adjective "spicy"). Adjectives in Latin are divided into three degrees of comparison:

   Learn Latin adverbs. Just like adjectives, adverbs have comparative and superlative degrees. Adverbs are formed using appropriate changes in the ending: “-ius” for the comparative form, “-e” for the superlative form. Adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declension have the ending "-e", and from the third - "ter."

   Use Latin conjunctions. Just as in Russian, conjunctions in Latin connect words, phrases, subordinate clauses and other clauses (for example, “and”, “but” or “if”). Conjunctions have a fairly specific focus, and therefore there should be no difficulty in learning or using them. There are three main types of unions:

   • connectives (connect words/phrases/sentences with the same position) - et, -que, atque
   • divisive (express opposition or choice) - aut, vel, -ve
   • adversatives (express contrast) - at, autem, sed, tamen

2. Buy a Latin dictionary. Having a dictionary with Latin words and many of their similar roots will greatly help you in expanding your vocabulary. In general, any good Latin dictionary will do. If you are not sure which dictionaries are best for learning languages, read reviews on the Internet or ask for advice from those who have already studied the language.

   Make and use word cards. This is an excellent way to improve your vocabulary in any language. To get started, purchase a pack of blank cards. Then write the word or phrase in Latin on one side and its translation in your language on the back. Now you can test yourself. Keep a stack of cards with words or expressions that are difficult for you so that you can review them again and remember them later.

   Use mnemonics. Mnemonics are a learning technique that helps you remember something complex by associating it with another word, sentence, or picture. Acronyms (forming a word by adding the first letters of each word in a phrase) and rhymes are the two most common types of mnemonics. There are many mnemonics for learning Latin that you can find online or in books. You can also invent your own to help you learn.

   Make time to study. Finding a balance between work and free time can be difficult, and cutting off another chunk of the day for studying seems impossible. However, it will definitely be a manageable task if you manage your time well by maintaining your regular schedule and setting aside a little for studying every day.

   Determine your ideal learning environment. Some people find it easier to concentrate at night, while others prefer to study first thing in the morning. Some are comfortable studying in their own room, others go to the library to be less distracted. If you're studying Latin, you may need certain conditions to enable you to study calmly and thoughtfully. So, you need to figure out how best to practice.

Doctors, lawyers, linguists and scientists from various fields in the process of education and work are faced with the need to master the Latin language. Despite the fact that it is called dead, it is the necessary base without which successful advancement in a number of professions is impossible. How to learn Latin from scratch? It is necessary to adhere to three main recommendations in the following sequence: mastering theory, practice, consolidating knowledge. Let's look at how it is possible to learn the language of science in five basic steps.

Choosing an approach to learning Latin

There are two generally accepted options for mastering these schools, the methods of which have a number of differences. Depending on the priority goals in language acquisition, it is worth taking a closer look at one or another approach. The first school is more focused on grammar and vocabulary. The second emphasizes vocabulary and reading. The first option is more suitable for those who aim to master the language on their own. How to learn Latin this way? It requires a high level of motivation and iron discipline. At the same time, most modern textbooks and programs are built on it, which will allow you to choose working materials without restrictions. The second method gives faster results in understanding and using the language. Its disadvantage is that it requires the almost constant presence of a teacher during the work process.

Workshop manual

A whole range of textbooks will help you learn the alphabet, grammar, and vocabulary of the language. How to learn Latin to the point where you can read? This will take from several months to six months. First you need to learn the alphabet, basic rules for reading words, basic grammar and sentence construction. In parallel with this, there is a constant expansion of vocabulary by memorizing not only individual words, but also entire expressions, quotes and texts. They will further become the basis for accelerating the development process. As educational material, you can use both a self-instruction manual and teaching aids recommended for university students or for a specific specialty.

The second necessary link is a dictionary. It is recommended to take a general edition, as well as a highly specialized version, for example, for linguists, lawyers, doctors or biologists.

Reading and translation

Since the language is “dead” and is used exclusively for solving scientific problems, reading and translation skills will become a priority in mastering. It’s worth starting with small, easy texts adapted specifically for beginners (from textbooks). Then you can move on to more complex works. How to learn Latin from scratch on your own based on texts and knowledge of grammar? Constant translation practice will help with this. It is necessary to work through each sentence, analyzing its components and selecting matches in the words and terminology of the native language. It is better to use communities of like-minded people to analyze progress and feedback. Workbooks with ready-made translations will also help, which you should consult after completing your own in order to analyze errors.

An effective way to expand your vocabulary

As in any other language, vocabulary is the key to successful mastery. Teachers say cardboard or electronic cards are the most effective way to work with vocabulary. On one side is a word or phrase in the original, on the other side is the translation. Constant work with cards will help you quickly learn verbs and their conjugations, proverbs, nouns and adjectives. It is recommended to periodically (weekly) return to the already worked material in order to consolidate it in long-term memory. How to learn Latin for auditory learners? The method of cards with pronouncing words and expressions out loud will allow you to solve the problem.

Communication and teaching others

How to learn Latin without constant feedback? Is it possible? In the case of Latin, the question is relevant because of its formality and the impossibility of universal communication. Teachers are encouraged to join communities of language learners who help each other with difficult cases in grammar, translation, and understanding vocabulary. The method of further transfer of knowledge is very effective when, after mastering the basics, the student undertakes to explain the basics of Latin to someone else, thus consolidating what he has learned and understanding what he has learned in detail. According to research results, this approach speeds up progress by at least two times.

Knowledge of the Latin language will allow you not only to study successfully, but also to read the works of ancient philosophers in the original. The process is fun and educational. It is possible to learn Latin on your own, and communities of like-minded people will become a reliable motivating factor on the way to your goal.

Latin is the oldest classical language of Europe. And although the scope of its use is limited today, Latin still remains an object of teaching and study in many countries. This is the official language of the Vatican, future doctors and lawyers must master it; without knowledge of Latin, historians and philologists will not be imbued with the majesty of Horace’s works.

A Russian-language project with a large amount of text information, divided into several blocks: “History of the language”, “Lessons” (structured materials from the main textbook, answers to assignments, phrases in Latin), “Latin alphabet” (with an explanation of pronunciation features). Classes are aimed at mastering language rules - from phonetic to syntactic. The forms of parts of speech are examined in detail. Several lessons are supplemented with electives; for the latter, texts in Latin are available in a separate section.

Website with easy navigation. Contains text information divided into four sections. The first is a textbook, the texts of which are borrowed from the latrus 1.2 program. The second section is a self-instruction manual, the materials of which are taken from the website of the candidate of philological sciences Alexey Musorin. Both the textbook and the tutorial cover the basics of Latin, starting with the alphabet. The name of the block “Proverbs and Sayings” speaks for itself; it can be searched by phrases, words or parts of words. The “Dictionary” section provides translation both from Russian into Latin and vice versa.

A block of materials for self-learning Latin, presented in the format of online lessons. The purpose of the portal is to help you learn languages ​​for free without any prior knowledge. The lessons are structured according to the principle from simple (alphabet, stress rules) to complex (parts of speech, types of sentences). There are 60 Latin lessons in total, at the end of each one there is an assignment on the topic covered. There are texts that allow you to consolidate the material covered in class. Catchphrases and a small dictionary are included in a separate section. A convenient option is the ability to ask questions, which are answered either by other users or by professional linguists.

A YouTube channel whose playlist includes 21 Latin video lessons. The duration of each lesson is an academic hour, i.e. 43-44 minutes.

The telecourse will provide basic information about writing, the interaction of Russian vocabulary with Latin, the case system of the Latin language, and will teach you how to construct simple expressions. The project was prepared by SSU TV, teacher - Candidate of Historical Sciences Viktor Fedotov. The channel is distinguished by its unique presentation; information is presented in the form of classical lectures with periodic text explanations.

Video lessons by Svetlana Golovchenko. The videos are aimed primarily at doctors; some videos are devoted to the nuances of writing prescriptions, clinical terminology, and the names of chemical elements.

There are also general language classes that cover grammatical aspects. Depending on the topic, the duration of the stories varies from 3 to 20 minutes.

The videos are short lectures by the teacher, who supplements what is said with written explanations on the board. An alternative solution for those who prefer living language to dry texts.

A selection of open lectures on the Latin language from a teacher, specialist in the field of classical philology, Dmitry Novokshonov. The video was recorded in a lecture hall, but the quality of the recording, including the audio component, is sufficient to obtain the required knowledge.

Novokshonov helps to understand the features of parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb) and overcome difficulties in learning Latin. The selection includes lectures by another teacher - Viktor Rebrik.

Online transliteration. The project is posted on the website of the Department of Classical Philology of the Belarusian State University. Using the functionality is simple: to obtain transliteration (transcription) of Latin words and phrases in Russian, just enter them into a special window. You can process Latin characters of any case, as well as characters with superscript elements. Sets of settings are provided that allow you to transliterate words according to traditional and classical canons, as well as according to the rules adopted in reading medical, biological, and chemical terms.

Additional material suitable for consolidating knowledge and broadening your horizons. It is presented in the form of presentations with voice-over commentary, so you can improve your pronunciation at the same time as you expand your vocabulary.

Online tests with the ability to change settings for a specific Latin expert. You can independently set the number of questions (maximum 83) and the number of answer options, and select the option to show the correct answer in case of an error. There is a choice of five difficulty levels: very easy, easy, medium, hard, very hard. All questions with answers are available for download in PDF format.

WikiHow works like a wiki, which means that many of our articles are written by multiple authors. During the creation of this article, 15 people, including anonymously, worked to edit and improve it.

You can learn Latin on your own if you approach this issue correctly. All you need is a set of the right textbooks, some exercises, and practice writing Latin. Chances are your family and friends won't be able to speak Latin to you, but practicing the spoken language will help you improve your overall knowledge of Latin. If you try, you can speak Latin as well as the Pope in no time.

Steps

1. Get a beginner's book with lots of exercises and answers. Answers are important because there is no one to check you.

   • Wheelock's Latin is a well-known answer book. This is perhaps the best choice for self-study. The book contains a huge number of exercises, as well as online training groups.
   • There are several public books with answers, for example:
     • Choosing the right dictionary is important for what you will read. If you are interested in classical Latin, use Elementary Latin Dictionary or Oxford Latin Dictionary, if you can buy it. If you are interested in Late Latin, Medieval, Renaissance and Neo-Latin, you are better off using Lewis and Short's Latin Dictionary, although it is expensive. Otherwise, you will have to use Cassell, which is not very useful and is not small in size. Unfortunately, choosing the right and inexpensive dictionary will not be easy.If you understand French, then the dictionary Grand Gaffiot would be a good choice.
     • While you are still learning from the textbook, you will have to memorize a lot: declensions, conjugations, vocabulary. There is no shortcut. In this case, your morale is very important.
     • Latin is a language with a poor vocabulary, in other words, one word can have several meanings. This also means that Latin has a lot of idioms that you will have to learn as well. You will reach a point where you understand every word, but the meaning of the sentence as a whole will not be clear to you. This is because you think about the meaning of each word individually. For example, the expression hominem e medio tollere means “to kill a person,” but if you don’t know this phrase, it literally translates to “remove a person from the center.”
     • Avoid poetry while still learning prose. You wouldn't recommend reading Shakespeare to someone learning English who doesn't yet know how to read a newspaper. The same applies to the Latin language.
     • Learn words. Carry a word list or flashcards with you to look at on the bus, the toilet, or anywhere else.
     • Write in Latin. Even if you want to learn to read, don't avoid the English to Latin translation exercise.
     • Take your time. One lesson every few days will be enough. If you rush, you will not have time to remember the information you need. On the other hand, don't hesitate. Try to exercise at least once a week.
     • If your answers don't match those in the textbook, you're probably missing something. Go back to class and reread.

1. History of the Latin language

Latin belongs to the group of Italic dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or “golden” Latin. He was distinguished by his rich vocabulary, ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific, philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.

This period was followed by postclassical, or “silver” Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally strengthened, and spelling rules were determined. The last period of the existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called Late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and colloquial Latin began to intensify.

In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Latin gained the position of the official state language.

Since 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.

If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its spoken form spread, almost without encountering resistance from tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages ​​that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.

From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced the ever-increasing influence of highly developed Greek culture in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life.

Educated Romans tended to read and speak Greek. Borrowed Greek words entered the colloquial and literary Latin language, especially actively after the rule of Rome in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. Greece and the Hellenistic countries were included. From the 2nd century BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts the terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.

At the same time, another process developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, i.e. terms.

When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible.

The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-formation potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to put into linguistic forms the first discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names, almost transparent in meaning, through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixations.

2. Term and definition

The word “term” (terminus) is Latin in origin and once had the meaning “limit, boundary.” A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common noun, a term has content, or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - “denoting”), and a form, or sound complex (pronunciation).

Unlike all other common nouns, which denote everyday, everyday, so-called naive ideas, terms denote special scientific concepts.

The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the concept as follows: “A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationships between them.” A concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is the totality of the characteristics of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has characteristics that make up the content of the concept.

Unlike ordinary everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, and laws are formulated. The term is often a herald of a new scientific discovery or phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a determination that is necessarily attributed to it.

Definition(lat. definitio) is the formulation in a concise form of the essence of the terminable, i.e., denoted by the term, concept: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - “existent”, “being” + genesis - “generation”, “development”) - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the organism from its origin to the end of life; aerophiles (Latin aёr - “air” + philos - “loving”) are microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.

As we see, the definition not only explains the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what a particular term means is equivalent to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, and textbooks, a concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum of the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student.

3. Medical terminology

Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminal system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The content plan of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body normally and in pathologies at various stages of their development; human diseases and pathological conditions; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic standardization and assessment; methods of diagnosis, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; surgical approaches and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and sanitary and epidemiological services; apparatus, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, furniture for medical purposes; medicines grouped according to their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicines, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.

Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminal system reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macroterm system.

This reflects a dual trend of progress: further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the 20th century the number of highly specialized subterminal systems expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases affecting primarily individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, neurosurgery, etc.) has increased significantly. Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached impressive sizes.

Within the framework of the macroterm system, almost the leading role belongs to the following subsystems:

1) anatomical and histological nomenclature;

2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical terminology systems;

3) pharmaceutical terminology.

4. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language

However, to master any language, it is necessary to improve your cultural and educational level and broaden your horizons.

In this regard, Latin aphorisms and sayings that express a generalized, complete thought in a laconic form are useful, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - “Fate helps the brave”; Non progredi est regredi - “Not going forward means going backward.”

Also interesting are proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - “I carry everything that is mine with me”; Festina lente - “Hurry slowly”, etc. Many aphorisms are individual lines, statements of famous ancient writers, philosophers, and politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to modern scientists: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, C. Linnaeus and others.

Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs, included in the material for individual lessons and presented in a list at the end of the textbook, have long become catchphrases. They are used in scientific and fiction literature, and in public speaking. Some Latin aphorisms and sayings relate to issues of life and death, human health, and the behavior of a doctor. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - “ought” + logos - “teaching”) commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - “The good of the patient is the highest law of doctors”; Primum noli nocere! - “First of all, do no harm!” (the first commandment of a doctor).

In the international vocabulary of many languages ​​of the world, especially European ones, Latinisms occupy a significant place: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertation candidate, audience, communication, credit, discredit, decree, credo, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, ply, competitor, competition, excursion, excursionist, degree, gradation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intelligence, intellectual, colleague, collegium, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, preserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, disabled, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc.

Only over the past few years, on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies, new words of Latin origin for our political life have appeared: pluralism (pluralis - “multiple”), conversion (conversio - “transformation”, “change”), consensus (consensus - “consent”, “agreement”), sponsor (sponsor - “trustee”), rotation (rotatio - “circular motion”), etc.

5. Alphabet

The Latin alphabet, used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries, consists of 25 letters.

Table 1. Latin alphabet

In Latin, proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives derived from them are written with a capital letter. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to capitalize the names of plants and medicinal substances.

Notes

1. Most letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced the same as in various Western European languages, but some letters in these languages ​​are called differently than in Latin; for example, the letter h is called “ha” in German, “ash” in French, “eich” in English, and “ga” in Latin. The letter j in French is called "zhi", in English - "jay", and in Latin - "yot". The Latin letter "c" in English is called "si", etc.

2. It must be borne in mind that the same letter can mean a different sound in these languages. For example, the sound indicated by the letter g is pronounced in Latin as [g], and in French and English before e, i - as [zh] or [jj]; in English j is read as [j].

3. Latin spelling is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [Latin], English. latin - Latin.

The difference is especially noticeable when comparing vowels in Latin and English. In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced the same way as the corresponding vowels in Russian.

4. As a rule, names not from the Latin language, but from other languages ​​(Greek, Arabic, French, etc.) are Latinized, that is, they are formatted in accordance with the rules of phonetics and grammar of the Latin language.

6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)

In Latin, “E e” is read as [e]: vertebra [ve"rtebra] - vertebra, medianus [media"nus] - median.

Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants are softened before the sound [e]: anterior [ante"rior] - front, arteria [arte"ria] - artery.

“I i” is read as [and]: inferior [infe"rior] - lower, internus [inte"rnus] - internal.

At the beginning of a word or syllable before vowels i is read as a voiced consonant [th]: iugularis [yugulya "rice] - jugular, iunctura [junktu"ra] - connection, maior [ma"yor] - large, iuga [yu"ga] - elevation.

In the indicated positions in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j - yot is used: jugularis [jugulya "rice", juncture [junktu"ra], major [ma"yor], juga [yu"ga].

The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from the Greek language, since it did not have the sound [th]: iatria [ia "tria] - healing, iodum [io "dum] - iodine.

To convey the sounds [ya], [yo], [ie], [yu], combinations of letters ja, jo, je, ju are used.

Y y (upsilon), in French “y”, reads like [and]: tympanum [ti"mpanum] - drum; gyrus [gi"rus] - gyrus of the brain. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words of Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to represent the letter upsilon of the Greek alphabet, which was read as German [i]. If the Greek word was written with i (Greek iota), read as [and], then it was transcribed into Latin with i.

In order to correctly write medical terms, you need to know some of the most common Greek prefixes and roots in which “upsilon” is written:

dys- [dis-] - a prefix that gives the term the meaning of a disorder, a disorder of function: dysostosis (dys + osteon - “bone”) - dysostosis - a disorder of bone formation;

hypo- [hypo-] - “under”, “below”: hypoderma (hypo + + derma - “skin”) - hypodermis - subcutaneous tissue, hypogastrium (hypo- + gaster - “belly”, “stomach”) - hypogastrium - hypogastrium;

hyper- [hyper-] - “above”, “over”: hyperostosis (hyper + + osteon - “bone”) - hyperostosis - pathological growth of unchanged bone tissue;

syn-, sym- [sin-, sim-] - “with”, “together”, “jointly”: synostosis (syn + osteon - “bone”) - synostosis - connection of bones through bone tissue;

mu(o)- [myo-] - the root of a word indicating the relationship to muscles: myologia (myo + logos - “word”, “teaching”) - myology - the study of muscles;

phys- [physical-] - the root of the word, indicating in anatomical terms the relationship to something growing in a certain place: diaphysis - diaphysis (in osteology) - the middle part of the tubular bone.

7. Diphthongs and features of reading consonants

In addition to the simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [and], in the Latin language there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, ai, e.

The digraph ae is read as [e]: vertebrae [ve "rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone "um] - peritoneum.

The digraph oe is read as [e], more precisely, like the German o or French oe: foetor [fetor] - bad smell.

In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, served to convey the Greek diphthongs ai and oi in Latin. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - swelling, oesophagus [eso" phagus] - esophagus.

If in the combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above the “e” and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploе [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull ; аёr [aer] - air.

The au diphthong is read as: auris [au "rice] - ear. The eu diphthong is read as [eu]: ple"ura [ple"ura] - pleura, neurocranium [neurocranium] - brain skull.

Features of reading consonants

A double reading of the letter “С с” is accepted: as [k] or [ts].

How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, cubitus [ku "bitus] - elbow, clavicula [beak" ] - collarbone, crista [kri "sta] - ridge.

How [ts] is read before the vowels e, i, y and the digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervical fox] - cervical, incisure [incizu "ra] - notch, coccyngeus [kokzinge "us] - coccygeal, coelia [tse "lia ] - abdomen.

"H h" is read as a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - man, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - gap, crevice, humerus [gume "rus] - humerus.

“K k” is found very rarely, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where it is necessary to preserve the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [i]: kyphosis [kypho"sis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine"to -citus] - kinetocyte - mobile cell (words of Greek origin).

"S s" has a double reading - [s] or [z]. As [s] is read in most cases: sulcus [su"lkus] - groove, os sacrum [os sa"krum] - sacrum, sacral bone; back [fo"ssa] - pit, ossa [o"ssa] - bones, processus [protse"ssus] - process. In the position between the vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin, s is read as [z]: chiasma [chia"zma] - cross, platysma [platy"zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.

"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra "dix] - root, extremitas [extra "mitas] - end.

“Z z” is found in words of Greek origin and is read as [z]: zygomaticus [zygomaticus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trapezius] - trapezoidal.

8. Letter combinations. Accents. Rule of brevity

In Latin, the letter "Q q" is found only in combination with cu before vowels, and this letter combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa "me] - scales, quadratus [quadra "tus] - square.

The letter combination ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li "ngva] - language, lingula [li "ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa "ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" luc] - angle.

The combination ti before vowels is read as [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article "tsio] - joint, eminentia [emine "ntsia] - elevation.

However, ti before vowels in the combinations sti, xti, tti is read as [ti]: ostium [o"stium] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi"xtio] - mixture.

In words of Greek origin there are digraphs ch, рh, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph is read as one sound:

сh = [x]; рh = [ф]; rh = [p]; th = [t]: nucha [nu"ha] - neck, chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa"lanks] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] - apophysis, process; thorax [to "raks] - chest entrance, rhaphe [ra" fe] - seam.

The letter combination sch is read as [сх]: os ischii [os and "schii] - ischium, ischiadicus [ischia "dicus] - ischial.

Rules for placing stress.

1. The stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words it is placed on the first syllable.

2. In three-syllable and polysyllabic words, the stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.

The placement of stress depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.

Therefore, to place stress in words containing more than two syllables, it is necessary to know the rules for the length or shortness of the penultimate syllable.

Two rules of longitude

Longitude of the penultimate syllable.

1. A syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona"eum - peritoneum, perona"eus - peroneal (nerve), dia"eta - diet.

2. A syllable is long if a vowel comes before two or more consonants, as well as before double consonants x and z. This longitude is called positional longitude.

For example: colu"mna - column, pillar, exte"rnus - external, labyri"nthus - labyrinth, medu"lla - brain, medulla, maxi"lla - upper jaw, metaca"rpus - metacarpus, circumfle"xus - circumflex.

Rule of brevity

The vowel that comes before a vowel or the letter h is always short. For example: tro"chlea - block, pa"ries - wall, o"sseus - bone, acro"mion - acromion (brachial process), xiphoi"deus - xiphoid, peritendi"neum - peritendinium, pericho"ndrium - perichondrium.

9. Cases and types of declensions

The inflection of nouns by case and number is called declension.

Cases

There are 6 cases in Latin.

Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?).

Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (who, what?).

Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, to what?).

Accusativus (Acc.) - accusative (who, what?).

Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, instrumental (by whom, with what?).

Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.

For nomination, i.e. for naming (naming) objects, phenomena and the like, only two cases are used in medical terminology - nominative (nominative) and genitive (genitive).

The nominative case is called direct case, which means there is no relationship between words. The meaning of this case is the naming itself.

The genitive case has a characterizing meaning.

There are 5 types of declensions in the Latin language, each of which has its own paradigm (a set of word forms).

A practical means of distinguishing declension (determining the type of declension) is the genitive singular in Latin.

Genus forms p.un. hours are different in all declensions.

Distribution of nouns by types of declension depending on gender endings. p.un. h.

Genitive endings of all declensions

10. Defining the practical basis

Nouns are listed in the dictionary and learned in dictionary form, which contains 3 components:

1) the form of the word in them. p.un. h.;

2) end of birth. p.un. h.;

3) designation of the gender - masculine, feminine or neuter (abbreviated by one letter: m, f, n).

For example: lamina, ae (f), sutura, ae (f), sulcus, i (m); ligamentum, i(n); pars, is (f), margo, is (m); os,is(n); articulatio, is (f), canalis, is (m); ductus, us (m); arcus, us (m), cornu, us, (n); facies, ei (f).

Some nouns have III declension before the gender ending. p.un. h. -is is also assigned to the final part of the stem.

Full form of the genus. p.un. h. in such nouns are found as follows:

corpus, =oris (= corpor - is); foramen, -inis (= fora-min - is).

For such nouns, the practical basis is determined only from the form of the word to its gender. p.un. h. by discarding its ending.

If the basics are in them. p.un. hours and birth p.un. h. coincide, then in the dictionary form only the ending gender is indicated. etc., and the practical basis in such cases can be determined from them. p.un. hours without ending.

Examples

The practical basis is the basis to which, during inflection (declension), the endings of oblique cases are added; it may not coincide with the so-called historical basis.

For monosyllabic nouns with a changing stem, the entire word form gender is indicated in the dictionary form. etc., for example, pars, partis; crus, cruris; os, oris; cor, cordis.

11. Determining the gender of nouns

In Latin, as in Russian, nouns belong to three genders: masculine (masculinum - m), feminine (femininum - f) and neuter (neutrum - n).

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns cannot be determined from the gender of equivalent Russian words, since often the gender of nouns with the same meaning in Russian and Latin does not coincide.

It is possible to determine whether a Latin noun belongs to one gender or another only by the characteristic endings in the noun. p.un. h.

For example, words starting with -a are feminine (costa, vertebra, lamina, incisura, etc.), words starting with -um are neuter (ligamentum, manubrium, sternum, etc.).

The declension sign of a noun is the gender ending. p.un. h.; a sign of gender - a characteristic ending in them. p.un. h.

Determination of the gender of nouns ending in the nominative singular in -а, -um, -on, -en, -и, -us

There is no doubt that nouns ending in -a are feminine, and nouns ending in -um, -on, -en, -u are neuter.

All nouns ending in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are necessarily masculine, for example:

lobus, i; nodus, i; sulcus, i;

ductus, us; arcus, us; meatus, us, m - masculine.

If a noun ending in -us belongs to the III declension, then its belonging to a certain gender must be clarified using such an additional indicator as the final consonant of the stem in gender. P.; if the final consonant of the stem is r, then the noun is neuter, and if the final consonant is different (-t or -d), then it is feminine.

tempus, or-is; crus, crur is;

corpus, or-is - neuter, juventus, ut-is - feminine.

12. III declension of nouns

Nouns of the III declension were extremely rare, for example: os, corpus, caput, foramen, dens. This methodological approach was absolutely justified. III declension is the most difficult to master and has a number of features that distinguish it from other declensions.

1. The III declension includes nouns of all three genders ending in gender. p.un. h on -is (sign of III declension).

2. In them. p.un. including words not only of different genders, but even of the same gender have different endings characteristic of a certain gender; for example, in the masculine gender -os, -or, -o, -er, -ex, -es.

3. Most nouns of the third declension have stems in them. n. and gen. items do not match.

For such nouns, the practical basis is not determined by them. n., and by birth. n. by dropping the ending -is.

1. If in the dictionary form of any noun there is a gender before the ending. p.un. h. -is is assigned to the end of the stem, which means that in such a word the stem is determined by gender. P.:

2. If in the dictionary form before the ending gender. p.un. h. -is there is no postscript, which means that the basis of such a word can be determined by them. p.un. h., discarding the ending with them. p.: pubes, is the basis of pub-.

3. Nouns of III declension depending on the coincidence or discrepancy of the number of syllables in them. n. and gen. p.un. h. there are equisyllabic and non-equisyllabic, which is important for the precise determination of the genus in a number of cases. Equisyllabic Nom. pubes canalis rete Gen. pubis canalis retis. Irregular Nom. pes paries pars Gen. pedis parietis partis.

4. Monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form have gender. n. the word is written in full: vas, vasis; os, ossis.

The gender is determined by the endings. p.un. h., characteristic of a certain gender within a given declension. Therefore, in order to determine the gender of any noun of the III declension, 3 points must be taken into account:

1) know that this word refers specifically to the III declension, and not to any other;

2) know what endings are in them. p.un. h. are characteristic of one or another gender of the III declension;

3) in some cases, also take into account the nature of the stem of a given word.

13. Adjective

1. Adjectives in Latin, as in Russian, are divided into qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote a feature of an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects: true rib - costa vera, long bone - os longum, yellow ligament - ligamentum flavum, transverse process - processus transversus, large hole - foramen magnum, trapezoid bone - os trapezoideum, sphenoid bone - os sphenoidale, etc.

Relative adjectives indicate the attribute of an object not directly, but through its relationship to another object: spinal column (column of vertebrae) - columna vertebralis, frontal bone - os frontale, sphenoid sinus (cavity in the body of the sphenoid bone) - sinus sphenoidalis, sphenoid crest (section anterior surface of the body of the sphenoid bone) - crista sphenoidalis.

The predominant mass of adjectives in anatomical nomenclature are relative adjectives, indicating that a given anatomical formation belongs to a whole organ or to another anatomical formation, such as the frontal process (extending from the zygomatic bone upward, where it connects with the zygomatic process of the frontal bone) - processus frontalis .

2. The categorical meaning of an adjective is expressed in the categories of gender, number and case. The category of gender is an inflectional category. As in Russian, adjectives change according to gender: they can be in the masculine, feminine or neuter form. The gender of an adjective depends on the gender of the noun with which it is agreed. For example, the Latin adjective meaning “yellow” (-aya, -oe) has three gender forms - flavus (m. p.), flava (f. p.), flavum (w. p.).

3. Inflection of adjectives also occurs according to cases and numbers, i.e. adjectives, like nouns, are declined.

Adjectives, unlike nouns, are declined only in the I, II or III declension.

The specific type of declension by which a particular adjective is modified is determined by the standard dictionary form in which it is written in the dictionary and in which it should be remembered.

In the dictionary form of the vast majority of adjectives, the endings characteristic of one type or another are indicated. p.un. h.

Moreover, some adjectives have endings in them. items for each gender are completely different, for example: rectus, recta, rectum - straight, straight, direct; other adjectives for the masculine and feminine gender have one common ending, and for the neuter gender - another, for example: brevis - short and short, breve - short.

Adjectives are also given in dictionary form in different ways. For example: rectus, -a, -um; brevis, -e.

Ending -us m.r. replaced in w. R. to -a (recta), and in cf. R. - on -um (rectum).

14. Two groups of adjectives

Depending on the type of declension in which adjectives are declined, they are divided into 2 groups. Group membership is recognized by standard dictionary forms.

The 1st group includes adjectives that are declined according to the 1st and 2nd declension. They are easily recognized by their endings. n. -us (or -er), -a, -um in dictionary form.

The 2nd group includes all adjectives that have a different dictionary form. Their inflection occurs according to the third declension.

Memorizing the dictionary form is necessary in order to correctly determine the type of declension and use the appropriate endings in oblique cases.

Adjectives of the 1st group

If there is a dictionary form with endings in them. p.un. Part -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -um adjectives in the form w. R. Declined according to the first declension, in the form of m.r. and Wed R. - according to II declination.

For example: longus, -a, -um - long; liber, -era, -erum - free. In the family etc., they have, respectively, the endings:

Some adjectives that have a m.r. ending -er, the letter “e” appears in the m.r., starting with gender. p.un. h., and in w. R. and on Wed. R. - in all cases without exception. This does not happen with other adjectives. For example, the dictionary forms ruber, -bra, -brum, liber, -era, -erum.

Adjectives of the 2nd group

Adjectives of the 2nd group are declined according to the 3rd declension. Their dictionary form differs from adjectives of the 1st group.

According to the number of gender endings in the dictionary form, adjectives of the 2nd group are divided into:

1) adjectives with two endings;

2) adjectives of the same ending;

3) adjectives with three endings.

1. Adjectives with two endings are most common in anatomical-histological and in medical terminology in general. They have it in them. p., units only two generic endings - -is, -е; -is - common for m.r. and f. r., e - only for Wed. R. For example: brevis - short, short; breve - short.

The predominant number of adjectives with two endings found in the nomenclature is characterized by the following word-formation model.

2. Adjectives of the same ending have one common ending in them for all genders. p.un. h. Such an ending can be, in particular, -x, or -s, etc. For example: simplex - simple, -aya, -oe; teres - round, -aya, -oe; biceps - two-headed, -aya, -oe.

3. Adjectives of three endings have the endings: m.r. - -er, f. p. - -is, cf. R. - -e. For example: ce-ler, -eris, -ere - fast, -aya, -oe; celeber, -bris, -bre - healing, -aya, -oe.

All adjectives of the 2nd group, regardless of the dictionary form, are declined according to the 3rd declension and have a single stem in oblique cases.

15. Adjective - agreed definition

Another type of subordinating connection, when the function of definition in a noun phrase is performed by a non-noun in gender. n., and the adjective is called agreement, and the definition is called agreed.

When agreed, a grammatically dependent definition is likened in gender, number and case to the main word.

As the grammatical forms of the main word change, the forms of the dependent word also change. In other words, as in Russian, adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number and case.

For example, when agreeing the adjectives transversus, -a, -um and vertebralis, -e with the nouns processus, -us (m); linea, -ae (f); ligamentum, -i (n); ca-nalls, -is (m); incisura, -ae, (f); foramen, -inis (n) the following phrases are obtained:

As in Russian, Latin qualitative adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive (gradus positivus), comparative (gradus comparativus) and superlative (gradus superlativus).

The comparative degree is formed from the stem of the positive degree by adding to it the suffix -ior for m.r. and f. r., suffix -ius - for cf. R. For example:

1. The main grammatical features of adjectives in the comparative degree are: for m.r. and f. R. - suffix -ior, for cf. R. - suffix -ius.

For example: brevior, -ius; latior, -ius.

2. For all comparative adjectives, the base coincides with the m.r. form. and f. R. in them p.un. h.:

3. Adjectives are declined in the comparative degree according to the III declension. Genus form p.un. h. is the same for all three genders: it is formed by adding the ending -is to the stem.

4. Adjectives agree comparatively with nouns in gender, number and case, that is, they are agreed upon definitions: sutura latior; sulcus latior; foramen latius.

16. Nominative plural

1. Any case endings, including endings named after. p.m. h., are always attached to the base.

2. For the formation of word forms named after. p.m. including different declinations, the following provisions must be adhered to.

If the noun refers to Wed. r., then it declines in accordance with the rule cf. r., which reads: all words cf. R. (both nouns and adjectives of all degrees of comparison), regardless of which declension they belong to, end in them. p.m. h. on -a. This applies only to the words cf. r., for example: ligamenta lata - broad ligaments, crura ossea - bone legs, ossa temporalia - temporal bones, cornua majora - large horns.

Word endings in m.r. and f. R. in them p.m. h. it is easier to remember taking into account each individual declination. In this case, it is necessary to remember the following correspondences: nouns of I, II, IV declensions have in them. p.m. h. exactly the same ending as in gen. p.m. h. The same correspondence is observed with adjectives of the 1st group, because they are declined like nouns of the 1st and 2nd declensions, for example:

Nouns of the III and V declensions, as well as adjectives of the III declension and adjectives in the comparative degree (they are also declined in the III declension) have in them. p.m. h.. the same ending -es.

Generalization of data on the endings of nouns and adjectives in them. p.m. h.

17. Genitive plural

Continuing the study of inflection of nouns and adjectives in the plural, it is necessary to note the genitive plural.

To learn how to quickly and accurately form terms in the gender form. p.m. h., you must be able to:

determine by the dictionary form of a noun its belonging to a certain declension; highlight the basis;

recognize the genus by its characteristic endings. p.un. h.; determine by dictionary form whether the adjective belongs to the 1st or 2nd group; establish which of the three declensions (I-II or III) the given adjective agrees with the noun in gender, number and case is inclined to.

Genitive plural endings (Genetivus pluralis)

The ending -um is:

1) unequally syllabic nouns of all three genders, the stem of which ends in one consonant: tendinum (m), regionum (f), foraminum (n); 2) adjectives in the comparative degree of all three genders (they also have a stem of one consonant): majorum (m, f, n).

The ending -ium is:

1) all other nouns with a stem of more than one consonant; equisyllabic in -es, -is; nouns cf. R. on -e, -ai, -ar: dentium (m), partium (f), ossium (n), animalium, avium, retium;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group of all three genders: brevi-um (m, f, n).

Notes

1. Noun vas, vasis (n) - vessel in singular. h. is inclined according to the third declension, and in the plural. Part - according to II; Gen. pl. - vasorum.

2. The term os ilium (ilium) uses the form genus. p.m. h. from the noun ile, -is (n) (lower abdomen); them. p.m. h. - ilia (iliac region). Therefore, it is incorrect to change the form of ilium to ilii (ossis ilii).

3. The noun fauces, -ium - pharynx is used only in plural. h.

4. Nouns of Greek origin larynx, pharynx, meninx, phalanx end in im.p. pl. h. on -um.

18. Morphemic analysis

In a linear sequence, the composition of a word is divided into minimal parts, indivisible neither in form nor in meaning: prefix (prefix), root, suffix and ending (inflection). All these minimal meaningful parts of a word are called morphemes (Greek morphe - form). The core of the meaning is contained in the root, for example: sweaty, sweaty, sweating, effusion, etc. The prefix and suffix, distinguished by their position to the root, are together called word-forming affixes (Latin affixus - “attached”).

By adding them to the root, derivatives - new - words are formed. Ending - an affix with a grammatical meaning is not used for word formation, but for inflection (in cases, numbers, genders). Dividing a word into morphemes is called compositional analysis, or morphemic analysis.

The entire unchanging part of the word preceding the ending, which carries the main lexical meaning, is called the stem of the word. In the words vertebr-a, vertebral-is, intervertebral-is, the stems are, respectively, vertebr-, vertebral-, intervertebral-.

The stem can in some cases be represented only by the root, in some others - by the root and word-forming affixes, i.e. root, suffix and prefix.

Morphemic analysis shows what minimal significant parts (morphemes) the word being studied consists of, but does not answer the question of what the actual mechanism of word formation is. This mechanism is revealed using word-formation analysis. The point of analysis is to isolate two immediate components in a word: that single segment (generative stem) and that affix(s), thanks to the combination of which the derivative word is formed.

The difference between derivational and morphemic analyzes can be illustrated by the following example.

From the standpoint of morphemic analysis, the adjective interlobularis (interlobular) consists of five morphemes: inter- (prefix), -lob- (root), -ul-, -ag- (suffixes), -is (ending); from the standpoint of word-formation analysis, two immediate components are isolated: inter- - between (prefix) + -lobular(is) - lobular (generative base, or word).

The real mechanism of formation: inter- (prefix) + -lobular(is) (generative base, not divisible in this case into morphemes).

Consequently, the generating stem is the one from which another, more complex derivative stem is formed by adding affix(s) to it.

The derived stem is at least one morpheme larger than the producing one.

19. Generative stem of the word

To identify the generating stem in the word in question, you should compare it with two rows of words:

a) cholecyst-itis, cholecyst-o-graphia, cholecyst-o-pexia;

b) nephr-itis, vagin-itis, gastr-itis, etc. The productive basis constitutes not only the material backbone of the derived word, but also motivates, i.e. determines its meaning. In this sense, one can judge the words motivating and motivated or the motivating and motivated bases. For example, derivatives - the names of diseases of the heart muscle - myocarditis, myocardiofibrosis, myocardosis, myocardtodystrophia - are motivated by the motivating basis myo-card (ium).

The motivated word differs from the motivating word in greater semantic (in meaning) complexity, for example: the histological term myoblastus (myoblast), consisting of two root morphemes myo- - “muscle” + blastus (Greek blastos - “sprout”, “embryo”), means a poorly differentiated cell from which striated muscle fiber develops. The same word served as the motivating basis for the formation of the motivated word myoblastoma (myoblastoma) - the name of a tumor consisting of large cells - myoblasts.

There are cases when the concepts of producing and motivating words do not completely coincide. This happens if it is not a single word that serves as motivating, but a whole phrase (adjective + noun), and only the adjective is used as a generating basis. Such, for example, are the word-terms choledocho-piastica, chcledocho-tomia, choledocho-scopia, mastoid-itis, mastoido-tomia, for which the motivating phrases are ductus choledochus (common bile duct) and processus mastoideus (mastoid process), and producing basics - choledoch- (Greek chole - "bile" + doche - "vessel", "receptacle") and mastoid- (Greek mastos - "nipple" + -eides - "similar", "similar"; "mastoid") .

The proper names or surnames of the persons who first discovered or described this or that phenomenon are also used as generating principles in clinical and pathological terms. Such “family” terms are called eponymous, or eponyms. The motivating factor for each such term is usually a phrase - an anatomical name, which includes a proper name.

For example: in the term highmoritis (sinusitis), the producing basis is haimor - on behalf of the English physician and anatomist N. Highmore, who described the maxillary sinus, named after him the maxillary sinus. In the international Paris anatomical nomenclature approved in 1955, all eponyms (names of authors) were removed and replaced with informative terms indicating the main morphological characteristics of the corresponding formation. For example, instead of the eponym "Bartholin's gland" they introduced the term glandula vestibularis major, instead of "Cooper's gland" - glandula bulbourethralis, instead of "Wirzung's duct" - ductus pancreaticus major, instead of "maxillary sinus" - sinus maxiliaris, etc.

20. Segmentation of terms

Words are divisible, at least one part of which is repeated in some other words that are correlated with the data in meaning. The division of different words can be complete or incomplete. Those derivatives are completely divided, all of whose components (individual morphemes or a block of morphemes) are repeated in other derivatives. If not every significant part is found in other modern medical terms, then the derivative has incomplete articulation. For example, the following words:

1) with full articulation: pod-algia (Greek pus, podos - “leg” + algos - “pain”), neur-algia (Greek neuron - “nerve”), as well as my-algia (Greek mys, myos - “muscle”), kephal-o-metria (Greek kephalos - “head”), thorac-o-metria (Greek thorax, thorakos - “chest”, “chest”), etc.;

2) with incomplete articulation: pod-agra (Greek podagra - “trap”; aching in the legs; from pus, podos - “leg” + agra - “grab”, “attack”). If the first part is isolated, since it is found in a number of modern terms, then the second part - agra - is practically unique.

Almost all terms - derived words that arose naturally in ancient Greek and Latin or created artificially from the morphemes and generative stems of these languages ​​are completely divisible. This means that they are at the same time fully motivated within the framework of modern terminology. The remarkable property of complete articulation acquires even greater significance for those mastering the basics of medical terminology due to the fact that a significant number of morphemes and blocks of morphemes are frequency.

Frequency ones should be considered those morphemes and blocks that are repeated in different words at least 2-3 times. It is clear that the greater the degree of frequency, i.e., the greater the number of uses, parts of derivatives have, the more significant role they have in terminology. Some high-frequency morphemes and blocks are involved in the formation of dozens of terms.

Many morphemes of the ancient Greek and Latin languages ​​acquired specific, sometimes new, meanings in terminology that were previously unusual for them in the ancient source language. Such meanings are called terminological. For example, the Greek word kytos (vessel, cavity), in the Latinized form cytus, began to be used as a regular root morpheme in the structure of dozens of terms - derived words - in the meaning of “cell”. The suffix of ancient Greek adjectives -itis, which gave them the general meaning of "relating to, belonging", became a regular part of terms - nouns meaning "inflammation".

21. Term element

Any part of a derived word (morpheme, block of morphemes), regularly reproduced in finished form when using existing terms or creating new ones and retaining a certain meaning assigned to it in terminology, is called a term element.

Term element is a component that is regularly repeated in a series of terms and has a specialized meaning assigned to it. At the same time, it is not of fundamental importance in what form of transcription, Latin or Russian, the same international term element of Greek-Latin origin appears: infra- - infra-; -tomia - -tomia; nephro- - nephro-, etc. For example: the term cardiologia - the science of diseases of the cardiovascular system consists of the initial term element cardio - heart and the final term -logia - science, branch of knowledge.

The division of a term-word into term elements does not always coincide with its division into morphemes, since some term elements represent a whole block - a combination of 2-3 morphemes in one whole: prefix + root, root + suffix, prefix + root + suffix. In such regular formal and semantic unity, these blocks of morphemes are distinguished in a number of similarly formed derivatives, for example in the terms asthen-o-spermia - asthen-o-spermia, asthen-opia - asthen-opia, asthen-o-depressivus - asthen-o- depressive, asthen-isatio - asthenization, the block term element asthen(o)- (asthen(o)-), from the Greek. asthenes - “weak”: negative prefix a- - “not, without” + sthenos - “strength”.

High-frequency term elements tom-ia (-to-miya) (Greek tome - “cut”), rhaph-ia (-raffia) (Greek rhaphe - “seam”), log-ia (-logy) (Greek logos - "science") - the final parts of the derivatives - are two-morphemic in their composition: root + suffix -ia, which gives the words the general meaning of "action, phenomenon". The high-frequency term element -ectomia (-ectomy) - the final part of derivatives - consists of three ancient Greek morphemes: prefix es- + root -tome- - “cut” + suffix -ia - “cutting”, “removal”.

Term elements of Greek-Latin origin constitute the international “golden fund” of biological and medical terminology.

With the help of frequency term elements, numerous series of terms of the same type in structure and semantics (meaning) are formed. Interacting with each other, term elements together form a complex formal-semantic term system, which remains open to the inclusion of new term elements and new series of terms, and in which each term element is assigned a specific place and meaning.

A huge number of medical terms are formed by adding stems combined with suffixation. In this case, the suffix of Greek origin -ia is used more often than others. For example, haemorrhagia in ancient Greek is produced by adding two stems: haem - “blood” + rhagos - “torn, torn” + suffix -ia.

22. Greco-Latin doublets

The division of term elements into bound and free should be constantly taken into account. For example, when comparing anatomical meanings in normal anatomy, on the one hand, with similar meanings in pathological anatomy and in a complex of clinical disciplines, on the other, the following pattern emerges: the same organ is designated in two ways - different not only in its linguistic origin, but also in its grammatical origin design with signs. In the nomenclature of normal anatomy it is an independent and usually Latin word, and in pathological anatomy it is a related term element of Greek origin. Much less often, in both disciplines, the same name is used, borrowed from the same source language, for example, the Greek hepar, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, urethra, thorax, ureter, encephalon and the Latin appendix, tonsilla and others that were used even in ancient medicine, as well as complex suffix derivatives starting with -turn, created in modern times; for example, myocardium, endothelium, perimetrium, etc. These words as free term elements are included in the structure of complex words in clinical terminology: hepatomegaly, endothelioma, encephalopathy, myocardiopathy, appendectomy. In anatomical nomenclature, there are designations for the same formation both as an independent Latin root word and as a Greek component as part of a derivative; for example, chin - lat. mentum, but “chin-lingual” - genioglossus (Greek geneion - “chin”); language - lat. lingua, but “sublingual” - hypoglossus; “glossopharyngeus” - glossopharyngeus (Greek glossa - “tongue”), etc. Latin and Greek designations for anatomical formations, which have absolutely the same meaning, are called Greco-Latin doublet designations (or doublets). The following fundamental position can be formulated: as a rule, Greco-Latin doublets are used to designate most anatomical formations (organs, parts of the body), and in anatomical nomenclature - predominantly Latin words, in clinical terminology - related term elements of Greek origin.

Scope of application of doublets

23. The meaning and place of term elements in the structure of a derivative word

Term elements are mostly unambiguous, but some of them have two or more meanings.

So, for example, the term element onco- (Greek onkos - “breast, mass, volume, bloating”) in some complex words means “volume, mass” (oncogramma - oncogram - a curve reflecting changes in volume; oncometria - oncometry - measurement of volume tissue or organ), in others - “tumor” (oncogenesis - the process of the emergence and development of a tumor; oncologist - a doctor, a specialist in the treatment and prevention of tumors, etc.).

The final component -lysis (Greek “unbinding, decomposition, dissolution”; lуо - “unbinding, freeing”) in some complex words means “decomposition, disintegration, dissolution” (autolysis, karyolysis, hemolysis, etc.), in others - “surgical operation for releasing adhesions, adhesions” (cardiolysis, pneumo(no)lysis, etc.).

Typically, the place of the motivating cognate stem in the structure of words does not affect its meaning: whether megalo- or -megalia (increase), gnatho- or -gnathia (jaw), blepharo- or -blepharia (eyelid), the meaning of the term elements will remain unambiguous. Some term elements, like the ones above, can act as both first and last. Others can occupy only one permanent place, for example as final ones (-cele, -clasia, -le-psia, -peaia), some can only be first components (auto-, brady-, bary-, laparo-).

1. It should be borne in mind that, depending both on the specific meaning of the other component involved in the addition and on the place occupied in a complex word, some shades may arise that affect the overall meaning of the motivated word. Thus, the cognate term elements haemo-, haemato- and -aemia have a common meaning “relating to blood.” At the same time, the final term element -aemia, which is preceded by the designation of the substance, indicates blood as a medium in which substances are found, the presence and concentration of which in this medium are pathological (azotaemia, uraemia, bacteriaemia, etc.). If the term elements haemo- or haemato- are combined with the designation of an organ, then the general meaning of the compound word is the accumulation of blood in the organ cavity, hemorrhage (haematomyelia - hemorrhage in the substance of the spinal cord, haemarthrosis - accumulation of blood in the joint cavity).

2. For a logical understanding of the general meaning of a derived word, it is advisable to begin the semantic analysis of its constituent term elements with the final term element. For example, gastro/entero-logia: logia - “the science of...”: gastro- - “stomach”, entera- - “intestines”.

3. The general meaning of a motivated word is always somewhat more voluminous, fuller, deeper than the simple addition of the meanings of the motivating components: for example, gastrojejunoplastica (Greek gaster - “stomach” + Lat. jejunum - “jejunum” + plastike - “formation, plastic”) - surgery to replace the stomach with a segment of the jejunum.

24. Formal linguistic types of clinical terms

The formal linguistic types of clinical terms are different.

1. Unmotivated simple words:

1) simple root words of Latin or ancient Greek origin: for example, stupor - stupor (numbness), tremor - tremor (shaking), thrombus - thrombus (blood clot), aphthae - aphthae (rash);

2) simple derivatives (in the source language) - prefix and affix: for example, insultus (Latin insulto - “to attack”) - stroke, infarctus (Latin infarcio - “stuff, fill”) - heart attack, aneurysma (Greek aneuryno - “to expand”) - aneurysm.

The given simple root and simple derivative words and many other clinical terms similar to them turn out to be indivisible within the framework of modern terminology and, therefore, unmotivated. Most often, they are not translated, but borrowed, transcribed using national languages ​​(Russian, English, etc.) and are internationalisms.

2. Terms and phrases. Noun phrases occupy a significant place in clinical terminology. Their formation does not require any special knowledge other than grammatical ones. In each phrase, the core word is the word being defined - the noun in it. p.un. or more h. Usually this is a generic term, i.e. the name of a higher, more general concept in the classification.

Defining words are most often represented by adjectives. Their role is to clarify in some specific respect a generic (general) concept: for example, pneumonia adenoviralis - adenoviral pneumonia, p. apicalis - apical pneumonia, p. haefflorrhagica - hemorrhagic pneumonia, etc.

The most common meaning of defining words is the localization of the lesion: abscessus appendicis, ab. femoris, ab. parietis arteriae, ab. mesenterii, ab. poliicis, ab. bronchi, ab. peritonealis; ulcus pharyngis, etc.

Some international phrases are traditionally included in the text in national languages ​​in Latin grammatical form and transcription, for example genu valgum (bent knee inward).

3. Fully divisible motivated terms-words. Among the formal linguistic types of clinical terms, they are of greatest interest when teaching the basics of medical terminology. The first motivating bases in complex words are Greek or, less often, Latin term elements with anatomical meaning. The final components carry the main semantic load and perform (like suffixes) a classifying function.

Some of them correlate this concept with a specific group, class of pathological phenomena (signs, conditions, diseases, processes), others - with surgical operations or with diagnostic techniques, etc. For example, terms with the initial term element cardio- (Greek kardia - "heart"): cardiosclerosis, cardioneurosis, cardiomegalia, cardiolysis, cardiotomia, cardiographia, cardiotachometria, cardiovolumometria.

25. Methods of word formation. Deminutives

The main methods of word formation are affix and non-affix.

Affixal methods include methods of forming derivatives by attaching word-forming affixes (prefixes, suffixes) to generating stems.

Affixless methods are used primarily to form complex words.

A compound word is one that consists of more than one stem. A compound word is formed by the method of compounding.

A word in the structure of which there is only one producing stem is called simple: for example, costoarticularis is a complex word, and costalis and articularis are simple words.

There are also mixed methods of word formation: prefixation + suffixation, addition + suffixation, a method of creating complex abbreviated words, etc.

Deminutives- nouns with a general word-formation meaning “diminutive”.

A motivated diminutive noun (deminitive) retains the gender of the motivating word from which it is derived. These motivated words are declined only according to the I or II declension, regardless of which declension the motivating word belongs to: for example, nodus, -i (m); nodu-lus; vas, vasis (n) vasculum.

1. Some artificially formed terms do not have a diminutive meaning; These are the designations of the stages of embryo development: gastrula, blastula, morula, organella.

2. The nouns macula (spot), acetabulum (acetabulum) and some others also do not have a diminutive meaning.

26. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “action, process”

In Latin there are nouns that have certain suffixes with the general meaning of “action, process.”

1. Nouns of this very productive word-formation type denote operations, methods of examination, physiological functions, treatments, theoretical concepts in various disciplines: for example, auscultatio - auscultation, listening; percussio - percussion, tapping; palpatio - palpation, palpation.

All three terms refer to methods for studying internal organs.

There are derivatives in -io, denoting not only an action, a process, but also the result of this action, for example, decussatio - cross (formation in the form of X); impresso - impression; terminatio - ending, end.

2. Among the artificially formed words in -io, some come not from the verbal, but from the nominal stem, for example, decapsulatio - decapsulation, surgical removal of the shell of an organ; hepatisatio - hepatization, compaction of lung tissue.

3. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “an object (organ, instrument, device) by which an action is performed; a person carrying out an activity.”

4. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “the result of an action.”

27. Adjective suffixes

I. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “characterized or rich in a feature indicated by the generating stem.”

II. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “belonging to or relating to what is called the generating base.”

III. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “similar to what is called the stem of the word.”

IV. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “carrying what is called the producing base.”

V. Adjectives with general word-formation meaning:

1) “generating, producing, causing what is called the basis” (active meaning);

2) “generated, caused, conditioned by what is called the basis” (passive meaning).

28. Features of the foundation

1. As the most common word-formation device, with the help of which two or more generating stems are combined into a single word, the interfix, or connecting vowel, is used. In medical terminology, the most common interfix is ​​-o-, less commonly used is -i-. In the original words of the ancient Greek language, only the interfix -o- is used, the Latin - -i-: for example, lat. aur-i-scalpium (auris - “ear” + scalpo - “scrape, cut”) - ear cleaner; viv-i-ficatio (vivus - “living” + facio - “to do”) - revival.

However, in artificial neologisms this linguistic pattern is no longer observed. Regardless of the origin, the interfix -o- is used (neur-o-cranium, cary-o-lysis, lept-o-meniux, Latin auropalpebraiis, Latin nasolacrimal, etc.). The first components of addition are usually indicated in dictionaries and reference books along with the interfix: thoraco-, spondylo-. Interfixless connection of components usually takes place, although not always, if the first component ends with a vowel or the second component begins with a vowel: for example, the term elements brady- (Greek bradys - “slow”): brady-cardia; brachy- (Greek brachys - “short”): brachy-dactylia; rhin- (Greek rhis, rhinos - “nose”): rhin-encephalon.

2. Variation of the producing base. In Latin and Greek there are nouns and adjectives (III declension), in which the bases of the word forms of the nominative and genitive cases differ: for example, cortex, cortic-is; Greek som-a, somat-os - “body”; Greek meg-as, megal-u - “big”; Greek pan, pant-os - “everything”, etc. The base of the genitive case acts as the productive basis of Latin words: pariet-o-graphia, cortic-o-visceralis; In Greek words, the productive stem is also more often the stem of the genitive case. At the same time, sometimes the generating stem appears in a variant form - either the nominative or the genitive case, for example: pan-, pant - “everything” (pan-demia, pant-o-phobia), mega- - “big” (megacolon, megal -o-biastus).

There are also three-variant forms of the same term element: initial - haemo-, haemato-, final -aemia with the general meaning “relating to blood” (haemo-globinum, haemato-logia, an-aemia).

3. Phonetic-graphic variation of the basics. Some Greek stems have experienced varying degrees of romanization. In some cases, a pronunciation close to the Greek language was preserved, in others there was a convergence with the norm of the Latin language. As a result, the same morpheme can be written in different ways: Greek. cheir - "hand" - cheir and chir; Greek koinos - “common”, “joint” - coenosis, koino-. Various transcriptions of the Greek word neuron are used - “nerve” in Russian terms: neurology, but neurosurgery; neuritis (axon) and neuritis (nerve inflammation).

29. Prefixation

Prefixation, i.e. the addition of a prefixal morpheme (prefix) to the root, does not change its meaning, but only adds to this meaning some component indicating localization (above, below, in front, behind), direction (approaching, moving away), flow in time (before something, after something), on the absence or denial of something.

Prefixes developed primarily from prepositions, so their direct meanings coincide with the meanings of the corresponding prepositions.

Some prefixes, based on direct meanings, have developed secondary, figurative ones. Thus, the Greek preposition-prefix para- (“near, nearby”) developed a figurative meaning “retreat, deviation from something, discrepancy between the external manifestations of the essence of a given phenomenon”: for example, para-nasalis - paranasal, but para-mnesia (Greek mnesis - "memory") - paramnesia - a general name for distortions of memories and memory deceptions.

In descriptive names used in morphological disciplines, term elements-prefixes have a direct meaning. In terms expressing the concepts of pathological conditions, diseases, impaired organ functions, and the like, prefix term elements are often used with secondary meanings. In various subsystems of medical terminology and in biology, Greek and Latin term elements-prefixes are extremely widely used.

As a rule, Latin prefixes are attached to Latin roots, Greek prefixes are added to Greek roots. However, there are also exceptions, so-called hybrids, for example, in the words epi-fascialis - suprafascial, endo-cervicalis - intra-cervical, the prefixes are Greek, and the producing stems are Latin. When prefixed, the whole word acts as a productive basis: intra-articularis - intra-articular.

Antonymous prefixes. An important role in the functioning of medical terms is played by antonymous prefixes, i.e. those whose meanings are opposite: for example, Lat. intra- - “inside” and extra- - “outside”, “outside”, etc.

Latin-Greek doublet prefixes. The meanings of a number of Latin prefixes coincide with the meanings of certain Greek prefixes or are very close to them:

lat. media- - Greek meso- - “in the middle”, “between”.

When attaching prefixes to bases, changes in the prefix may occur under the influence of the initial sound of the base.

This is mainly manifested in assimilation (Latin assimilalio - “likening”, “similarity”): the final consonant in the prefix is ​​fully or partially likened to the initial sound of the producing stem. In some Latin prefixes, elision may occur, i.e., loss of the final consonant. In the Greek prefixes ana-, dia-, cafa-, meta-, para-, and-, epi-, apo-, hypo-, meso-, elision is manifested in the loss of the final vowel before the initial vowel of the stem. This eliminates possible gaping (vowel with vowel).

30. Infinitive

Depending on the nature of the stem - the final sound of the stem - verbs are divided into IV conjugations.

In conjugations I, II, IV, the stems end in a vowel, and in III, most often in a consonant.

The infinitive is an indefinite form. In order to correctly identify the stem and determine by its final sound which of the four conjugations a particular verb belongs to, it is necessary to remember the infinitive of this verb. The infinitive is the original form of the verb; it does not change according to persons, numbers and moods. The sign of the infinitive in all conjugations is the ending -re. In I, II and IV conjugations it is attached directly to the stem, and in III - through the connecting vowel -e-.

Examples of infinitives of verbs I-IV conjugations

In II and III conjugations, the vowel [e] differs not only in shortness or length: in II conjugation it is the final sound of the stem, and in III it is a connecting vowel between the stem and the ending.

The stem of the verb is practically determined from the infinitive form by separating the ending -re from verbs of I, II, IV conjugations and -ere from verbs of III conjugation.

Unlike the usual complete dictionaries of the Latin language, in educational dictionaries for medical students the verb is given in an abbreviated dictionary form: the full form of the 1st person singular. Part of the present tense of the indicative mood of the active voice (ending -o), then the ending of the infinitive -re is indicated along with the preceding vowel, i.e. the last three letters of the infinitive. At the end of the dictionary form, a number marks the conjugation, for example:

31. Imperative and subjunctive moods

In prescriptions, a doctor’s request to a pharmacist to prepare a medicine has the character of an order, an inducement to a certain action. This meaning of the verb is expressed by the imperative or subjunctive mood.

As in Russian, the order is addressed to the 2nd person. The recipe uses only the 2nd person singular form of the imperative. This form completely coincides with the stem for verbs of I, II and IV conjugations; for verbs of III conjugation, -e is added to the stem.

In practice, to form an imperative, it is necessary to discard the ending of the infinitive -re from verbs of all conjugations, for example:

The imperative mood in the form of the 2nd person plural. h. is formed by adding the ending -te: for verbs of I, II, IV conjugations - directly to the stem, for verbs of III conjugation - with the help of a connecting vowel -i-(-ite).

Subjunctive mood

Meaning. The recipe uses only one of the many meanings of the Latin subjunctive mood - command, encouragement to action.

In Russian, conjunctive forms with this meaning are translated by a verb in combination with the word “let” or an indefinite form of the verb, for example: let it be mixed or mixed.

Education. The conjunctive is formed by changing the stem: in conjugation I, -a is replaced by -e, in conjugation II, III and IV, -a is added to the stem. Personal endings of verbs are added to the modified stem.

Formation of the base of the conjunctiva

Latin verbs, like Russian ones, have 3 persons; in medical terminology only the 3rd person is used. Personal endings for verbs in the 3rd person are given in the table.

32. Subjunctive. Accusative

Examples of verb conjugation in the conjunctive of the active and passive voices.

Accusative

To write recipes correctly, it is necessary to master the endings of two cases - the accusative and the so-called ablative - in the five declensions of nouns and adjectives of the I, II and III declensions. Accusativus (vin. p.) is the case of the direct object; as in Russian, answers the questions “who?” So what?" For convenience, we first remember separately the endings of this case, which have neuter nouns and adjectives, and then the endings of masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives. Rules of the middle kind. All neuter nouns and adjectives, regardless of their declension, are subject to the following rules.

1. End of Ass. sing. matches the ending Nom. sing. of a given word: for example, linimentum compositum, semen dulce.

2. End of Ass. pl. matches the ending Nom. pl. and regardless of declension, always -a(-ia): for example, linimenta composita, semina dulcia.

Only nouns cf. have the ending -ia. R. on -e, -al, -ar (III declension) and all adjectives of the 2nd group (III declension).

Masculine and feminine. Masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives in Ass. sing. have a common final element -m, and in Ac. pl. - -s; they are preceded by certain vowels depending on the declension.

The ending -im in Ac. sing. Greek nouns ending in -sis such as dosis, is (f) and some Latin nouns: pertussis, is (f) are accepted.

33. Ablative. Prepositions

Ablativus- this is the case corresponding to the Russian instrumental case; answers the questions “by whom?”, “with what?”. In addition, it performs the functions of several other cases.

The endings of the ablative are shown in the table

The ending -i in Abl. sing. accept:

1) nouns ending in -e, -al, -ar;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group;

3) equisyllabic nouns of Greek origin starting with -sis of the dosis type.

All prepositions in Latin are used with only two cases: accusative and ablative. The management of prepositions in Russian does not coincide with Latin.

1. Prepositions used with the accusative case.

2. Prepositions used with the ablative.

3. Prepositions used either with the accusative case or with the ablative case.

The prepositions in - “in”, “on” and sub - “under” control two cases depending on the question posed. Questions “where?”, “what?” require the accusative case, questions “where?”, “in what?” - ablative.

Examples of the use of prepositions with double control.

34. Form - cyclical, terminological

Pharmaceutical terminology is a complex consisting of sets of terms from a number of special disciplines, united under the general name “pharmacy” (Greek pharmakeia - the creation and use of drugs), which study the research, production, and use of medicines of plant, mineral, animal and synthetic origin. The central place in this terminological complex is occupied by the nomenclature of medicines - an extensive set of names of medicinal substances and drugs officially approved for use. Tens and hundreds of thousands of medicines are used on the pharmaceutical market. The total number of medicines and their combinations available in different countries exceeds 250 thousand. Every year, more and more new drugs are supplied to the pharmacy chain.

To have an idea of ​​how drug names are created, which influences the choice of certain methods of word formation and structural types of names, it is necessary to familiarize yourself, at least in the most general terms, with some general pharmaceutical terms.

1. Medicine (medicamentum) - a substance or mixture of substances authorized by the authorized body of the relevant country in the prescribed manner for use for the purpose of treating, preventing or diagnosing a disease.

2. Medicinal substance (materia medica) - a drug that is an individual chemical compound or biological substance.

3. Medicinal plant materials - plant materials approved for medical use.

4. Dosage form (forma medicamentorum) - a state convenient for use given to a medicinal product or medicinal plant raw material, in which the necessary therapeutic effect is achieved.

5. Medicine (praeparatum pharmaceuticum) - a medicine in the form of a specific dosage form.

6. Active substance - component(s) of a medicinal product that has a therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic effect.

7. Combined medicines - medicines containing in one dosage form more than one active substance in fixed doses.

35. Trivial names of medicinal substances

Some chemical compounds used as medicinal substances retain the same traditional semi-systematic names that they received in chemical nomenclature (salicylic acid, sodium chloride).

However, in a much larger volume in the nomenclature of medicines, chemical compounds are presented not under their scientific (systematic) names, but under trivial (Latin trivialis - “ordinary”) names. Trivial names do not reflect any unified principles of scientific classification accepted by chemists; they do not indicate composition or structure. In this respect, they are completely inferior to systematic names. However, the latter are unsuitable as names of medicinal substances due to their bulkiness and complexity for use in recipes, on labels, and in the pharmacy trade.

Trivial names are short, convenient, accessible not only for professional, but also for ordinary communication.

Examples of trivial names

Methods of word formation for trivial names

Trivial names of medicines are derivatives of various word-formation structures. A word or group of words, which are often systematic names of chemical compounds or names of the sources of their production, is used as a producer. The main “building” material for the formation of trivial names is words, word-forming elements, roots and simply so-called verbal segments of ancient Greek and Latin origin. For example, a preparation from the spring adonis herb (Adonis vernalis) is called Adonisidum - adonizide; a substance (glycoside) obtained from some species of the foxglove plant (Digitalis) is called Digoxinum - digoxin. The name Mentholum - menthol is assigned to a substance obtained from mint oil (oleum Menthae).

Among the various word formation methods used to create trivial names, the most productive is abbreviation (Latin brevis - “short”) - shortening. This is a way of creating compound words, so-called abbreviations, by combining word segments arbitrarily selected from the corresponding generating words or phrases. As such, systematic names of chemical compounds are often used.

Abbreviations are also used to form the names of combination drugs. Instead of listing the names of all active substances contained in one dosage form, the drug is assigned a complex abbreviated name. It is placed in quotation marks and is an appendix to the name of the dosage form.

36. General requirements for names of medicines

1. In Russia, the name of each new drug is officially approved in the form of two mutually translated equivalents in Russian and Latin, for example: solutio Glucosi - glucose solution. As a rule, Latin names of medicinal substances are nouns of the II declension cf. R. The Russian name differs from the Latin only in transcription and the absence of the ending -um, for example: Amidopyrinum - amidopyrin, Validolum - validol. Trivial names of combination drugs, which are inconsistent applications to the name of the dosage form, are also nouns of the II declension cf. r.: for example, tabulettae "Haemostimulinum" - tablets "Gemostimulin".

2. The name of medicines should be as short as possible; easy to pronounce; have clear phonetic-graphic distinctiveness. The last requirement in practice becomes particularly important.

Each title must be noticeably different in its sound composition and graphics (spelling) from other titles.

After all, it is enough to remember the sound complex even slightly inaccurately and write it down incorrectly in Latin letters in the recipe for a serious mistake to occur. A large number of drugs are entering the domestic market under original brand names. They are formatted orthographically and grammatically most often in some national language, that is, they do not have a Latin grammatical format. Often names lack the ending -um completely (German) or partially (English) or the ending -um is replaced with -e (English and French), and in some languages ​​(Italian, Spanish. , rum.) - on -a.

At the same time, companies assign names to their drugs with the traditional Latin ending -um. In domestic prescription practice, in order to avoid discrepancies, it would be necessary to conditionally Latinize the commercial names of imported drugs: substitute the ending -um instead of the last vowel or add the ending -um to the final consonant, for example: instead of Mexase (mexase) - Mexasum, instead of Lasix (lasix) - Lasixum, etc. .

Exceptions are allowed only for names ending in -a: Dopa, Nospa, Ambravena. They can be read and considered by analogy with nouns of the first declension.

In modern commercial names, the traditional scientifically approved transcription of word-forming elements (verbal segments) of Greek origin is often neglected; their graphic simplification is cultivated; To make pronunciation easier, ph is replaced by f, th by t, ae by e, y by i.

37. Frequency segments in trivial names

A huge number of abbreviations, as noted, are formed by combining segments arbitrarily selected from the composition of generating words - systematic names.

At the same time, in the nomenclature there are many such names, the sound complexes of which include repeating frequency segments - a kind of pharmaceutical term elements.

1. Frequency segments, very conditionally and approximately reflecting information of an anatomical, physiological and therapeutic nature.

For example: Corvalolum, Cardiovaienum, Valosedan, Apressinum, Angiotensinamidum, Promedolum, Sedalgin, Antipyrinum, Anaesthesinum, Testosteronum, Agovirin, Androfort, Thyrotropinum, Cholosasum, Streptocidum, Mycoseptinum, Enteroseptolum.

2. Frequency segments carrying pharmacological information. Over the past decades, the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO) has become widespread to include in the trivial names of medicinal substances (namely substances!) frequency segments that carry not a random and vague characteristic, like the above segments, but stable information of a pharmacological nature.

For this purpose, it is recommended to include in the names frequency segments indicating that the drug substance belongs to a specific pharmacological group. To date, several dozen such frequency segments have been recommended. For example: Sulfadimezinum, Penicillinum, Streptomycinum, Tetracyclinum, Barbamylum, Novocainum, Corticotropinum, Oestradiolum, Methandrostenolonum.

Trivial names of vitamins and multivitamin combination drugs

Vitamins are known both by their trivial names and by letter designations, for example: Retinolum seu Vitaminum A (also known under another name - Axerophtholum); Cyanocobalaminum seu Vitaminum B12; Acidum ascorbinicum seu Vitaminum C. The names of many multivitamin preparations include the frequency segment -vit- - -vit-, for example Tabulettae "Pentovitum" (contains 5 vitamins), Dragee "Hexavitum" (contains 6 vitamins), etc.

Trivial names of enzyme preparations

Often the names indicate that the drug affects the enzyme processes of the body. This is evidenced by the presence of the suffix -as- - -az-. Such names are usually Latinized according to the general rule, that is, they receive the ending -um. However, there are also deviations from this rule: for example, Desoxyribonucleasum (or Desoxyribcnucleasa) is a deoxyribonuclease, Collagenasum is a collagenase.

38. Dosage forms

Aerosolum, -i (n)- aerosol - a dosage form, which is a dispersed system obtained using special packaging.

Granulum, -i (n)- granule - a solid dosage form in the form of grains, grains.

Gutta, -ae (f)- drop - a dosage form intended for internal or external use in the form of drops.

Unguentum, -i(n)- ointment - a soft dosage form with a viscous consistency; intended for external use.

Linimentum, -i (n)- liniment - liquid ointment.

Pasta, -ae (f)- paste - ointment with a content of powdery substances over 20-25%.

Emplastrum, -i (n)- patch - a dosage form in the form of a plastic mass that softens at body temperature and adheres to the skin; intended for external use.

Suppositorium, -i (n)- suppository, suppository - a dosage form that is solid at room temperature and expands or dissolves at body temperature; injected into body cavities. If administered per rectum (through the rectum), it is called a suppository. If the suppository has the shape of a ball for insertion into the vagina, then it is called globulus vaginalis - vaginal ball.

Pulvis, -eris (m)- powder - dosage form intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

Tabuletta, -ae (f)- dosage form obtained by pressing medicinal ingredients

substances or mixtures of medicinal and auxiliary substances; intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

Tabuletta obducta- coated tablet - a tablet with a coating designed to localize the site of action, taste; preservation, improvement of appearance.

Dragee (French)- dragee (not folded) - a solid dosage form obtained by layering drugs and excipients onto granules.

Pilula, -ae (f)- pill - a solid dosage form in the form of a ball (weight 0.1-0.5 g) containing drugs and excipients.

Species, -ei (f)(usually in the plural: Species, -erum) - collection - a mixture of several types of crushed or whole medicinal raw materials for the preparation of infusions and decoctions.

C. amylacea seu oblate- dosage dosage form, which is a medicinal product enclosed in a shell (made of gelatin, starch or another biopolymer); intended for internal use.

Seu Lamella ophthalmica- eye film - a dosage form in the form of a polymer film, replacing eye drops.

39. Liquid dosage forms. Name of drugs

Solutio, -onis (f)- solution - a dosage form obtained by dissolving one or more medicinal substances; intended for injection, internal or external use.

Suspensio, -onis (f)- suspension - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system in which a solid substance is suspended in a liquid; Intended for internal, external or injection use.

Emulsum, -i (n)- emulsion - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system consisting of mutually insoluble liquids; Intended for internal, external or injection use.

Tinctura, -ae (f)- tincture - a dosage form, which is an alcohol, alcohol-ether, alcohol-water transparent extract from medicinal plant materials; Designed for indoor or outdoor use.

Infusum, -i (n)- infusion - a dosage form, which is an aqueous extract from medicinal plant materials; Designed for indoor or outdoor use.

Decoctum, -i (n)- decoction - infusion, characterized by extraction mode.

Sirupus, -i (m) (medicinalis)- syrup - a liquid dosage form intended for internal use.

Extractum, -i (n)- extract - dosage form, which is a concentrated extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.

Names of drugs.

1. If the dosage form given to a medicinal substance or herbal raw material is indicated in the name of the drug, then the name begins with its designation, followed by the name of the medicinal substance or raw material.

Tabulettae Analgini - analgin tablets, Pulvis Ampicillini - ampicillin powder, etc.

2. The name of the combination medicinal product accompanying the designation “dosage form” is a noun in it. etc., placed in quotation marks as an inconsistent application to the designation “dosage form”, for example: Tabulettae “Urosalum” - “Urosal” tablets, Unguentum “Calendula” - “Calendula” ointment, etc.

3. In the names of infusions and decoctions, between the designations “Dosage form” and “Plants” there is a genus. n. name of the type of raw material (leaf, herb, bark, root, flowers, etc.), for example: Infusum florum Chamomillae - infusion of chamomile flowers, Infusum radicis Valerianae - infusion of valerian root, etc.

4. An agreed definition characterizing the dosage form takes the last place in the name of the drug: for example, Unguentum Hydrargyri cinereum - gray mercury ointment, Solutio Synoestroli oleosa - solution of sinestrol in oil (oil), Solutio Tannini spirituosa alcoholic tannin solution, Extractum Belladonnae siccum - belladonna (belladonna) dry extract.

40. Recipe

Recipe(receptum - “taken” from recipio, -ere - “take”, “to take”) is a written order from a doctor to a pharmacist, drawn up in a certain form, about the manufacture, dispensing and method of using a medicine. A prescription is an important legal document that must be executed in accordance with official rules. Prescriptions are written out on a standard form measuring 105 x 108 mm, clearly and legibly, without blots or corrections, in ink or a ballpoint pen. Doctors who have the right to issue prescriptions are required to indicate their position and title, sign and certify it with their personal seal.

The following parts are usually distinguished in the recipe.

1. Inscriptio - stamp of the medical institution and its code.

2. Datum - date of prescription.

3. Nomen aegroti - last name and initials of the patient.

4. Aetas aegroti - age of the patient.

5. Nomen medici - the surname and initials of the doctor.

6. Praescriptio - “copybook” in Latin, which consists of invocatio - standard appeal to a doctor, Rр.: - Recipe - “take” and designatio materiarum - designation of substances indicating their quantity.

7. Subscriptio - “signature” (literally “written below” designation of substances) - the part in which some instructions are given to the pharmacist: about the dosage form, number of doses, type of packaging, about dispensing the medicine to the patient, etc.

8. Signature - designation, part that begins with the verb signa or signetur - “to designate”, “to designate”. This is followed by instructions to the patient in Russian and (or) the national language about how to take the medicine.

9. Nomen et sigillum personaie medici - the doctor’s signature, sealed with a personal seal.

Each drug is prescribed on a separate prescription line and with a capital letter. The names of medicinal substances and plants inside the line are also written in capital letters.

The names of medicinal substances or drugs depend grammatically on their dose (quantity) and are placed in gender. P.

Rules for writing recipes

41. Use of the accusative case when prescribing pills and suppositories

There are different approaches to naming tablets and suppositories.

1. Drugs of a combined composition are assigned a trivial and most often complex abbreviated name, placed in quotation marks: for example, tabulettae "Codterpinum" - tablets "Codterpin"; suppositoria "Neo-anusolum" - "Neo-anusol" suppositories.

Trivial names of tablets or suppositories are in them. p.un. h. and are inconsistent applications. The dose is usually not indicated, since it is standard.

2. If the suppositories consist of one active medicinal substance, then its name is attached to the name of the dosage form using the preposition cum and is placed in an ablative indicating the dose; for example: Suppositoria cum Cordigito 0.0012 - suppositories with cordigito 0.0012.

3. If the tablets consist of one active medicinal substance, then after indicating the dosage form its name is placed in the genus. item with dose designation; for example: Tabulettae Cordigiti 0.0008 - cordigita tablets 0.0008.

4. When prescribing tablets and suppositories in recipes in an abbreviated manner, the name of the dosage form is placed in the wine. p.m. h. (tabulettas, tabulettas obductas, suppositoria, suppositoria rectalia), since it grammatically depends on the Recipe, and not on the dose.