Economically less developed countries of Asia. Territorial organization of the world economy

Foreign Asia is a region that leads the world not only in area, but also in population. Moreover, he has held this championship for more than one millennium. The countries of foreign Asia, despite their many differences, also have a number of common features. They will be discussed in this article.

General characteristics of foreign Asian countries

Foreign Asia is the cradle of many civilizations and the birthplace of agriculture. The world's first cities were built here and a number of great scientific discoveries were made.

All countries of foreign Asia (and there are 48 of them in total) occupy an area of ​​32 million square kilometers. Large states predominate among them. There are also giant countries, the area of ​​each of which exceeds 3 million km2 (India, China).

Experts classify most states in this region as developing. Only four countries out of 48 can be called economically developed. These are Japan, South Korea, Singapore and Israel.

There are 13 monarchies on the political map of foreign Asia (and half of them are located in the Middle East). The remaining countries in the region are republics.

According to the characteristics of their geographical location, all countries of foreign Asia are divided into:

• island (Japan, Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc.);
• coastal (India, South Korea, Israel, etc.);
• inland (Nepal, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, etc.).

It is obvious that countries from the latter group are experiencing great difficulties in terms of introducing their goods to world markets.

Regions and countries of foreign Asia

Geographers divide overseas Asia into five subregions:

• South-West Asia - includes all countries on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, the Transcaucasian republics, Turkey, Cyprus, Iran and Afghanistan (20 states in total);
• South Asia - includes 7 states, the largest of which are India and Pakistan;
• Southeast Asia is made up of 11 countries, ten of which are developing (all except Singapore);
• East Asia - includes only five powers (China, Mongolia, Japan, South Korea and North Korea);
• Central Asia consists of five post-Soviet republics (Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan).

How do the countries of foreign Asia border? The map below will help you navigate this issue.

Population and natural resources

This region, due to its tectonic structure, is distinguished by its enormous diversity. Thus, India and China can boast of significant reserves of coal, iron and iron. However, the most important wealth here is black gold. The largest oil fields are concentrated in Saudi Arabia, Iran and Kuwait.

As for the conditions for the development of agriculture, in this regard, some states are more fortunate, others much less fortunate. Many of the countries in South and Southeast Asia have excellent conditions. But states such as Syria or Mongolia are an almost continuous lifeless desert, where only certain branches of livestock farming can be developed.

According to various estimates, from 3.5 to 3.8 billion people live within the region. This is more than half of the entire population of the Earth. Almost all countries of Foreign Asia are characterized by high birth rates (the so-called second type of reproduction). Many states in the region are experiencing today, which entails food and other problems.

The ethnic structure of the population in this region is also very complex. At least a thousand different nationalities live here, the most numerous of which are the Chinese, Japanese and Bengalis. In terms of linguistic diversity, this region also has no equal on the entire planet.

Most of the population of foreign Asia (about 66%) lives in rural areas. Nevertheless, the pace and nature of urbanization processes in this region are so great that the situation has already begun to be called an “urban explosion.”

Foreign Asia: economic features

What is the role of modern countries in the region in the global economy? All states of foreign Asia can be collected into several groups. There are so-called ones (Singapore, Korea, Taiwan and others) who, in a short period of time, were able to rebuild their national economy and achieve certain successes in development. A separate group in the region are oil-producing countries (Saudi Arabia, Iraq, UAE, etc.), whose economies are entirely based on this natural wealth.

Japan (the most developed country in Asia), China and India cannot be classified into any of these categories. All other states remain underdeveloped, and in some of them there is no industry at all.

Conclusion

Foreign Asia is the largest historical and geographical region of the planet, within which more than one civilization arose. Today there are 48 independent states. They differ in size, population, and government structure, but they also have several common features.

Most of the countries of Foreign Asia are developing countries with rather backward economies. Only four of them can be classified as economically developed powers.

INTRODUCTION

Recently, newly industrialized countries (NICs) have attracted more and more people's attention. Over the past thirty to forty years, these countries have experienced such an “explosion” in economic development that they can be envied. The newly industrialized countries have transformed from developing countries to economically developed ones and, along with the United States, Japan and the European Union, are vying for leadership in the global market. In these countries, the proportion of literate people has increased, education has become free and accessible to all. Gross domestic income per capita is about $15,000, and its annual growth has stabilized at 7%. Based on all this, we can conclude that the rapid economic development of the NIS countries worries many countries, and the issue of this is relevant today.

Newly industrialized countries (NICs) are a group of developing Asian countries, former colonies or semi-colonies, whose economies in a relatively short period made the leap from backward, typical of developing countries, to highly developed.

The newly industrialized countries of the “first wave” include the Republic of Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan. The newly industrialized countries of the “second wave” include Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and China. The first four stand out especially, which are called the four frisky “dragons” or tigers. Some geographers include the most developed countries of Latin America (Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, etc.) in this group, but this is not entirely true.

The main emphasis of restructuring the economies of newly industrialized countries is:

For industrialization based on the latest scientific and technical achievements with a focus on the foreign market;

to universal accessibility and a high level of education within the country;

to maximize the use of foreign capital.

The relevance of this topic can be called the rapid economic development of the new industrial countries of the four “dragons”, which is of interest to many developed countries of the world.

In the 70-80s of the XX century. These countries were characterized by higher rates of economic development, exceeding similar indicators of other developing and industrialized countries. Consequently, NIS cannot be attributed to any of the existing groups of countries: developing, developed, countries with economies in transition. They occupied a special position in the world economy and formed a new independent group.

October and November 1997 brought many dark days to the world. Hong Kong and New York, London and Frankfurt, Tokyo and Moscow - the stock exchanges of the largest cities in the world, no matter what languages ​​their brokers spoke, were filled with one desire: to sell. The main victims are emerging markets. It was from there that the intensive outflow of capital began. What happened to the Asian tigers?

Consideration of this aspect of the development of newly industrialized countries will allow us to better understand the characteristics of the economies of these countries and show how Asia was able to travel in thirty years the path that Europe spent centuries on. The face of Europe changed gradually, year after year, and therefore there was no need for unnecessary violence designed to accustom people to new ideas: from pack horses we moved to a cart, then a springless carriage appeared, followed by a carriage, a railway, an automobile, an airplane; and even to us the progress seemed too rapid. As for Asia, in thirty years, before the eyes of one generation, it has moved from pack donkeys to Rolls-Royces, from breeding horses to airplanes. It took us five hundred years to move from a combat bow - after fiddling with muskets for a long, long time - to automatic weapons.

The purpose of this work is to consider the newly industrialized countries of Asia, to define concepts, classifications, problems and development prospects.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks will be solved:

explore the newly industrialized countries of Asia;

establish paths to prosperity for the Republic of Korea;

define the concepts and classification of the newly industrialized countries of Asia;

describe the general characteristics of the countries of the four “dragons”;

consider the possibility of the Russian Federation applying the experience of South Korea.

The object of this study is the economy of the newly industrialized countries of Asia.

The subject of the study is the problems and prospects for economic development of the countries of the four “dragons”.

When writing the course work, educational materials on regional economics and management, management theory, and economic geography were used.

E.F. Avdokushin studied the role of foreign economic factors in the economic model of “newly industrialized countries.” He examined the economic model of NIS and the features of its successful development, which, as a rule, pointed to the external and internal factors of this model that ensured its resounding success.

Izotov D. A. and Kucheryavenko V. E. studied the economic development of the newly industrialized countries of Asia in the periods between crises.

Zagladin N. in his works studied the problems of modernization in Asia, Africa and Latin America. This work included a review and comparison of the achievements of Japan and the newly industrialized countries of Asia. Also in his work, he analyzed more than 170 states in Asia, Africa and Latin America, many of which in the recent past were colonial and dependent countries, after the Second World War, in one form or another, faced the need to find ways to modernize. It is no coincidence that one of the common definitions for these states is the term “developing”.

The research methods were the historical method, observation and comparison methods.

The structure of the work corresponds to the goals and objectives. The study consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of sources and literature used.

II. NEW INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES OF ASIA

2.1Concepts, classifications, problems of the newly industrialized countries of Asia

The world of the late twentieth century. complex and multifaceted. New Industrial countries are increasingly making themselves known.

Until the mid-60s, even after decolonization, Western economists did not particularly take into account the specific socio-economic problems of developing countries. Adjusted in the 70-80s. the concept of aid is based on the assumption that developed Western countries serve as a certain model for developing countries, since the aid they receive consists exclusively of samples of Western culture: material goods, technology, education and culture, norms of political and social behavior, etc.

The processes of differentiation occurring in all subsystems of the world economy, and therefore in developing countries, have led to the identification of a special group of countries called “newly industrialized countries” (NICs). These states are characterized by higher economic growth than industrialized countries and a significantly higher level of economic development compared to the main group of developing countries.

Newly industrialized countries (NICs) are a group of developing countries in which a number of industries have emerged over the past decades, incl. manufacturing (especially knowledge-intensive industries), as a result of which they significantly expanded the supply of industrial products to the world market.

The newly industrialized countries of Asia are already hot on the heels of the United States and Japan. These are South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore.

A country acquires the status of a “New Industrial Country” according to the following criteria established according to the UN methodology:

GDP per capita;

average annual growth rate;

the share of the manufacturing industry in GDP (it should be no more than 20%);

volume of exports of industrial products and their share in total exports;

volume of direct investment abroad.

In some indicators, NIS often exceed similar indicators in a number of industrialized countries. For 30 years from 1960 to 1990. the rate of economic development of the Asian region as a whole was more than 5% per year, while in European countries it was 2%. Developing countries that have embarked on the industrial path of development are beginning to attract foreign investment and stimulate the growth of foreign trade. Export revenues are used to develop the most promising industries. In the 60s The countries of East Asia and Latin America have taken this path. In East Asia, capital flowed mainly into manufacturing and primary industries. In Latin America - in trade, services, and manufacturing. Particular attention should be paid to East Asia.

In the 21st century, as many experts note, the Asia-Pacific region will show its strength. In 1989, 18 states formed the Asia-Pacific Cooperation Forum (APEC): the USA, Canada, China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, etc. The goals of this integral group were the abolition of trade barriers in mutual trade and capital movement. However, due to the fact that the countries included in APEC are different, deadlines were set for achieving these goals: until 2010 for developed countries, until 2020 for developing countries. APEC is not a closed bloc. In November 1998, at the next conference in the capital of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, three more countries were accepted into the organization: Vietnam, Peru, and Russia.

The newly industrialized countries include four?small dragons? Asia: South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong. NIS of Latin America are represented by Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico. All of the listed countries are NIS of the “first wave”, or “first generation”.

The second generation includes: Malaysia, Thailand, India, Chile.

The third generation includes Cyprus, Tunisia, Turkey, Indonesia.

The fourth generation includes the Philippines, southern provinces of China, etc.

As a result, entire zones of “new industrialization” appear. - poles of economic growth, spreading their influence to nearby regions.

Based on regional characteristics, NIS can be classified into:

Asian (Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Philippines, India, Thailand).

Latin American (Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Chile). Latin American NIS differ in many ways from Asian ones.

These differences are presented in table. 1.

Essential differences between the two types of NIS

Asian NISLatin American NISExtrovertive typeIntrovertive typeThe policy of import substitution and export-orientation is balanced, although some countries are characterized by economic development with a primary focus on the foreign market, on exports (Hong Kong, Singapore - exclusively export-oriented). Entrepreneurial capital was directed mainly to manufacturing and primary industries. A wider range of sources of development financing has emerged. Labor-intensive enterprises were created to produce mass consumer products. This policy presupposes protectionism, lack of competition from foreign companies, and cheap loans. The import substitution policy does not contribute to a radical change in the role of developing countries in the world economy. Entrepreneurial capital was directed into trade, the service sector, and the manufacturing industry. They have more powerful economic potential compared to East Asian NIS. The main emphasis is on the development of material-intensive and capital-intensive industries in the manufacturing and mining industries.

An analysis of Table 1 allows us to understand that Asian NIS (extroverted development type) are more focused on external sources and are more open to the world community than Latin American NIS (introverted development path), which are focused mainly on internal sources of self-development. This, in part, reflects the high degree of natural resource endowment characteristic of this group of countries.

Although Latin American and Asian NIS developed in different ways, using different development models, they have common features: high growth rates were achieved in both NIS due to the high rate of accumulation, the use of modern technologies, and high labor productivity. These growth functions were accomplished through a combination of market initiatives, government regulation, and entrepreneurship.

Depending on the level of per capita income, the NIS can be divided as follows:

with a high level of income (Singapore, South Korea: more than 9 thousand dollars per year);

with an average level of income (Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Chile: $750 - $8.5 thousand per year);

with a low level of development (Taiwan, Hong Kong, India: less than $750 per year).

Based on the degree of openness to the world market (share of exports in GNP), NIS are differentiated into the following groups:

Countries with closed economies (share of exports in GNP less than 10%): Argentina, Brazil.

Countries with relatively closed economies (the share of exports in GNP is more than 10-19%): Mexico, India.

Countries with semi-open economies (the share of exports in GNP is more than 20-24%): Turkey, Cyprus.

Countries with relatively open economies (the share of exports in GNP is more than 25-34%): Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indonesia.

Countries with open economies (share of exports in GNP more than 35%): Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Tunisia, Philippines.

However, along with positive indicators, there are, just as before, problems based on the economy, although not as pronounced as forty years ago.

The most acute problem of developing countries at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. external debt remains. The leakage of national income in the form of interest on external debt leads to a decrease in the rate of economic growth, the development of inflationary processes and, consequently, to an aggravation of the debt burden, a decrease in the standard of living of a significant part of the population and an increase in social and political instability. Most developing countries in the 80s and 90s found themselves unable to service their external debts. The fall in prices for oil, which continued until the second half of 1999, and for other raw materials, as well as the lack of an internal mechanism for modernizing the most backward economies, negated efforts to overcome the debt crisis of developing countries. The problem of external debt is aggravated by mistakes in the domestic policies of developing countries.

Political instability in a number of countries leads to the flight of national capital from them; as a result, a significant part of external debts is spent on replacing the national capital leaving these countries and on the implementation of ambitious projects of the ruling regimes. So, in 1970-1988. African countries received more than $300 billion in foreign aid, but most of these funds went to the construction of airports, new capitals, office buildings and the purchase of weapons. But the size of this assistance for some countries, for example, Tanzania, ranges from 3 to 5 times their GNP. Due to the irrational use of a significant share of financial resources by developing countries, the attitude of developed countries towards providing financial assistance to the third world began to change. In recent years, the amount of this assistance has been decreasing.

At the turn of the millennium, uncontrolled processes of destruction of the natural environment became significant in developing countries, which can become not only the cause of political instability in many regions of the world, but also a source of environmental and epidemiological danger for the entire population of the Earth.

The population explosion in developing countries, due to the overcoming of mass hunger and improved nutrition as a result of the acquisition of national independence, led to a sharp increase in the population in these countries. As a result, their share in the total population of the Earth has grown over the past half century from 2/3 to 4/5. As a result of population growth, the area of ​​agricultural land per capita and the intensity of land cultivation are reduced, and this leads to the depletion of soil fertility, a reduction in productivity and the removal of lands from agricultural use, turning them into deserts and semi-deserts.

The movement of environmentally hazardous industries from developed to developing countries is accompanied by pollution of the soil, water and atmosphere. The use of coal and other low-efficiency energy sources leads to an increased content of carbon dioxide in the planet's atmosphere, which is one of the most important causes of global warming.

Many developing countries are involved in the production of substances that contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer in the Earth's atmosphere.

2.2 General characteristics of the countries of the four “dragons”

Asia is the largest continent in the modern world with an area of ​​about 45 million square meters. km and a population of more than 3 billion people. There are about 50 independent states on the mainland. Until recently, Asia was one of the most unstable regions in the modern world. Throughout the turbulent 20th century. Many wars have raged here, dozens of revolutions, military coups, uprisings, and putschs have taken place.

Politically, Asian countries comprise a complex mix of democratic and authoritarian regimes.

Most developing countries in Asia were until recently dominated by authoritarian regimes. Power was based on three main political institutions: the state, inherited from the colonialists and exercising strict centralized control of society; one-party system (in most cases, a single party was created from above by national leaders to gain public support); an army that, as a result of frequent military coups, established the power of army circles and removed civilian leaders from leadership. Subsequently, a number of states began to move towards establishing the principles of a democratic system. This was facilitated by global trends in political development.

The countries of the four “dragons” are a model with a mixed regime of government, representing a kind of symbiosis of authoritarianism with liberal multi-party systems, where the dominant political forces, using the Western model of an open market economy in close economic interaction with Japan, the USA and Western Europe, created a modern base, began the process evolution of political regimes along the path of their democratization.

As a result of the collapse of the world colonial system in the post-war years, many independent states appeared on the political map. Many of them chose a socialist model following the example of the USSR as the basis for their development, but most of these countries continued their formational development within the framework of the capitalist system, which received an additional socio-economic base.

The growing process of differentiation of developing states, due to the law of uneven economic development, has led to the identification of a special group of countries and territories - “new industrial countries” (NICs), or “new industrial economies” (NIEs). Until recently, four “Asian tigers” were classified as the newly industrialized countries (NICs) of Asia - the Republic of Korea (South Korea), Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Now they are often called the “first wave” NIS, and the newly industrialized countries of the “second wave” include Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia.

However, each country has its own characteristics.

Singapore

Singapore, an island just 25 miles long and 14 wide, has made the most impressive economic progress over two decades, with average growth of almost 9% per year. This country has the highest savings rate in the world - 42%. GDP and the highest per capita income in Asia (except Japan and Brunei), it is higher than in Spain, Ireland or Italy. The share of foreign trade turnover in GNP is also the highest in the world. In 1984, Singapore overtook Rotterdam to become the world's largest port.

Singapore's economy is based on oil trading, refining and transportation, and a relatively small manufacturing industry. At the same time, there has been a trend toward increased concentration in the manufacturing industry, which has enabled the country to enter markets for capital-intensive products.

The country's Prime Minister constantly raises productivity issues in his speeches: "Productivity is the only thing that will give us the opportunity to survive."

Singaporeans believe that their future depends on well-trained workers, more and better machines, and a good work ethic - people's willingness to work hard.

Hong Kong also consistently shows 8-9% economic growth per year. Now it is the third financial center in the world - after New York and London and a country with thriving trade (180% of GDP), banks, communications network, maritime transport

We can highlight textile, light industry, as well as electronics, toy production and electrical engineering. Heavy industry is practically undeveloped.

Hong Kong's strength lies in its open markets, free enterprise spirit, lack of restrictions on trade and encouragement of overseas investment. Its future in the world is directly related to how the system of relations with China will develop after 1997.

Hong Kong and Singapore are trading nations. Taiwan and South Korea are producing.

A common joke in Taiwan is that one in eight Taiwanese sits on a corporate board of directors.

This highlights the fact that most Taiwanese companies are small private firms (Taiwan has 50,000 manufacturing plants - 10 times more than South Korea), seriously diluted by foreign capital. Taiwan is one of the fastest growing and most export-oriented countries in the world. About 50% of GNP is dependent on exports, 48% of which came from the United States in 1984. In 1985, the United States imported as many goods from Taiwan as it did from Germany. And despite its small size, Taiwan has huge foreign exchange reserves - $62 billion - more than Japan.

Taiwan is rapidly moving from producing textiles, toys and shoes to producing goods that require a higher level of technology, such as cars. Ford, Nissan and Mitsubishi Motors have already invested in this industry. In the future, Taiwan aims to move to the production of high-tech products. In 1980, the first technopolis was founded, in which 59 companies operate in advanced areas of scientific and technological progress. 100 thousand of the most capable graduates of Taiwanese universities were sent to the United States to continue their education. 10 thousand of them have already received doctoral degrees, mainly in the natural sciences.

Taiwan has earned fame as one of the pioneers in the introduction of land benefits as a form of business incentives - the creation of special economic zones and scientific and industrial parks (SIPs). The largest scientific and industrial enterprise in the newly industrialized countries of Asia is located in Taiwan. It was founded in 1980 in the town of Xinchu, 70 kilometers from Taipei.

The following are based in the park:

0Research Institute of Industrial Technology;

0United Microelectronics Development Corporation.

0Research0institute0ofelectronics.

Taiwan has already become a significant force in US markets and will continue to increase production of high-margin products in the future. However, of the four countries mentioned, the most serious competitor for both the United States and Japan is South Korea.

South Korea

Many Americans have a picture of South Korea as a poor country still suffering from the effects of several wars, a country where poorly educated, poorly paid, but hardworking people live in overcrowded slums and shacks.

This untrue image arose largely from memories of Korea after the Second World War. Many Americans remember that Koreans were forced to eat tree bark to survive in 1945-1946, and Seoul was a pile of broken bricks. As recently as 1961, its per capita GNP was about $93. The country that once declared rice its staple food now challenges both the United States and Japan in the production of cars, steel, televisions, VCRs, computers and semiconductors.

"Koreans break into the house through the wall, apparently forgetting about the door," says Paul Rossel, director of international planning for DuPont. “We look at South Korea like Japan did 15 years ago,” says Denis Root, director of Chrysler Korea. “Who would have said 15 years ago that Japan could challenge the United States?”

Thus, we can see that the newly industrialized countries have taken their advancement quite seriously, both in the world economy and in industry and economics. The NIS countries, thanks to their hard work and desire for the cherished goal, have become almost on a par with developed countries, and in some cases even surpass them.

III. REPUBLIC OF KOREA: PATHWAYS TO PROSPERITY

3.1 Political, economic and social development of the Republic of Korea

The “new industrial countries” were a real sensation in the second half of the 20th century. Having occupied a significant place in the global division of labor and taken the leading position among national innovation companies, South Korea simply cannot help but attract attention. The experience of South Korea is all the more interesting at the end of the 20th century, when many countries of the former USSR are trying to occupy a certain niche in the global economy.

The history of the development of South Korea is very interesting - a country that has achieved such high rates of economic growth that it has received the nickname one of asian tigers or asian dragons . The following factors played a decisive role in this:

1.economic, that is, the presence in the basis of society of a certain minimum of elements of the capitalist structure;

.political - the authorities’ implementation of policies to promote economic growth;

.socio-cultural - a combination of traditional and Western cultures.

Let's consider the role of political structures in ensuring economic development. The new industrial version of the development of capitalism is currently, perhaps, the most effective of all known in modern world politics. South Korea (a former colony) managed, on a capitalist basis, to overcome its socio-economic underdevelopment in a historically short time and reach the level of developed capitalism.

One of the main conditions for this process was that the authorities carry out skillful political regulation. As Friedrich Engels noted, ... the effect of state power on economic development can be of three types. It can act in the same direction - then development goes faster; it can act against economic development - then... it collapses after a certain period of time; or it may hinder economic development in a certain direction and push it in another direction. This case comes down, in the end, to the first of the previous ones. . Engels' observation works and in relation to South Korea. Forced capitalist modernization began in this country after an authoritarian regime came to power and intensified the development of the policy of state capitalism, achieving maximum effect. Moreover, the establishment of an authoritarian regime gave the capitalist development of society not only acceleration, but also an irreversible character.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Korea was a backward country in all spheres: political, economic and social. As a result, it was occupied by Japan, which exploited Korea and did not care about the development of the Korean state. During the thirty-six years of Japanese occupation, Korean industry developed poorly; the country was only a supplier of raw materials and agricultural products for the Japanese economy. The usual system of dependence was established between the economies of the metropolis and the colonial appendage.

After the Second World War, the country was freed from Japanese rule. By agreement between the participants in the anti-Hitler coalition, Korea was divided into two zones of responsibility - Soviet to the north and American to the south of the 38th parallel. Each force held separate elections in its area of ​​responsibility. The power of an authoritarian government led by Syngman Rhee, who had lived in America for many years before, was established in the South. On August 15, 1945, the Republic of Korea was proclaimed with its capital in Seoul.

After the split of the country into two parts, long-established ties were destroyed, which led to even greater disorganization of economic life. As a result of the artificial division, South Korea almost lost such important industries as metallurgy, chemicals, and cement. At the same time, 76.8% of the light, 60.7% of the food and 68% of the woodworking industries were concentrated in the south. However, these industries were cut off from the main sources of fuel and electricity supplies located in the North. The primary task during this period was the reorganization of the legal and social systems, so economic development was not given due attention.

From the moment of liberation from Japanese rule in 1945 until the mid-50s, a period of war and chaos continued, but it was during this time that the foundation was laid for the industrialization of Korea through the creation of a “free market economic system” based on the denationalization of the capital left by Japan after its defeat in the second world war. It made up about 80% of the southern part of the peninsula, with 13% of this capital coming from agriculture, approximately 90% of business and 97% of large corporations in the same category.

The Panmunjom Armistice Agreement concluded on June 27, 1953, provided for a complete cessation of hostilities and all hostile acts in Korea until a final peace settlement.7 In accordance with this agreement, a demarcation line more than 250 km long was drawn between the north and south. For the entire period of the truce, the introduction of new military contingents to the Korean Peninsula, as well as the supply of military equipment, was prohibited. Immediately after this, the real economic development of South Korea begins. And today it is quickly turning into a highly developed industrial power.

Experience newly industrialized countries shows that the optimal form of political superstructure for the development of capitalism is centralization, authoritarianization of state power, which was observed in South Korea. The regime of Syngman Rhee (1948 - 1960), which came to power immediately after the Second World War, was not very democratic and used harsh repressive measures along with reforms. But at the same time, the ruling regime of this state demonstrated an understanding of what could be conditionally defined as development philosophy , that is, awareness of the integrity of society as an organism that does not obey purely volitional dictates.

In the process of development, the government of the Republic of Korea managed to avoid a number of mistakes made by many developing countries - overestimating the role of industrialization to the detriment of agriculture, the priority of heavy industry over light industry, and others. In other words, the peculiarity of the economic strategy of this country, in fact, lies in maintaining the sequence of transition from one stage of economic development to another, so that each step along this path, in terms of accumulated capital, preparation of labor infrastructure, etc., prepares the next .

After the end of the war, a plan to promote the South Korean economy was developed in Seoul with the help of the United States. The United States provided about $1.5 billion in subsidies and “development loans” between 1954 and 1959 (loans amounted to $12.4 million). This money was mainly spent on the purchase of American food and consumer goods, only a small part went to restore the production infrastructure of industry and agriculture. However, in the early post-war years, American aid contributed to a relatively rapid economic recovery. The average annual growth rate of GNP in 1954 - 1958 was 5.2%, and the manufacturing industry doubled its production over these years.

The restructuring of the national economy could not take place without significant inflation. The South Korean government paid great attention to this problem, since price instability undermined the country's economy and led to instability in living standards, non-competitiveness of Korean goods and political instability.
In order to increase government revenues, the tax law was changed: the principle of firmly balancing the budget was introduced by increasing wages for civil servants and turning communications services, railways and state monopolies into independent profitable organizations. The commercial bank proposed to adhere to the “principle of lending on deposits.” The monetary reform carried out in February 1953 was also aimed at reducing inflation. It provided that all money and means of payment would be deposited in banks within nine days after the law was issued, and new banknotes would become the only payment document in the country. Monetary units were exchanged in a ratio of one to one hundred. And the reform yielded positive results.

The focus of the Syngman Rhee regime on American imports also had a significant negative effect - domestic industry did not develop. Gradually the situation of the workers worsened. By the beginning of 1958, the number of unemployed and semi-unemployed was about 4.3 million.

In 1960, as a result of an uprising of those dissatisfied with the actions of the authorities, the Democratic Party, which had previously been in opposition, came to power, whose leader Yun Bo-sung became the first president (1960 - 1961). In fact, some political liberalization has not been accompanied by economic development. Social tension has not disappeared. As a result, a new change of power occurs. The military regime of Park Chung Hee (1961 - 1979) comes to rule the country.

The new governing elite did not differ fundamentally from its predecessors, but at the same time, the Park Chung Hee administration chose a new strategy for economic development - the main goals were to encourage private initiative and strengthen the national private capitalist structure. Their achievement became possible due to the formation of a capitalist economy management system, which meant the introduction of state regulation of economic management. Five-year development plans became an integral part of economic policy. It should be noted that they were never of a directive nature in South Korea, although the government had sufficient leverage over the economy.

Thus, South Korea avoided absoluteization of the role of the public sector of the economy.

At the early stage of development, the role of the public sector was to create social and economic prerequisites for the formation of an effective and flexible economic organism and for the development of national enterprises. The state took care of the creation and development of industries that contained the basis for further development, the monopolization of which by the private sector could have undesirable social and economic consequences. At the same time, private entrepreneurs were given the opportunity to operate in areas where high production efficiency, flexibility and dynamism were required. Thus, the government retained ownership of railways, electricity sources, water supplies, roads and ports.

As a result, the government and private sectors had clear boundaries, and a “free market economic system” was firmly established, which had a great influence on the development of the country. In order to support small businesses, an industrial bank was also created in 1961, providing card loans to small and medium-sized entrepreneurs at a relatively small interest rate.

A number of events were carried out to improve the situation in the agricultural sector. Thus, the ruling group freed peasants from paying debts at usurious interest rates, adopted a program to stabilize prices for agricultural products, increased the percentage of payments on bank deposits, which also stimulated the influx of available funds into banks and made it easier to obtain loans, and other similar measures were taken.

The development of light industry ensured the saturation of the domestic market with goods previously imported from abroad, and then made it possible to move on to their export. Thus, the basis was prepared for the industrialization of the country and the implementation of the slogans of the economic revolution: the creation of an independent economy was proclaimed in South Korea in the early 60s.

Since 1960, industrialization has been called the only way to save the South Korean economy from the vicious circle of poverty. Due to the limited size of the domestic market and the chronic shortage of foreign exchange, the government increased the growth potential of the economy through export orientation, thereby seeking to accelerate the process of industrialization. For this purpose, short- and long-term financing of export firms was carried out using the export financial support system. Short-term export financing, carried out from 1948 to the present day, has created a basis for export investments. This system provides loans to obtain the necessary funds for the production of export products.

As the country's economy industrialized, the export structure improved, and the need arose to support exports through deferred payments. This led to the creation of the Export-Import Bank in 1976, which implemented a system of long-term export assistance based on deferred payments. Tax policy also provided support for exports: the government provided partial discounts on income taxes on foreign capital, and a customs tariff reimbursement system was introduced.

The introduction of foreign capital into the South Korean economy greatly contributed to the modernization of technology, since, by making capital investments, foreign firms also transferred new technologies.

In the 80s, South Korea entered a period of more stable, evolutionary development. Economic stabilization is determined by political stabilization: the need to maintain the authoritarian nature of governance has disappeared. There was a gradual political liberalization of the ruling regime. Under the pressure of forced changes in the economic and social basis, the very form of public administration evolved from authoritarianism towards a bourgeois-democratic system.

At this new stage of development, the issue of scientific and technological potential and the economic possibility of its use becomes crucial. South Korea has the broadest prospects in this regard; it is already a leader in new-industrial region in terms of production of high-tech products. The government is doing its best to promote the development of its scientific and technical potential, expanding cooperation with developed capitalist countries. Schools and universities are closely connected with research institutes.

Let's consider the synthesis of traditional and Western cultures as a factor in social development.

Power alone could not have played such an important role in pushing South Korea to the forefront of the world economy. An important and necessary condition for this process was the consolidation of society around the ruling political structure, trust and the transfer of emergency powers to it.

First of all, we should talk about the role of Confucian culture in the social development of South Korea. There is no complete consensus among researchers on the nature of the impact of this cultural tradition on the path of modernization of Eastern societies.

Confucianism, with its paternalistic relations, which extended not only at the family level, but also to industrial relations, recognition of consanguinity in social relations, and rules of inheritance, hampered the economic development of South Korea, preventing the formation of modern structures of commercial and industrial relations. But on the other hand, it welcomed the strict fulfillment of its duties, painstakingness and determination, kindness and mutual assistance, which could not but have a positive impact on the development of the economy. Over time, under the influence of Western ideology and moral standards, the entire system of Confucian views began to change. This influence led to the emergence of one of the most important elements of modern industrial civilization - the human factor, which ensured the country's access to advanced economic frontiers.

Due to the growing economic power of South Korea in the 60s and 70s, the internal evolution of Confucianism began. Factors of Western - Protestant culture began to influence him. The system of social views has changed towards even greater humanization, and now South Korea ranks first among the NIS in terms of its economic development.

The experience of the Republic of Korea shows that preserving the historical, ethnocultural, philosophical roots of society, ensuring the continuity of its spiritual development. They play an important role in creating favorable socio-political conditions for carrying out structural changes and restructuring of society.

On the other hand, the preservation of ethnocultural roots and the spiritual continuity of society allow it to realize its identity, unity and interconnection of various social groups. This allowed the South Korean authorities to develop an economic development strategy that meets the real needs and capabilities of society, free from the dominance of purely ideological factors and based primarily on considerations of economic feasibility.

Currently, the slowdown in global economic growth and the fall in exports in 2001<#"justify">3.2 Problems in management and ways to resolve them

South Korea's rapid industrialization has attracted widespread attention. Many researchers believe that success would not have been possible without the active participation of a strong bureaucracy. The country was able to develop its economy so quickly not only thanks to adequate political leadership, but also to the participation of bureaucrats who acted as “agents of change.”

However, at present, doubts have arisen regarding the country's further development opportunities. Some believe that South Korea's economy has already peaked. A natural consequence of rapid growth is a number of problems that were ignored at the beginning and now hinder further progress. This is, first of all, the growing tension between the personnel and management of enterprises, the uneven distribution of income between regions, the haves and the have-nots, the increase in the cost of living, the lag in infrastructure development, problems related to the environment and quality of life.

In the course of moving towards democracy, the country also faced a number of other problems - the insufficiently strong position of political leaders, political instability, poor organization of citizen participation in governance, the growing influence of groups with specific interests, low professionalism in public administration, etc. In the field of foreign relations, South Korea found itself under pressure faced by states occupying an intermediate position between developed and developing countries. Its advantages derived from a well-trained and cheap labor force are quickly disappearing as it must now compete with developed countries.

Objectively speaking, the country's growth over the last 40 years has been driven by a strong bureaucracy. But another hypothesis can be put forward, according to which South Korea's economic development would be more thorough with more complete democracy.

To ensure development in the new conditions, it is necessary to restructure the state-controlled economy. In the newly industrialized countries, including South Korea, the original "managed economy" model has been rebuilt, and government involvement in regulation and the number of enterprises it subsidizes has been reduced.

In South Korea, the prospects for further development are widely discussed (at least implicitly), especially with regard to governance and the role of the state. As for public administration, many Korean scholars agree that the old bureaucratic model is not able to solve new problems and does not meet the requirements of the era of democracy and globalization. Therefore, the options for the proposed reforms reflect a trend towards market orientation, reduction of government regulation, privatization, narrowing of government functions, increased public participation in management, etc.

This raises the question: is the South Korean government sufficiently prepared to absorb ideas brought from outside and what should be the preconditions for stimulating reform sentiments, as well as for generating new ideas in a country in the process of transformation.

South Korea faces a twofold challenge: first, it needs to strengthen democracy; secondly, transform the state bureaucracy. In principle, the infrastructure of effective public administration must not only include democratic elements, but also determine the possibility of effective governance. In most democratic countries, this is ensured by the high professionalism of government officials, political neutrality (administrative autonomy) and the representative composition of the administration. In addition, three more elements are needed - an innovative climate, administrative transparency and cultural interaction. Administrative professionalism is defined here as specialized knowledge, ability to process information, innovation and efficiency. Professional knowledge refers to the level of preparedness and qualifications of a public manager. Information processing competence depends on the official's willingness and ability to collect and analyze data to effectively manage programs and disseminate the resulting information. Innovativeness in public administration includes the ability to absorb new policies and technologies to expand management capabilities. Finally, effectiveness reflects the relationship between the resources spent on implementing programs and the results obtained.

South Korea has many chronic problems, including unhealthy competition between large corporations and small businesses, general destructiveness of competition, monopolism, etc. New problems also emerged, including a weak banking system and an influx of illegal immigrants. The bureaucracy needs professionals to effectively solve these problems.

In South Korea, a number of large social programs to ensure the welfare of the population have been legislatively approved, which will apparently expand. But, according to Western experts, such problems cannot be solved by increasing or decreasing appropriations, creating new state bureaucratic structures or “privatizing” the functions of existing ones. To make public administration effective, it must be radically rethought.

Administrative autonomy means that experts make decisions for the consequences of which they bear full responsibility, while maintaining relative neutrality when political leadership changes. This autonomy creates a creative environment for the public administrator and makes it easier to experiment with new ideas.

Administrative autonomy is important for the rationalization of the entire public administration system for the following reasons:

administrative stability is closely related to political stability;

a few major innovations cannot compensate for even a small mistake in public administration; this makes administrators extremely conservative;

innovation is a process that occurs both vertically (“top-down”) in the organizational structure and horizontally between management levels.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized once again that South Korea, like many developing countries, is burdened with a double burden: on the one hand, it needs to improve the democratic system, and on the other, it needs to reform the bureaucratic apparatus. At first glance, these goals seem to be mutually exclusive. However, they need to be combined, brought into a single whole, in order to create an autonomous and effective management system that would be open to the participation of broad sections of the population and would respond in a timely manner to changes in the situation.

IV. NEW INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES OF ASIA IN THE WORLD ECONOMY

4.1 The possibility of the Russian Federation applying the experience of South Korea

The phenomenon of East Asian capitalism (or NICs - Newly Industrialized Countries) is a particularly interesting phenomenon. These states, namely Japan, the Asian “tigers”, the most prominent representative of which is South Korea, and now China, have managed to achieve impressive economic success in a relatively short period of time and enter the elite of the world economy. And the path of South Korea is one of the most successful, acceptable from the point of view of using this experience in Russia.

The leadership of Japan, which gave the export-oriented economy model a start in life, has largely been left behind. The country of the “rising sun”, having survived the deep financial crisis of the 90s, took a very long time to get out of it. The Chinese model, although based on constant innovative growth and the industrial revolution, has many costs that are hardly acceptable for Russia. These are the low cost of accessible and mass labor, its high exploitation, low degree of social guarantees (the pension system does not apply to the bulk of the population - the peasantry), lack of political reforms, outdated ideological platform, and the highest environmental costs.

In less than 40 years, since the early 60s, the country has made an unprecedented breakthrough from one of the most backward agricultural countries to the highest orbits of the world economy. South Korea has become one of the world leaders in the automotive, shipbuilding, steel industries, production of household appliances and electronics. The country was able to build world-famous “chaebols” such as Samsung, LG and Hyundai practically from scratch, and a little later approached the active development of medium and small businesses.

Based on the results for 2009, the GDP of South Korea at purchasing power parity is about 1,356 billion dollars (14th place in the world), the economic growth rate is 0.2%, inflation is 2.8%. GDP per capita is $28,000 per person.

South Korea successfully passed the stage of the Park Chung-hee regime, certainly innovative, but still dictatorial, and was able to move on to a fairly developed democracy and modern market ideology. What is especially important is that the country was able to quickly overcome the severe consequences of the financial crisis of 1997-1998 and confirm the competitiveness of its economy.

Both South Korea and China have a new market economy - market enterprises were not created through privatization, but were built from scratch. In our country, on the contrary, everyone rushed to privatize the remnants of a great power - the USSR. But, in fact, no large new enterprises have been created, especially in industrial production. This is precisely why Russia cannot compare with either China or South Korea. Here, a lot depends on the personality of the company’s founder, and there is a big difference between privatization and creating a new business. Most of the creators of new innovative companies that entered the elite of world business were great creators who went through the most difficult path to realizing their plans. Our business owners have so far distinguished themselves only by being able to preserve and increase the old, but they have not yet reached the point of creating world-class innovative products.

Of course, our state is now making certain attempts and steps to follow the path of South Korea. In his message, V.V. Putin announced the development of the shipbuilding industry. Interesting joint projects have emerged for the construction of civil aircraft based on the Sukhoi concern. Both Putin and Medvedev confirmed their course towards the development of an innovative economy. But we are still very far from South Korea.

Although the successes of the Russian economy are great, they are still relative. And all because the efficiency of our economy is extremely low. According to the results of the first quarter of 2010, in terms of GDP growth (2.9%) and industrial production growth (5.8%), Russia came in second place among the G8 countries, second only to Japan.

However, our country, with a population of 140 million people and the largest territory in the world, cannot produce the same volume of products as relatively small states. In terms of the efficiency of our economy, the simplest of which is the level of GDP per person (more precisely, GDP/number of employees), we rank in 2006 at a low 81st place with a result of $12,100 per person. Even former parts of the USSR like Latvia and Lithuania have a much higher level - $15,400. So if we want to build a highly developed economy, we need to have higher ambitions in the future. And if we have a Russian economic miracle, i.e. the average economic growth rate will be about 9%, which is quite achievable; by 2030, the Russian Federation could easily reach 4th place in the world.

What does our insane raw material wealth mean to us? Yes, on the one hand, this is our competitive advantage. But on the other hand... It was precisely this that allowed the inefficient economy of the USSR to stand for a very long time, and now it “helps” us. All the great industrial Asian countries - Japan, South Korea, China - had one drawback that became their advantage - poverty of raw materials and a significant population. This is what helped push them onto the only possible path - the path of creating innovative material values, i.e. industrial products of world-class quality. So why is the flow of petrodollars not yet flowing into innovative industries? The answer is simple - it is not always profitable for the national bourgeoisie to follow an innovative path - this requires the political will of the state. And judging by the Putin-Medvedev plan, it has now appeared.

There is a certain myth that we Russians are not as hard-working as the Germans, Chinese and Koreans. Indeed, we cannot yet boast of the traditions of private entrepreneurship, which were carefully destroyed during Soviet times. At the same time, look at South and North Korea. Here are two identical peoples, but located in different economic and political systems. Alas, North Korea (with a GDP of 40 billion dollars - 30 times less and a growth rate of 1%) is in complete poverty compared to South Korea and cannot amaze the world with anything. Thus, the main thing is not the original mentality of the nation, but the presence of conditions for the development of an effective market system that allows it to “manifest.” But this is not even the main thing. Everything is very banal - it’s just that development begins only in those countries where the authorities set development goals. There are no such tasks - nothing will change.

In countries where the market is just emerging, you can wait 30-40 years for market forces to mature to such an extent that massive progress begins, or you may not. In this case, the role of creator, pushing the market in the right direction, will be perfectly performed by an enlightened and active state. We had Peter I the Great, who decided to make Russia a world power, so the country developed, albeit under severe pressure, but there were so many achievements! There was Alexander III, who cared about the greatness of the country, economic growth mechanisms were created - the country began to develop successfully. Joseph Stalin wanted to make the USSR the strongest state - yes, there were many mistakes and “excesses,” but he achieved his goal.

However, our time is completely different now, we need to work not under pressure, not repeat the numerous mistakes of the past, but create economic, financial and legal mechanisms that allow people to work normally, develop, create a business, get loans, build housing. To achieve these goals, the state must become more purposeful and effective, enlightened and rational, defending national interests, not “clan” ones. Putin’s plan set the task of radically improving people’s well-being and making the country a world leader - and using the best world experience will not hurt us (which also includes the experience of South Korea).

Thus, our country should still try and try to begin to change our economy, using for this the experiences of world powers, as well as the countries of the four “dragons” of Asia. Which, thanks to their efforts, have come forward, and are already stepping on the heels of the developed countries of the World.

CONCLUSION

Among the new and most important trends in social development of the twentieth century, which changed the face of the globe, was the emergence among developing states newly industrialized countries . Developing dynamically, they were able to provide industrial products not only to domestic markets, but also took active positions in the global division of labor. Newly industrialized countries have only their own characteristics. The leading industry of almost all NIS has become the export-oriented manufacturing industry.

In the three main sections of the course work, I tried to provide detailed information about the concepts, classifications, problems and prospects for the development of NIS, as well as the economic and political development of the countries of the four Asian “dragons”.

In my opinion, the experience of the “economic miracle” of the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan is very interesting. Over the past half century, backward agricultural Asian countries have been able to achieve breathtaking economic growth and become one of the richer and more civilized states.

The successes achieved in the development of NIS and their integration into the world economy allow us to say with confidence that the prospects for economic growth, improving the standard of living of the people and increasing the foreign economic expansion of these countries are quite favorable. In the 21st century, they will occupy higher places in the global economic hierarchy and demonstrate new significant results.

Thus, we can see that the newly industrialized countries have taken their advancement quite seriously, both in the world economy and in industry and economics. The countries of the four Asian “dragons”, thanks to their hard work and desire for the cherished goal, have become almost on a par with developed countries, and in some cases even surpass them. The pace of economic development of most NIS significantly exceeds those of many developed countries. In the production of certain types of industrial products, including knowledge-intensive ones, NIS have taken leading positions in the capitalist economy. It was this circumstance that determined their unusually accelerated growth.

Among them, South Korea demonstrated the most stunning results, attracting special attention. Jerk The economic development of South Korea was carried out under strict government control. Currently, there is some liberalization of the economy and political structures in the country. In the 90s, under Kim Yong Sam, democratic power was firmly established in the Republic of Korea, but the state still clearly manages the economy and skillfully directs the development of national industry.

Of course, without financial support from the United States in the initial stages of the formation of the modern Korean economy, it is difficult to imagine its current state. However, the government’s economic strategy is very important, aimed at developing knowledge-intensive, competitive industries, supporting the development of large industrial and economic associations-conglomerates, coupled with the traditional industriousness of the Asian peoples.

As we can see, now South Korea is a major global manufacturer of various high-tech industries, manufactured products, etc. Everyone knows Korean Hyundai cars, Samsung, Daewoo, LG televisions, household appliances, automobile oils and much more. The Republic of Kazakhstan is also widely known in the world as the largest manufacturer of sea vessels and special port equipment.

In 1997 - 1998, the Republic of Korea suffered significantly from the crisis. In the West, at first, this was perceived with glee, but, as it turned out, the crisis was global and affected many countries. This once again confirms that the “newly industrialized countries” of Asia, including South Korea, have become active participants in the world economy.
Currently in South Korea, which has suffered from the crisis since 2008-2010. Urgent measures are being taken to revive the economy and restore economic growth. Then, taking into account the lessons of the crisis, new development strategies will be formed. Within their framework, there will be a reassessment of values. But it is unlikely that South Korea will blindly copy someone else's experience. Also, it is worth emphasizing once again that South Korea, like many developing countries, is burdened with a double burden: on the one hand, it needs to improve the democratic system, and on the other, to reform the bureaucratic apparatus. At first glance, these goals seem to be mutually exclusive. However, they need to be combined, brought into a single whole, in order to create an autonomous and effective management system that would be open to the participation of broad sections of the population and would respond in a timely manner to changes in the situation.

Without allowing high rates of inflation, they began to create conditions for the influx of financial resources not only through official assistance, but also through transfers from their citizens working abroad and even foreign direct investment. Thus, even the most backward regions of the world community are gradually beginning to overcome their seemingly hopeless backwardness.

Of course, Russia’s trade turnover with this country is significantly less than with, say, China or Japan. This is largely due to the fact that China is a country with a huge working-age population and a fairly friendly policy towards the development of business activity. Japan has been holding first place in the world in the field of commodity exchange and trade for many years. But the South Korean economy is gaining momentum and, despite some economic decline and crises of recent years, has every chance of taking first place among the country's trading partners.

LIST OF SOURCES AND REFERENCES USED

1.Avdokushin, E. F. International economic relations: Textbook. allowance. - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: ICC "Marketing", 2000. - 210 p.

2.Gladky, Yu.N. Economic and social geography of the world: Textbook. for 10th grade general education institutions / Yu.N. Gladky, S.B. Lavrov. - 6th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Education, 2000. - 286 p.

3.Zheltikov. V.P. Economic geography and regional studies: Textbook. allowance. - M.: Dashkov and K, 2010. - 420 p.

4.Izotov, D.A. Economic development of the newly industrialized countries of Asia: from crisis to crisis / D. A. Izotov, V. E. Kucheryavenko; Ross. acad. Sciences, Dalnevost. department, Institute of Economics. research - Khabarovsk: ARNO, 2009. - 121 p.

5.Kolesova, V.P. World economy. Economics of foreign countries: Textbook. for universities / ed. V. P. Kolesova, M. N. Osmova. - M.: Flinta, 2000. - 478 p.

6.Konotopov, M.V. History of the economy of foreign countries. / ed. M. V. Konotopov, S. I. Smetanin. - M.: Kontrus, 2010. - 368 p.

7.Lopatnikov, D.L. Economic geography and regional studies. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - 224 p.

8.Lukin, A. Russia and the two Koreas - problems and prospects.// No. 6. - M.: MEiMO, 2002. - 200 p.

9.Maksakovsky, V.P. New industrial countries of Asia // Geography at school, no. 4. - 2002. - 85 p.

10.Maksakovsky, V.P. Economic and social geography of the world: Textbook. for 10th grade - 17th ed. - M.: Education, 2009. - 397 p.

11.World Economy / ed. A.S. Bulatova. - M.: Economist, 2004. - 734 p.

12.Potapov, M.A. Economics of modern Asia: Textbook. for universities. / ed. M.A. Potapov, A.S. Salitsky, A.V. Shakhmatov. - M.: International relations, 2008. - 272 p.

13.Radzhabova, Z.K. World Economy: Textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Infra-M, 2002. - 320 p.

14.Shin Hyun Hwak. South Korea: a difficult path to prosperity // No. 5 Problems of the Far East. - M. - 1999. - 159 p.

15.Selishchev, A.S. Chinese economy in the twenty-first century. / ed. A.S. Selishchev, N.A. Selishchev. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. - 240 p.

16.Dictionary of economic, social and political geography: A manual for students. // state V.D. Sukhorukov. - M.: Education, 2003. - 92 p.

17.Suslina, S.S. Republic of Korea at the post-industrial stage of development (late 80s - early 90s) / revised. and additional - M.: Eastern literature, 2001. - 224 p.

18.Torkunov, A.V. History of Korea: Textbook. for universities. - M.: Russian Political Encyclopedia, 2003. - 430 p.

19.John Feffer, North Korea South Korea: U.S. Policy at a Time of Crisis (Russian translation). - Seven Stories Press, 2003. - 197 p.

.#"justify">. #"justify">.http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Page 3

The UN currently classifies approximately 60 countries in Europe, Asia, North America, Australia and Oceania as economically developed countries. All of them are characterized by a higher level of economic and social development and, accordingly, GDP per capita. However, this group of countries is characterized by quite significant internal heterogeneity and four subgroups can be distinguished within its composition.

The first subgroup is formed by the G7 countries (USA, Canada, UK, France, Japan, Germany and Italy). These leading countries of the Western world are distinguished by the largest scale of economic and political activity. They have a pronounced post-industrial economic structure and a high level of development of market relations. The G7 countries account for about 50% of the world's GNP and industrial production, over 25% of agricultural products, and their per capita GDP ranges from 20 to 30 thousand dollars.

The second subgroup includes smaller, but also highly developed countries of Western Europe (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, etc.). Despite the fact that the political and economic power of each of these countries is small, as a whole they play an ever-increasing role in world affairs. They actively participate in the global system of territorial division of labor. Most of them have the same GDP per capita as the G7 countries.

The third subgroup is formed by non-European countries - Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. These are former settler colonies of Great Britain that practically did not know feudalism. Currently, they are distinguished by some originality of political and economic development. Recently, Israel has also been included in this group.

The fourth subgroup is still in its formation stage. It was formed in 1997, after such Asian countries and territories as the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan were transferred to the category of economically developed countries. These states have come very close to other economically developed countries in terms of GDP per capita. They have a broad and diverse economic structure, including a rapidly growing service sector, and actively participate in global trade.

Developing countries include about 150 countries and territories, which together occupy more than half of the earth's land area and concentrate about 3/5 of the world's population. On the political map, these countries cover a vast belt stretching across Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania north and especially south of the equator. Some of them (Iran, Thailand, Ethiopia, Egypt, Latin American countries, etc.) had independence long before the Second World War. But most of them won independence only in the post-war period.

Developing countries can be divided into six subgroups.

The first subgroup is formed by key countries - India, Brazil and Mexico, which have very large natural, human and economic potential and in many respects are leaders of the developing world. These three countries produce almost as much industrial output as all other developing countries combined. But their per capita GDP is significantly lower than in economically developed countries.

The second subgroup includes some developing countries that have also reached a relatively high level of socio-economic development and have a per capita GDP indicator exceeding 1 thousand dollars. Most of these countries are in Latin America (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela, etc.), but they are also in Asia and North America.

The third subgroup includes newly industrialized countries (NICs), specializing in a number of labor-intensive manufacturing industries. In the 80s and 90s. XX century They made such a leap that they were nicknamed the “Asian Tigers.” The “first echelon” of such countries included the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. The “second echelon” usually includes Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia.

The fourth subgroup is formed by oil-exporting countries. Thanks to the influx of “petrodollars,” per capita GDP reaches from 10 to 20 thousand dollars. These are primarily the Gulf countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Iran), as well as Libya, Brunei and some other countries.

The fifth, largest, subgroup includes most of the “classical” developing countries. These are countries lagging behind in their development, with a per capita GDP of less than 1 thousand dollars. They are dominated by a rather backward mixed economy with strong feudal remnants. Most of these countries are in Africa, but they also exist in Asia and Latin America. This subgroup includes the states of concessional development of capitalism, which have become rich from the development of tourism (Jamaica, Bahamas, etc.).

Page 2

The UN currently classifies approximately 60 countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, Australia and Oceania as economically developed countries. All of them are distinguished by a higher level of economic and social development and, accordingly, gross domestic product per capita (over $5,000). However, this group of countries is characterized by quite significant internal heterogeneity and four subgroups can be distinguished within its composition. www.nextbanking.ru

The first of them is formed by the “Big Seven Western countries”, which includes the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy and Canada. These are the leading countries of the Western world, distinguished by the largest scale of economic and political activity.

The G7 countries account for about 50% of the world's gross national product and industrial production, and over 25% of agricultural production. Their per capita GDP ranges from 20 to 30 thousand dollars.

The second subgroup includes the smaller countries of Western Europe. Although the political and economic power of each of them is not so great, as a whole they play a large, ever-increasing role in world affairs. Most of them have the same GDP per capita as the G7 countries.

The third subgroup is formed by non-European countries - Australia, New Zealand and the Republic of South Africa (SA). These are former settler colonies (dominions) of Great Britain, which actually did not know feudalism, and even today they are distinguished by some originality of political and economic development. Israel is usually included in this group.

The fourth subgroup is still in its formation stage. It was formed in 1997, after such countries and territories of Asia as the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan were transferred to the category of economically developed ones. These states have come very close to other economically developed countries in terms of GDP per capita. They have a broad and diverse economic structure, including a rapidly growing service sector, and actively participate in global trade.

Developing countries include about 150 countries and territories, which together occupy more than half of the earth's land area and concentrate about 3/5 of the world's population. On the political map of the world, these countries cover a vast belt extending in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania north and especially south of the equator. Some of them (Iran, Thailand, Ethiopia, Egypt, Latin American countries and others) had independence long before the Second World War. But the majority won it in the post-war period.

The world of developing countries (when there was a division into the world socialist and capitalist systems, it was usually called the “third world”) is internally very heterogeneous, and this complicates the typology of the countries included in it. However, at least as a first approximation, developing countries can be divided into the following six subgroups.

The first of them is formed by the so-called key countries - India, Brazil and Mexico, which have very large natural, human and economic potential and in many respects are leaders of the developing world.

These three countries produce almost as much industrial output as all other developing countries combined. But their per capita GDP is significantly lower than in economically developed countries, and in India, for example, it is $350.

The second group includes some developing countries that have also achieved a relatively high level of socio-economic development and have a per capita GDP indicator exceeding 1 thousand dollars. Most of these countries are in Latin America (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela, etc.), but they are also in Asia and North Africa.

Political parties and party systems
One of the most important subjects of political relations in society are parties. They provide the key to understanding the fundamental principles of democracy, representation, political pluralism, the election of officials, and politics in general...

Theoretical models of the system of international relations and modernity.
In each individual period of time, a certain nature of interaction develops between the main participants in international relations. These relationships acquire a structure special for each period, which is usually called a system...

Election strategy of “United Russia”
The political regime in Russia during the presidency of Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin began to take shape after the creation of a large faction of the Unity bloc in the elections of deputies to the State Duma of the Russian Federation in 1999 and the formation of a majority in it...