Klyuchevsky course of lectures on Russian history. Literary and historical notes of a young technician

To the 175th anniversary of the birth

Proceedings of an outstanding Russian historian
Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911)
in the fund of rare and valuable documents
Pskov Regional Universal Scientific Library

“A peculiar creative mind and scientific inquisitiveness
united in it with a deep sense of historical reality
and with a rare gift for its artistic reproduction.

A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky

"Deep and subtle researcher of historical phenomena,
he himself has now become a complete historical phenomenon,
major historical fact of our mental life.

M. M. Bogoslovsky

Today it is difficult to imagine the study of national history without the works of Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky. His name is among the largest representatives of domestic historical science of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Contemporaries secured his reputation as a deep researcher, a brilliant lecturer, an inimitable master of the artistic word.

The scientific and pedagogical activity of Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky lasted about 50 years. The name of a brilliant and witty lecturer was widely popular among the intelligentsia and students.

Noting the significant contribution of the scientist to the development of historical science, the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1900 elected him an over-staff academician in the category of history and Russian antiquities, and in 1908 he became an honorary academician in the category of fine literature.

In recognition of the merits of the scientist in the year of the 150th anniversary of his birth, the International Center for Minor Planets assigned his name to planet No. 4560. In Penza, the first monument in Russia to V.O. memorial museum opened.

	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich. Legends of foreigners about the Moscow state / V. Klyuchevsky. - Moscow: Printing house of T-va Ryabushinsky, 1916. - 300 p. While studying at the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University, V. O. Klyuchevsky studied Russian history under the guidance of the largest Russian historian Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov and for his graduation essay "The legend of foreigners about the Muscovite state" was awarded a gold medal. The author, after conducting a detailed analysis of the documents, shows through the eyes of foreign observers the climatic features of the country, the economic employment of the urban and rural population, the leadership of the state in the person of the royal court, the maintenance of the army.
	Klyuchevsky, Vasily Osipovich. Boyar Duma of ancient Rus' / prof. V. Klyuchevsky. - Ed. 4th. - Moscow: A. I. Mamontov Printing House Partnership, 1909. -, VI, 548 p. - On tit. l.: All copyrights reserved. - Life time. ed. ed. In 1882, V. O. Klyuchevsky brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation on the topic "Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus'". His research covered the entire period of existence of the Boyar Duma from the Kievan Rus of the 10th century to the beginning of the 18th century, when it was replaced by the Government Senate. In his work, the scientist studied the social problems of society, highlighting the history of the boyars and the nobility as the ruling class.
	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich. History of estates in Russia: course, cheat. in Moscow. un-those in 1886 / prof. V. Klyuchevsky. - Ed. 2nd. - Moscow: Printing house of P. P. Ryabushinsky, 1914. - XVI, 276 p. - On tit. l.: All copyrights reserved. In 1880-1890. V. O. Klyuchevsky was most interested in the problem of social history. While lecturing, the scientist created an integral system of courses. The most famous was a special course "History of Estates in Russia", issued by him in the form of a lithograph in 1887. The text of the book has been reproduced from the original lecture notes, carefully reviewed and edited.

The main creative achievement of V. O. Klyuchevsky was the lecture "Course of Russian History", in which he outlined his concept of the historical development of Russia. The publication of the "Course of Russian History" was of decisive importance in the fate of the scientist, fixing his lecturer's talent on paper and becoming a monument of Russian historical thought.

His "Course" was the first attempt at a problematic approach to the presentation of Russian history. He divided Russian history into periods depending on the movement of the bulk of the population and on geographical conditions that have a strong effect on the course of historical life.

The fundamental novelty of his periodization was that he introduced two more criteria into it: political (the problem of power and society) and economic. The human personality seemed to him to be the paramount force in the human community: "... the human person, human society and the nature of the country - these are the three main historical forces that build the human community."

This work has gained worldwide fame. It was translated into many languages ​​of the world and, according to foreign historians, served as the base and main source for the study of Russian history throughout the world.

	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich. Russian history course. Part 1: [Lectures 1-20] / prof. V. Klyuchevsky. - Ed. 3rd. - Moscow: Printing house of G. Lissner and D. Sobko, 1908. - 464 p. - On tit. l.: All copyrights reserved; The only original text. - Life time. ed. ed. - On the spine is a supereclibris: "T.N."
	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich. Russian history course. Part 2: [Lectures 21-40] / prof. V. Klyuchevsky. - Moscow: Synodal Printing House, 1906. -, 508, IV p. - Life time. ed. ed. - On the spine is a supereclibris: "T.N."
	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich. Russian history course. Part 3: [Lectures 41-58]. - Moscow, 1908. - 476 p. - Tit. l. absent. - Life time. ed. ed. - On the spine is a supereclibris: "T.N."
	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich. Russian history course. Part 4: [Lectures 59-74] / prof. V. Klyuchevsky. - Moscow: A. I. Mamontov Printing House Partnership, 1910. -, 481 p. - On tit. l .: Each copy must have an author's stamp and a special sheet with a notice from the publisher; All copyrights reserved; The only original text. - Life time. ed. ed. - On the spine is a supereclibris: "T.N."
	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich. Russian history course. Part 5 / prof. V. Klyuchevsky; [ed. Ya. Barskov]. Petersburg: Gosizdat, 1921. - 352, VI p. - Decree: p. 315-352 .- On the region. ed. 1922. - On tit. l. Owner's inscription: "K. Romanov". The historian did not have time to complete and edit the fifth part of the book; the “Course of Russian History” ends with an analysis of the reign of Nicholas I. Part 5 was printed according to the lithographed edition of the lectures of 1883-1884. at Moscow University according to the notes of the publisher Y. Barskov, corrected by V. O. Klyuchevsky with his own hand, partly - under his dictation.
	After the revolution, all the works of the historian were monopolized by the new government, information about this was placed on the back of the title page of each publication: “Works of V. O. Klyuchevsky monopolized Russian Federative Soviet Republic for five years, until December 31, 1922 ... None of the booksellers indicated on the book price cannot be increased under penalty of liability before the law of the land. Government Commissar Liter.-Ed. Department P. I. Lebedev-Polyansky. Petrograd. 15/III 1918,” the publishers warn. Like other works of the scientist, "The Course of Russian History" was republished in 1918 by the Literary and Publishing Department of the Commissariat of Public Education, in 1920-1921. Gosizdat. Each volume cost 5 rubles, the books were published on poor paper, in a publisher's cardboard binding and were distinguished by low print quality.

Other publications published after his death speak of the enduring value of the works of the largest Russian historian. These are three collections of works of a different nature, published in Moscow in the most difficult political and social situation of pre-revolutionary Russia.

	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich Experiments and research: 1st Sat. Art. / V. Klyuchevsky. - 2nd ed. - Moscow: Printing houses of the Moscow City Arnold-Tretyakov School for the Deaf and Dumb and T-va Ryabushinsky, 1915. -, 551, XXVIII, p. - On tit. l.: All copyrights reserved. - Contents: Economic activity of the Solovetsky Monastery in the White Sea Territory. Pskov disputes. Russian ruble XVI-XVIII centuries. in relation to the present. The origin of serfdom in Russia. Poll tax and the abolition of servility in Russia. The composition of the representation at the Zemsky Sobors of Ancient Rus'. Applications. - Bookseller. announced - Library of K. K. Romanov. Collection 1st - "Experiments and Research" - came out in 1912. The preface states that "the name of the collection was given by the author himself, and he also determined the composition of the works included in the collection." This edition is notable for us in that it contains the article "Pskov Disputes". It is dedicated to the church society of the 4th - 12th centuries.
	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich Essays and speeches: 2nd Sat. Art. / V. Klyuchevsky. - Moscow: Printing house of P. P. Ryabushinsky, 1913. -, 514, p. - On tit. l.: All copyrights reserved. - Contents: Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov. S. M. Solovyov, as a teacher. In memory of S. M. Solovyov. Speech at the solemn meeting of Moscow University on June 6, 1880 on the day of the opening of the monument to Pushkin. Eugene Onegin and his ancestors. Contribution of the Church to the successes of Russian civil law and order. Sadness. In memory of M. Yu. Lermontov. Good people of Ancient Rus'. I. N. Boltin. Meaning prep. Sergius for the Russian people and state. Two upbringings. Remembrance of N. I. Novikov and his time. Undergrowth Fonvizin. Empress Catherine II. Western influence and church schism in Russia in the 17th century. Peter the Great among his employees. Collection 2nd - "Essays and Speeches"- was published the following year, 1913. From the preface, one can learn that this edition “was conceived by the author himself. Under this title, he was going to combine the second, so to speak, journalistic cycle of his printed articles, of which some were delivered as speeches.
	Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich

These lectures are a general course in the history of Russia, in which V. O. Klyuchevsky outlined his concept of the historical development of Russia.

The scientist believes that the purpose of studying local history is the same as the purpose of studying human history in general. The subject of universal history is the process of human community. This hostel is made up of the interaction of various social elements, the forces that build human society. These forces are: nature and people, person and social union, power and law, labor and capital, knowledge and art, etc. These forces are present in every society, but the society they create, at different times and in different places, does not come out the same in its character and forms. This is due to the fact that the enumerated social forces in different places and different times do not come in the same combinations. The more diverse combinations of elements we study, the more we learn new properties in social elements, the more fully we know the nature of each of them.

Through historical study we learn not only the nature of social elements, but also their mechanism, we learn when a certain social force moved humanity forward and when it checked its progress, when, for example, capital destroyed free labor without increasing its productivity, and when, on the contrary, this capital helped labor to become more productive without enslaving it. Thus, in the course of the history of Russia, V. O. Klyuchevsky is primarily interested in the following questions: what kind of local combinations does this history of an individual people represent, how did these peculiar combinations arise, what new properties did the elements acting in it reveal. In his exposition he confines himself to the facts of economic and political life and divides history into periods corresponding to changes in relations between the basic social elements.

The first part includes three periods. The first period lasts from the 8th century to the end of the 12th century, when the mass of the Russian population concentrated on the middle and upper Dnieper with its tributaries and its historical water continuation by the Lovat-Volkhov region. The second period is the time of the Upper Volga specific Rus' from the end of the 12th to the middle of the 15th century. The third period begins with the accession of John III to the princely table in 1462 and continues until 1613, when a new dynasty appears on the Moscow throne.

The second part includes the fourth period - from 1613, when the Zemsky Sobor elected Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich to the Moscow throne until 1762 - changes in the state status of the nobility, landowner and office.

The third part includes two sections. The first is dedicated to the 18th century. The second includes the end of the 18th century and the 19th century - the reign of Alexander II (the appendix refers to Alexander III).

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (January 16 (28), 1841, the village of Voskresenovka, Penza province - May 12 (25), 1911, Moscow) - Russian historian, tenured professor at Moscow University; Ordinary Academician of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (over staff) in Russian History and Antiquities (1900), Chairman of the Imperial Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University, Privy Councillor.
After the death of his father, the village priest Osip Vasilyevich Klyuchevsky (1815-1850), the Klyuchevsky family moved to Penza, where Vasily studied at the parish and district theological schools, then in 1856 he entered the Penza Theological Seminary, however, he did not graduate from it, in 1861 left for Moscow, where he entered the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University.
Among the teachers of Klyuchevsky were professors S. V. Eshevsky (general history), S. M. Solovyov (Russian history), F. I. Buslaev (history of ancient Russian literature). Candidate's thesis: "Tales of foreigners about the Muscovite state"; master's thesis: "Old Russian Lives of the Saints as a historical source" (1871), doctoral dissertation: "Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus'" (1882).
After the death of S. M. Solovyov (1879), he began to teach a course in Russian history at Moscow University. Since 1882 he was a professor at Moscow University. In parallel with his main place of work, he lectured at the Moscow Theological Academy and the Moscow Women's Courses organized by his friend V. I. Ger'e. In the period 1887-1889 he was dean of the Faculty of History and Philology and vice-rector of the university.
In 1889 he was elected a corresponding member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in the category of historical and political sciences.
In 1893-1895, on behalf of Emperor Alexander III, he taught a course in Russian history to Grand Duke Georgy Alexandrovich. Among his students was also A.S. Khakhanov.
In 1899, a "Short Guide to Russian History" was published, and since 1904 a full course has been published. A total of 4 volumes were published - until the reign of Catherine II.
In 1900 he was elected an ordinary academician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (over staff) in Russian history and antiquities.
In 1905, Klyuchevsky received an official order to participate in the work of the Commission for the revision of laws on the press and in meetings on the project of establishing the State Duma and its powers.
In 1906, in Paris, he was admitted to the Cosmos Scottish Rite Lodge, along with historians Professor A. S. Trachevsky, E. V. Anichkov, and a number of other well-known Russian public figures, mainly belonging to the Cadet Party.
On April 10, 1906, he was elected a member of the State Council from the Academy of Sciences and universities, but on April 11 he refused the title because he did not find participation in the council "independent enough for free ... discussion of emerging issues of public life."
V. O. Klyuchevsky was an honorary member of the Vitebsk Scientific Archival Commission.

Scientific approach
When considering Russian history, he brought political and economic events to the fore. Klyuchevsky had the gift of a publicist, was an excellent lecturer, infected listeners and readers with his polemical enthusiasm. Unfortunately, carried away by his wild imagination, he sometimes forgot about scientific accuracy, juggled historical facts too freely, and as a result distorted real historical events. He made serious mistakes, ignoring archival sources, and taking his guesses and assumptions for scientific discoveries. This misled the generations of Russian and foreign historians who relied on his authority and took his statements on faith. When studying the history of Russia according to Klyuchevsky, one should be careful and check with other studies. Despite these problems, Klyuchevsky is by far one of the largest and most interesting scientists and writers in Russia.

Lectures on Russian history:

1. The scientific task of studying local history. historical process. History of Culture or Civilization. Historical sociology. There are two points of view in the study of history - cultural-historical and sociological. Methodological convenience and didactic expediency of the second of them in the study of local history. Scheme of the socio-historical process. The Significance of Local and Temporal Combinations of Social Elements in Historical Study. Methodological conveniences of studying Russian history from this point of view.

2. Course plan. Colonization of the country as the main fact of Russian history. Periods of Russian history as the main moments of colonization. The dominant facts of each period. Visible incompleteness of the plan. Historical Facts and so-called ideas. Different origin and interaction of those and Others. When does an idea become historical fact? Essence and methodological significance of political and economic facts. The practical purpose of the study of national history.

3. Surface shape of European Russia. Climate. Geological origin of the Plains. The soil. Botanical belts. The relief of the plain. Soil waters and atmospheric Precipitation. River basins.

4. The influence of the country's nature on the history of its people. Diagram of the relationship of man to nature. Significance of soil and botanical bands and river network of the Russian plain. The value of the Oka-Volga interfluve as a node of colonization, economic and political. Forest, steppe and rivers: their significance in Russian history and the attitude of the Russian people towards them. Is it possible to judge the effect of the nature of the country on the mood of an ancient person by modern impressions? Some threatening phenomena in the nature of the plain.

5. Primary chronicle as the main source for the study of the first period of our history. Chronicle writing in ancient Rus'; primary annals and annalistic vaults. The oldest lists of the initial chronicle. Traces of the ancient Kievan chronicler in the Initial Chronicle Code. Who is this chronicler? The main components of the Primary Chronicle. How they are connected in a solid vault. Chronological plan of the Code. Nestor and Sylvester.

6. Historical and critical analysis of the initial chronicle. Its significance for further Russian chronicle writing, the fallacy of the chronological basis of the code and the origin of the Error. Processing of the constituent parts of the code by its compiler. Incompleteness of the most ancient Lists of the initial chronicle. The idea of ​​Slavic unity underlying it. Attitude to the annals of the student. Chronicles of the 12th century. Historical views of the Chronicler.

7. The main facts of the first period of Russian history. Two looks at its beginning. The peoples who lived in southern Russia before the Eastern Slavs, and their relationship to Russian history. What facts can be recognized as initial in the history of the people? The legend of the initial Chronicle about the settlement of the Slavs from the Danube. Jordan about the placement of the Slavs in the VI century. Military Union of Eastern Slavs in the Carpathians. Settlement of the Eastern Slavs in the Russian Plain, its time and signs. Isolation of the Eastern Slavs as a Consequence of Settlement.

9. Political consequences of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs on the Russian plain. Pechenegs in the South Russian steppes. Russian trading cities are arming. Varangians; The question of their origin and time of appearance in Rus'. The formation of urban areas and their relationship to the tribes. Varangian principalities. The legend of the calling of the Princes; its historical basis. Behavior of the Scandinavian Vikings in the 9th century. In Western Europe. The formation of the Grand Duchy of Kyiv as the first form of the Russian state. The value of Kyiv in the formation of the state. Overview of Learned.

10. Activities of the first Kyiv princes. Unification of the Eastern Slavic tribes Under the rule of the Kyiv prince. Control device. taxes; wagons and fields. Communication of management with a trade turnover. External activities of the Kyiv princes. Treaties and trade relations between Rus' and Byzantium. The significance of these treaties and intercourse in the history of Russian law. External difficulties and dangers of Russian Trade. Defense of the steppe borders. Russian land in the middle of the 11th century. Population and Limits. The meaning of the Grand Duke of Kyiv. Princely squad: its political and economic proximity to the merchants of large cities. Varangian element in this merchant class. Slave ownership as the initial basis of class division. Varangian element in the squad. Multi-temporal meanings of the word Rus. The transformation of tribes into estates.

11. The order of princely possession of Russian land after Yaroslav. The ambiguity of the order before Yaroslav. The division of the land between the sons of Yaroslav and its foundation. Further Changes in the order of allotments. The order of seniority in possession as the basis of the Order. His scheme. The origin of the next order. Its practical action. Conditions that upset him: the ranks and strife of princes; the thought of fatherhood; the allocation of rogue princes; personal prowess of princes; intervention of volost cities. The value of the next order.

12. The consequence of the next order and the conditions that counteracted it. Political fragmentation of the Russian land in the XII century. Strengthening of the senior volost Cities; their vecha and rows with princes. Elements of zemstvo unity of Rus' in the XII century. The effect of princely relations on public mood and consciousness; general zemstvo value of princely squads; the significance of Kyiv for princes and people; generalization of household Forms and interests, the political system of the Russian land in the XII century. The awakening of the feeling of national unity is the final fact of the period.

13. Russian civil society in the 11th and 12th centuries Russian truth as its reflection. Two views of this monument. Features of Russian truth, pointing to its origin. The need for a revised code of local legal customs For an ecclesiastical judge of the 11th and 12th centuries. Significance of codification among the main forms of Law. Byzantine codification and its influence on Russian. Church-Judgment Origin of Truth. The monetary account of truth and the time of its compilation. Sources of Truth. Russian law. Princely law. Judgments of princes. Legislative projects of the clergy. Benefits. which they used.

14. Upcoming questions about the compilation of Russian truth. Traces of partial codification in ancient Russian legal writing. Mixing and processing of partially compiled articles. Compilation and composition of Russian truth; mutual relation of its main editions. The relation of truth to the law in force. Civil order according to Russian truth. A preliminary note on the significance of monuments of law for the historical study of civil society. Separate line between criminal and civil law according to Russian truth. Punishment system. The Ancient Foundation of Truth and later layers. Comparative assessment of the property and personality of a Person. twofold division of society. Property transactions and obligations. Russian truth - the code of capital.

15. Church statutes of the first Christian princes of Rus'. Church department according to the Charter of St. Vladimir. The space of the church court and the joint Church-secular court according to the charter of Yaroslav. Changes in the concept of a crime, in the area of ​​imputation and in the system of punishments. Cash account of the Yaroslavl charter: the time of its compilation. The original basis of the charter. Legislative powers of the Church. The course of church codification. Traces of her techniques in the charter of Yaroslav. The attitude of the Charter to Russian truth. The influence of the church on the political order. Public Warehouse and civil life. The organization of the Christian family.

16. The main phenomena of the 2nd period of Russian history. Conditions upset the social order and welfare of Kievan Rus. Life of high society. Advances in citizenship and education. The position of the lower classes; successes of slavery and enslavement. Polovtsian attacks. Signs of the desolation of the Dnieper Rus. Bilateral outflow of the population from there. Signs of ebb to the west. A look at the further fate of southwestern Rus' and the question of the origin of the Little Russian tribe. Signs of population ebb to the northeast. The significance of this Ebb and the fundamental fact of the period.

17. Ethnographic consequences of the Russian colonization of the upper Volga region. The question of the origin of the Great Russian tribe. Disappeared foreigners of the Oka-Volga Mesopotamia and their traces. The attitude of Russian settlers to the Finnish natives traces the Finnish influence on the anthropological type of the Great Russian. On the formation of dialects of the Great Russian dialect, on the popular beliefs of Great Russia and on the composition of the Great Russian society. The influence of the nature of the upper Volga region on the national economy of Great Russia and on the tribal character of the Great Russian.

18. Political consequences of the Russian colonization of the upper Volga region. Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky and his attitude to Kievan Rus: an attempt to turn the patriarchal Power of the Grand Duke into a state one. Andrey's mode of action in the Rostov Land: his relationship with his closest relatives. To the older cities and the older squad. Princely and social strife in the Rostov land after the death of Prince Andrei. The judgment of the Vladimir chronicler about this strife. The predominance of the Upper Volga Rus over the Dnieper under Vsevolod 3. The effect of the political successes of Princes Andrei and Vsevolod on the mood of Suzdal society. List of learned Facts.

19. A look at the position of the Russian land in the 13th and 14th centuries. The specific order of the Princely possession in the offspring of Vsevolod III. Princely inheritance. The main features of the specific order. His origin. The idea of ​​a separate hereditary possession among the southern princes. The transformation of Russian regional princes into servants under Lithuanian rule. The power of tribal tradition among the Yaroslavichs of the older lines: Relations between the Verkhneoksky and Ryazan princes at the end of the 15th century. The main features of the specific order, the reasons for its successful development in the offspring of Vsevolod III. The absence of obstacles to this order in the Suzdal region.

20 . A note on the significance of specific centuries in Russian history. Consequences of specific order of princely possession. Questions for their study. The course of specific crushing. The impoverishment of the specific princes. their mutual alienation. The meaning of the specific Prince. His legal attitude to private estates is in his destiny. Comparison of specific relations with feudal ones. The composition of society in the specific Principality. The decline of zemstvo consciousness and civic feeling among the specific Princes. Conclusions.

21 . Moscow begins to collect specific Rus'. The first news about the city of Moscow. The original space of the Moscow Kremlin. Economic benefits of the geographical location of the city of Moscow. The city of Moscow is a key point for many-sided paths. Traces of the early population of the Moscow region. Moscow is the ethnographic center of Great Russia. The Moscow River is a transit route. Political consequences of the geographical location of the city of Moscow. Moscow is a junior lot. The influence of this on the external relations and internal activities of the Moscow princes, the political and national successes of the Moscow princes until the middle of the 15th century. I. Expansion of the territory of the principality. II. Acquisition of the Grand Duke's table. III. The consequences of this success: the suspension of the Tatar invasions; Moscow Union of Princes. IV. The transfer of the metropolitan see to Moscow is the significance of this change for the Moscow princes. Conclusions.

22 . Mutual relations of the Moscow princes. - The order of succession. - Apparent legal indifference of movable property and specific possessions. The relationship of the Moscow princely order of inheritance to the legal custom of ancient Rus'. - The attitude of the Moscow princes by kinship and possession. - Strengthening the senior heir. - The form of subordination to him of the younger appanage princes. - The influence of the Tatar yoke on princely relations. - Establishing the succession of the Moscow grand ducal power in a direct descending line. - The meeting of the family aspirations of the Moscow princes with the people's needs of Great Russia. - The significance of the Moscow strife under Vasily the Dark. - The character of the Moscow princes

23 . Free urban communities. - Novgorod the Great. - Its location; sides and ends. Region of Novgorod; patches and hairs. - Conditions and development of Novgorod liberty. - Contractual relations of Novgorod with the princes. - Management. - Veche and its relation to the princes. - Posadnik and thousand. - Court. - Council of gentlemen. - Regional administration. - Suburbs and their relation to the main city. - Conclusion.

24 . Classes of Novgorod society. - Novgorod boyars and its origin. - Living people. - Merchants and black people. - Serfs, smerds and ladles. - Zemtsy; the origin and meaning of this class. - The basis of the class division of Novgorod society. - The political life of Novgorod. - The origin and struggle of princely and social parties. The nature and significance of Novgorod strife. - Features of the Pskov political system and life. - The different nature of the Pskov and Novgorod political order. - Disadvantages of the Novgorod political life. - The general reason for the fall of the liberty of Novgorod. - Predictions

25 . The main phenomena of the III period of Russian history. - The position of the Russian land in the middle of the XV century. - Borders of the Moscow Principality. A change in the further course of the gathering of Rus' by Moscow. - Territorial acquisitions of Ivan III and his successor. - The political unification of Great Russia is the main fact of the III period. - Immediate consequences of this fact. - A change in the external position of the Moscow principality and in the foreign policy of its grand dukes. The idea of ​​a people's Russian state and its expression in the foreign policy of Ivan III

26 . Internal consequences of the main fact of the III period. - The growth of the political self-consciousness of the Moscow sovereign. - Sophia Paleolog and its importance in Moscow. - New titles. - A new genealogy and legend about the coronation of Vladimir Monomakh. - The patrimony and the state. - Fluctuation between both forms of government. - Order of succession. - Expansion of the power of the Grand Duke. - Lateness and harm of specific possession. - The indecisive attitude of Ivan III and his successors towards him. - The composition of the supreme power of the Moscow sovereign. - A change in the view of Moscow society on their sovereign. - Conclusions

27 . Moscow boyars. - A change in its composition since the half of the 15th century. - Conditions and rules of order for boyar families. - The political mood of the boyars in its new composition. - Definition of the Moscow boyars as a class. - Localism. - Local fatherland. - Local account simple and complex. - Legislative restrictions of locality. - The idea of ​​locality. -When it has developed into a system. Its significance as a political guarantee for the boyars. - Its shortcomings in this respect

28 . The attitude of the boyars in its new composition to their sovereign. - The attitude of the Moscow boyars to the Grand Duke in specific centuries. - Change in these relations with Ivan III. - Collisions. - Uncertainty of the cause of the discord. - Bersen's conversations with Maxim Grek. - Boyar rule. - Correspondence of Tsar Ivan with Prince Kurbsky. Judgments of Prince Kurbsky. - Objections of the king. - The nature of the correspondence. - Dynastic origin of discord.

29 . Circumstances that prepared the establishment of the oprichnina. - Unusual departure of the tsar from Moscow and his message to the capital. - The return of the king. - Decree on oprichnina. - The life of the king in Alexander Sloboda. - The attitude of the oprichnina to the zemshchina. - Appointment of the oprichnina. - The contradiction in the structure of the Muscovite state. - The idea of ​​replacing the boyars with the nobility. - Aimlessness of the oprichnina. - Judgment of her contemporaries

30 . Characteristics of Tsar Ivan the Terrible

31 . Composition of specific society. - Composition of the Moscow service class. - Service elements. - Elements unserved; townspeople-landowners, clerks, servicemen on the device. - Foreigners. - The quantitative ratio of constituent elements by tribal origin. - Ladder of ranks. The number of the military service class. - External position of the state. - Wars in the Northwest. - The fight against the Crimea and legs. - Defense of the northeastern borders. - Coastal service. - Lines of defensive fortifications. - Guard and stanitsa service. - The severity of the struggle. - The question of the economic and military structure of the service class and the local system

32 . local farming. - Opinions on the origin of local law. - The origin of landownership. - Local system. - Her rules. - Local and monetary salaries. - Local layout. - Lives.

33 . Immediate consequences of the local system. - I. Influence of the local principle on patrimonial land tenure. Mobilization of estates in the XVI century. - II. The local system as a means of artificial development of private land ownership. - III. Formation of county noble societies. - IV. The emergence of a service agricultural proletariat. - V. Unfavorable influence of local landownership on cities. - VI. The influence of the local system on the fate of the peasants.

34 . Question about monastic estates. - Spread of monasteries. - Monasteries in northeastern Russia. - Desert monasteries. - Monasteries-colonies. - Colonization activities of the Trinity Sergius Monastery. - The meaning of the desert monasteries. - Old Russian calendar. - Old Russian hagiography. - The composition and nature of ancient Russian life. - World monasteries. - Founders of desert monasteries. - Wandering and settlement of a hermit in the desert. - Desert cenobitic monastery

35 . Ways of land enrichment of monasteries. - Land granted. - Contributions for the soul and for the tonsure. - Purchases and other transactions. - Harmful consequences of monastic land ownership for monasticism itself. - Monastery sterns. - The decline of monastic discipline. - The inconvenience of monastic land tenure for service people and the state. - The question of monastic estates. - Nil Sorsky and Joseph Volotsky. - Council of 1503 - Literary controversy on the issue. - Legislative attempts to restrain the land enrichment of the monasteries

36 . The relationship of monastic land ownership with serfdom. - Peasants in the XV and XVI centuries. - Types of rural settlements. The ratio of residential arable land to the void. Classes of landowners. - The relationship of the peasants: 1) to the landowners, 2) to the state. - The social structure of the peasants. - The question of the rural community. - A peasant in his agricultural holding. - Assistance, loan, benefits. - Peasant plots. - Duties. - Conclusion.

37 . Opinion on the attachment of peasants at the end of the XVI century. - The 1597 Fugitive Peasants Act and the alleged decree on the general attachment of peasants. - Orders of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. - Economic conditions that prepared the serfdom of the peasants. - Land attachment of black and palace peasants. - The growth of loans and the strengthening of the personal dependence of the peasant owners. - Peasant transports and escapes and legislative measures against them. - The position of the possessing peasantry at the beginning of the XVII century. - Conclusions

38 . Overview of the past. - Management in the Muscovite state of the XV-XVI centuries. - Unfavorable conditions of its device. General view of its structure and character. - Office of the specific principality. - Boyars led and boyar thought. - Deputies and volostels. - Importance of feeding. - Changes in the central administration of the Muscovite state since the half of the 15th century. - Orders and the Boyar Duma. - The nature of their activities

39 . Changes in regional government. - Normalization of feedings. - Report and judges. - Lip control. - Its composition. - Department and process. - Character and meaning. - Two questions. - Attitude of the labial administration to feeders. - Zemstvo reform. - Her reasons. - Introduction of zemstvo institutions. - Department and responsibility of earthly authorities. Faithful management. - The nature and significance of the reform

40 . Management and society. - The fragmentation and class character of local self-government. The failure of the all-estate beginning. - The need to unite local institutions. - Zemsky cathedrals. - The legend of the cathedral in 1550 - Analysis of the legend. Composition of the councils of 1566 and 1598 - Service and commercial and industrial people in their composition. - Zemsky Sobor and land. The value of the conciliar representative. - The order of conciliar meetings. - Meaning of the cross kiss. - Connection of cathedrals with local worlds. - The origin and significance of zemstvo cathedrals. - The idea of ​​the All-Earth Council. - Muscovy at the end of the 16th century

41 . A look at the IV period of Russian history. - The main facts of the period. - Mutual contradictions in the correlation of these facts. - The influence of foreign policy on the internal life of the state. - The course of affairs in the IV period in connection with this influence. - State and political consciousness of society. - Beginning of Troubles. - End of a dynasty. Tsar Fedor and Boris Godunov. - Causes of Trouble. Imposture

42 . Consistent entry into the Troubles of all classes of society. - Tsar Boris and boyars. - False Dmitry I and the boyars. - Tsar Vasily and the great boyars. - Cross entry of Tsar Basil and its meaning. - Middle boyars and metropolitan nobility. - Treaty February 4, 1610 and the Moscow Treaty August 17, 1610 - Their comparison. - The provincial nobility and the zemstvo sentence on June 30, 1611 - The participation of the lower classes in the Time of Troubles

43 . Causes of Troubles. - Its dynastic reason: patrimonial-dynastic view of the state. - A look at the elected king. - The reason is socio-political: the draft system of the state. - Public strife. - The meaning of imposture during the Time of Troubles. - Conclusions. - The second militia and the cleansing of Moscow from the Poles. - Election of Michael. - Reasons for its success

44 . Immediate consequences of the Troubles. - New political concepts. - Their manifestations in Troubles. - A change in the composition of the government class. - Disorder of locality. - A new formulation of the supreme power. - The king and the boyars. - Boyar Duma and Zemstvo Cathedral. - Simplification of the supreme power. - Boyar attempt in 1681. Change in the composition and significance of the Zemsky Sobor. - Ruin. - The mood of society after the turmoil.

45 . External position of the Muscovite state after the Time of Troubles. - Tasks of foreign policy under the new dynasty. - Western Rus' since the union of Lithuania with Poland. - Changes in management and class relations. - Cities and Magdeburg law. - Union of Lublin. - Its consequences. - The settlement of the steppe Ukraine. - The origin of the Cossacks. - Little Russian Cossacks. - Zaporozhye

46 . The moral character of the Little Russian Cossacks. - Cossacks are for faith and nationality. - Discord in the Cossacks. - Little Russian question. - Questions of the Baltic and Eastern. - European relations of the Moscow State. - The significance of Moscow's foreign policy in the 17th century

47 . Fluctuations in the internal life of the Muscovite state of the XVII century. - Two series of innovations. - The direction of legislation and the need for a new set of laws. - The Moscow rebellion of 1648 and its relation to the Code. - The verdict of July 16, 1648 on the drafting of the Code and the execution of the sentence. - Written sources of the Code. - Participation of conciliar elected in its preparation. - Methods of compilation. The value of the Code. - New ideas. - Newly listed articles

48 . Government troubles. - Centralization of local government; governors and labial elders. - The fate of zemstvo institutions. - District grades. Concentration of central control. District grades. - Concentration of central control. - Orders of Counting and Secret Affairs. - Concentration of society. - Basic and transitional classes. - The formation of estates. - Service people. - Posad population; return of pawns to the land tax

49 . Peasants on the lands of private owners. - Conditions of their position. - Serfdom in ancient Rus'. - The origin of bondage slavery. - April decree of 1597 - Backyard people. - Appearance of a serf peasant record. - Her origin. - Her conditions. - Serfs according to the Code of 1649 - Peasant bellies. - Tax liability for serfs. - The difference between the serfs and serfs in the era of the Code

50 . Lords and serfs. - Serfdom and Zemsky Sobor. - The public composition of the Zemsky Sobor in the XVII century. - Its numerical composition. - Elections. - The course of affairs at the cathedrals. - The political character of the cathedrals. - Conditions of their fragility. - The idea of ​​the Zemstvo Cathedral in the trading classes. - The collapse of the cathedral representation. What did the Zemsky Sobor of the 17th century - Overview of what has been said

51 . Connection of phenomena. - Army and finance. - Salary taxes: indirect; direct - money given and frilled, yamsky, polonyanichnye, streltsy. - Writing books. - Fixed fees. - Experiments and reforms. - Salt duty and tobacco monopoly. - Copper credit marks and the Moscow rebellion of 1662 - Living quarter. - Underwater tax and census books. - Estate apportionment of direct taxes. - Finance and zemstvo. - Distribution of the tax on backyard people. Distribution of people's labor among state forces. - Extraordinary taxes. - List of income and expenses in 1680

52 . Dissatisfaction with the state of affairs in the state. - His reasons. - His manifestations. People's riots. - Reflection of discontent in written monuments. - Prince. I.A. Khvorostinin. - Patriarch Nikon. - Grieg. Kotoshikhin. - Yuri Krizhanich.

53 . Western influence. - Its beginning. Why did it start in the 17th century? - The meeting of two foreign influences and their difference. - Two directions in the mental life of Russian society. - Gradual Western influence. - Regiments of a foreign system. - Factories. - Thinking about the fleet. - Thought about the national economy. - New German Sloboda. - European comfort. - Theater. - Thought about scientific knowledge. - The first conductors of it. - Scientific works of Kyiv scientists in Moscow. The beginnings of school education. - S. Polotsky

54 . The beginning of the reaction to Western influence. - Protest against the new science. - Church schism. - The story of its beginning. - How do both sides explain its origin. - The power of religious rites and texts. - Its psychological basis. - Rus' and Byzantium. - The eclipse of the idea of ​​the universal church. - Tradition and science. National-church conceit. - State innovations. - Patriarch Nikon

55 . The position of the Russian Church at the accession of Nikon to the patriarchal throne. - His idea of ​​a universal church. - His innovations. - How did Nikon contribute to the church schism? - Latinophobia. - Confessions of the first Old Believers. - Overview of what has been said. - The folk-psychological composition of the Old Believers. - Disruption and enlightenment. - Contributing to the split Western influence

56 . Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. - F.M. Rtishchev

57 . A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin

58 . Prince V.V. Golitsyn. - Preparation and reform program

59 . Life of Peter the Great before the start of the Northern War. - Infancy. - Court teacher. - Teaching. - Events of 1682 - Peter in Preobrazhensky. - Amusing. - Secondary school. - Moral growth of Peter. - The reign of Queen Natalia. - Peter's Company. - Fun value. Trip abroad. - Return

60 . Peter the Great, his appearance, habits, way of life and thoughts, character

61 . Foreign policy and reform of Peter the Great. - Tasks of foreign policy. - International relations in Europe. - Beginning of the Northern War. - The progress of the war. - Its influence on the reform. - Progress and connection of reforms. - The order of study. - Military reform. - Formation of a regular army. - Baltic Fleet. - Military budget

62 . Importance of military reform. - Position of the nobility. - The nobility of the capital. - The triple meaning of the nobility before the reform. - Nobility review and analysis. - The failure of these measures. - Compulsory education of the nobility. - Service order. - Separation of service. - Change in the genealogical composition of the nobility. - Significance of the above changes. Rapprochement of estates and estates. - Decree on unity of succession. - Effect of the decree

63 . Peasants and the first revision. - Composition of society according to the Code. Recruitment and kits. - Poll census. - Quartering regiments. - Simplification of the public composition. - Poll census and serfdom. - Economic importance of the poll census

64 . Industry and trade. - The plan and methods of Peter's activity in this area. - I. Calling foreign craftsmen and manufacturers. - II. Sending Russian people abroad. - III. Legislative propaganda. - IV. Industrial companies, benefits, loans and subsidies. - Hobbies, failures and successes. - Trade and communications

65 . Finance. - Difficulties. - Measures to eliminate them. - New taxes; informers and profiters. - Arrived. - Monastery order. - Monopolies. Poll tribute. - Its meaning. Budget 1724 - Results of the financial reform. Obstacles to reform.

66 . Control transformation. - The order of study. - Boyar Duma and orders. - Reform of 1699 - Voivodship comrades. - Moscow City Hall and Kurbatov. - Preparation of the provincial reform. - Provincial division in 1708 - Administration of the province. - The failure of the provincial reform. - Establishment of the Senate. - The origin and significance of the Senate. - Fiscals. - Boards

67 . Reformation of the Senate. - The Senate and the Attorney General. - New changes in local government. - Commissars from the land. - Magistrates. - Starting new establishments. - The difference between the foundations of central and regional government. - Regulations. New management in action. - Robbery

69 . Russian society at the moment of the death of Peter the Great. - The international position of Russia. - Impression of the death of Peter in the people. - The attitude of the people to Peter. - The legend of the impostor king. - The legend of the Antichrist king. - Significance of both legends for the reform. - Change in the composition of the upper classes. - Educational means. Overseas education. - Newspaper. - Theater. - Public education. - Schools and teaching. - Gymnasium Gluck. - Primary schools. - Books; assemblies; secular textbook. - The ruling class and its attitude towards reform

70 . Epoch 1725-1762 - Succession to the throne after Peter I. - Accession of Catherine I. - Accession of Peter II. - Further changes on the throne. - Guards and nobility. - The political mood of the upper class - the Supreme Privy Council. - Prince D.M. Golitsyn. - Verkhovniki 1730

71 . The ferment among the nobility caused by the election of Duchess Anna to the throne. - Shlyakhetsky projects. - The new plan of Prince D. Golitsyn. - Crash. - His reasons. - Case connection. 1730 with the past. - Empress Anna and her court. - Foreign policy. - Movement against the Germans

72 . The meaning of the era of palace coups. - The attitude of governments after Peter I to his reform. - The impotence of these governments. - Peasant question. - Chief Prosecutor Anisim Maslov. - Nobility and serfdom. - Service benefits of the nobility: educational qualification and service life. - Strengthening of noble land ownership: the abolition of single inheritance; noble loan bank; fugitive decree; expansion of serfdom; class cleaning of noble land ownership. - Abolition of compulsory service of the nobility. - The third formation of serfdom. - Law practice

75 . The main fact of the era. - Empress Catherine II. - Her origin. - Elizabeth's Court. - The position of Catherine at court. - Catherine's mode of action. - Her activities. - Tests and successes. - Count A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. - Catherine under Emperor Peter 3 the Third. - Character

79 . The fate of the central administration after the death of Peter 1. - The transformation of the regional administration. - Provinces. - Provincial institutions, administrative and financial. - Provincial judicial institutions. - Contradictions in the structure of provincial institutions. - Letters of grant to the nobility and cities. - The importance of provincial institutions in 1775

81 . The influence of serfdom on the mental and moral life of Russian society. - Cultural demands of the noble society. - The program of noble education. - Academy of Sciences and University. - State and private educational institutions. - Home education. - Morals of noble society. - The influence of French literature. - Guides of French Literature. - The results of the influence of educational literature. - Typical representatives of an educated noble society. - Significance of the reign of Empress Catherine II. - Increasing funds. Strengthening social discord. - Nobility and Society

85 . The reign of Nicholas 1. Tasks. - The beginning of the reign of Nicholas 1 the First. - Codification. - Own office. - Provincial Administration. - Growth of bureaucracy. Peasant question. - The device of the state peasants. - Legislation on peasants. - Its meaning

86 . Essay on the most important reforms of Alexander II II. - Fortified population. - Landlord economy. - The mood of the peasants. - Accession to the throne of Alexander 2. - Preparation of the peasant reform. - Secret Committee on Peasant Affairs. - Provincial committees. - Reform projects. - Editorial committees. - The main features of the Regulations of February 19, 1861. - Land arrangement of peasants. - Peasant duties and redemption of land. - Loan. - Redemption payments. - Zemstvo reform. - Conclusion

"Russian History" by Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) is a classic work of one of the most profound Russian thinkers, an epic that occupies a worthy place on a par with the works of the famous Russian historians N. M. Karamzin and N. I. Kostomarov. Read many times at the Department of History of Moscow State University, Klyuchevsky's course of lectures evoked the same invariable admiration and pride for our heroic past among students, which causes modern readers, lovers of national history. The great creation of the Russian scientist for the first time accompanies more than eight hundred unique illustrations, magazine and book rarities of the 19th century.

Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky
Russian history

PART I

COLONIZATION AS THE MAIN FACT OF RUSSIAN HISTORY

The vast East European plain, on which the Russian state was formed, at the beginning of our history is not throughout its entire space inhabited by the people who hitherto make its history. Our history opens with the phenomenon that the eastern branch of the Slavs, which later grew into the Russian people, enters the Russian Plain from one of its corners, from the southwest, from the slopes of the Carpathians. For many centuries, this Slavic population was far from sufficient to completely occupy the entire plain with some uniformity. Moreover, according to the conditions of its historical life and geographical situation, it spread across the plain not gradually by birth, not settling, and moving, carried by bird flights from region to region, leaving their familiar places and sitting on new ones. With each such movement, it became subject to new conditions arising both from the physical features of the newly occupied region and from the new external relations that were established in new places. These local peculiarities and relations, at each new distribution of the people, imparted to the people's life a special direction, a special structure and character.

The history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized. The area of ​​colonization in it expanded along with its state territory. Falling, then rising, this age-old movement continues to this day. It intensified with the abolition of serfdom, when the outflow of the population from the central black earth provinces began, where it was artificially condensed for a long time and forcibly detained. From here, the population went in many-sided streams to Novorossia, to the Caucasus, beyond the Volga and further beyond the Caspian Sea, especially beyond the Urals to Siberia, to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. In the second half of the 19th century, when the Russian colonization of Turkestan was just beginning, more than 200,000 Russians had already settled there, and of these, about 100,000 formed up to 150 rural settlements made up of peasant settlers and in places representing significant islands of an almost continuous agricultural population. The flow of migrants to Siberia is even more intense. It is officially known that the annual number of migrants to Siberia, which until the 1880s did not exceed 2 thousand people, and at the beginning of the last decade of the last century reached 50 thousand, since 1896, thanks to the Siberian railway, has increased to 200 thousand people, and in two and a half years (from 1907 to July 1909) about 2 million migrants passed to Siberia. This whole movement, proceeding mainly from the central black-earth provinces of European Russia, with the annual growth of its population of one and a half million, still seems insignificant, does not allow itself to be felt by tangible shocks; but over time it will inevitably reverberate on the general state of affairs with important consequences.

Periods of Russian history as the main moments of colonization. So the resettlement, the colonization of the country was the main fact of our history, with which all other facts of it were in close or distant connection. Let's dwell on the fact itself, without touching on its origin. He put the Russian population in a peculiar relationship to the country, which changed over the centuries and, with its change, caused a change in the forms of community life ...

I. Izhakevich. Yermak's campaign in Siberia

I divide our history into divisions or periods according to the movements of the people observed in it. The periods of our history are the stages successively passed by our people in the occupation and development of the country they inherited until the very time when, finally, through the natural birth and absorption of oncoming foreigners, it spread throughout the plain and even went beyond it. A number of these periods are a series of halts or camps that interrupted the movement of the Russian people across the plain and at each of which our hostel was arranged differently than it was arranged at the previous camp. I will enumerate these periods, indicating in each of them the dominant facts, of which one is political, the other is economic, and at the same time designating the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe plain on which the mass of the Russian population was concentrated in a given period - not the entire population, but its main mass, making history.

Approximately from the 8th century. AD, not earlier, we can follow with some certainty the gradual growth of our people, observe the external situation and the internal structure of their life within the plains. So, from the VIII to the XIII century. the mass of the Russian population was concentrated on the middle and upper Dnieper with its tributaries and with its historical water continuation - the Lovat - Volkhov line. All this time, Rus' has been politically divided into separate, more or less isolated regions, in each of which the political and economic center is a large trading city, the first organizer and leader of its political life, which then met a rival in the newly arrived prince, but did not lose its importance under him. . The dominant political fact of the period is the political fragmentation of the land under the leadership of the cities. The dominant fact of economic life during this period is foreign trade with the resulting forestry, hunting and beekeeping (forest beekeeping). This is Rus' Dnieper, city, trade.

From the thirteenth to the middle of the fifteenth century. Approximately among the general confusion and rupture of the nationality, the main mass of the Russian population is on the upper Volga with its tributaries. This mass remains politically fragmented not into urban areas, but into princely destinies. Destiny is a completely different form of political life. The dominant political fact of the period is the specific fragmentation of the Upper Volga Rus' under the rule of the princes. The dominant fact of economic life is the agricultural, i.e. agricultural, exploitation of the Alunian loam through free peasant labor. This is Rus' Upper Volga, specific princely, free-agricultural.

From the middle of the 15th century to the second decade of the 17th century. the bulk of the Russian population from the region of the upper Volga spreads south and east along the Don and Middle Volga black earth, forming a special branch of the people - Great Russia, which, together with the population, expands beyond the upper Volga region. But, expanding geographically, the Great Russian tribe for the first time unites into one political entity under the rule of the Moscow sovereign, who rules his state with the help of the boyar aristocracy, formed from former appanage princes and appanage boyars. So, the dominant political fact of the period is the state unification of Great Russia. The dominant fact of economic life remains the agricultural development of the old Upper Volga loam and the newly employed Middle Volga and Don chernozem through free peasant labor; but his will is already beginning to be hampered as land ownership is concentrated in the hands of the service class, the military class, recruited by the state for external defense. This is Rus' Great, Moscow, tsarist-boyar, military-landowner.