1st Punic War. Punic Wars: causes, course, results

The rich island of Sicily has long been a “bone of discord” between the two powerful states of Rome and Carthage Revyako K.A. uk. op. P. 67. Rome was separated from Sicily only by the narrow Strait of Messina, and therefore the desire to capture and annex the island was a long-standing dream. Before the war began, Sicily was divided into three parts. Most of the island was under the rule of Carthage. The smaller part of Sicily was subject to Syracuse, the northeastern lands with the city of Messana were ruled by the Mamertines, becoming, according to Mommsen, “the third power on the island.” Mommsen T. uk. op. P. 497 In 268, the Carthaginians landed in Messana. The Mamertines saw no other way than to submit to the Carthaginian occupation. The appearance of the Carthaginians in Rome alarmed Rome. And under the guise of help, but in reality due to the fact that Revyako K.A. was seduced by prey. uk. op. P. 71, a garrison led by the tribune Claudius was sent to Messana.

In 264, Appius Claudius managed to capture Messana, and then defeat the armies of the Carthaginians and Syracusans one by one (Polyb., I, 11, 13). The next year brought much more success. Thus, practically without military clashes, a number of cities expressed their submission to Rome. But perhaps the main success was that the king of Syracuse, Hiero, entered into an alliance with Rome (Polib., I, 16, 5 and 6). The fact is that the Syracusans had to choose between Carthaginian and Roman hegemony. They preferred the latter, since they believed that the Romans had no intention of conquering the entire island. Mommsen T. uk. op. P. 534 This major diplomatic victory dramatically changed the entire geopolitical situation of that time and largely predetermined the further development of events, since from then on Hieron remained Rome’s most faithful ally in Sicily.

This made the war much easier. Self-confidence in successful actions made it possible to reduce the army to two legions (Polib., I, 17, 2). But the need for a more decisive policy forced the consuls of 262 to again increase the army to 400 thousand. Almost all of it was thrown into the siege of Akragant, which was essentially the main stronghold of the Carthaginians in Sicily. The siege lasted seven months, and, despite such a long period, the Romans did not lose patience and did not abandon their intention to capture Akragant Revyako K.A. uk. op. P. 79, because they did not feel the need for anything (Polib., I, 18, 5). In the end, thanks to a reliable rear, the troops captured the city. They captured a large number of prisoners and a lot of all kinds of booty (Polyb., I, 19, 15). However, the successes of 262 were not decisive, since supremacy at sea remained in the hands of the Carthaginians, whose ships constantly terrorized the Roman coast all the way to Ostia (Polib., I, 20, 7). In order to achieve a turning point in the war, it was necessary to change the strategy and look for a solution not in Sicily, but at sea. 25 Razin E.A. uk. op. P. 293. By this time it was becoming increasingly clear that without possessing a large fleet, Rome would not be able to win the war. Therefore, it was decided to build 100 five-decker, 20 three-decker ships and recruit 30 thousand oarsmen from among the Romans and their allies (Polib., I, 20, 9). In general, as military researchers note, the Roman fleet was significantly inferior to the Carthaginian fleet in terms of combat qualities: the ships were clumsy and the crews were poorly trained. But thanks to the use of ravens - special bridges with hooks at the end, the forces of the Romans and Carthaginians became almost equal.

In 260, near the Aeolian Islands, northwest of Messana, the first naval battle took place between the Roman and Carthaginian fleets. According to the calculations of modern researchers, the number of ships of the opponents was approximately equal: 120 for the Romans, 130 for the Carthaginians. Thanks to the use of boarding bridges, Rome achieved a major victory, destroying 50 enemy ships in the process. “The Carthaginians, frightened by the unusual method of war, fled, losing fifty ships” (Polyb., I, 23, 10). The victory at the Aeolian Islands brought Rome power over the Sicilian cities of Segesta, Macella and the surrounding lands. Revyako K.A. uk. op. P. 82 This was followed by a series of military expeditions to Sardinia and Corsica. There, the consul of 259 Lucius Cornelius Scipio managed to defeat the forces of the Carthaginians and occupy a number of the most important cities. What were the results of the first period of the war? Rome captured a number of cities in Sicily and won a number of naval victories. But did this affect his foreign policy? Obviously not. Most of the annexed cities received the status of allies and only a few were governed by martial law. In confirmation of the above, one can cite the example of the same Mamertines, who, after the capture of Messana, “were accepted into the alliance” (Polib., I, II). That is, they acquired the status of allies of the Roman people, and not of its subordinates.

Over the next three years, no major events occurred. This makes it possible to assume that the powers were preparing for a decisive breakthrough (Polib., I, 26, 2). And indeed, by 256, the Romans had assembled 330 triremes (Polib., I, 25, 7) for an airborne landing in Africa. In the summer of the same year, they set course for Carthage, but a large enemy fleet (about 350 ships) was already waiting for them near Cape Eknom. The opponents were absolutely equal, notes Polybius (I, 28, 5). Thanks to clear organization and good interaction, the Romans were able to win a second major victory at sea. In addition to the capture of about 64,000 prisoners of war (Polib., I, 28, 14), it had other more far-reaching consequences. In the Mediterranean basin there was a change in the balance of power: the Romans were given a direct route to Carthage.

Initially, after the landing, Rome was successful: a number of the most important strategic points were captured, and large cities were blockaded. But then, among the Roman legionaries, riots began, caused by a breakdown in discipline. And this is not surprising, because nine-tenths of the army consisted of Italian peasants, who for the first time participated in a major overseas campaign, the interests of which were alien to them. The peasants began to demand that they be allowed to go home to cultivate the fields. And the Roman command made concessions, obviously wanting to maintain good relations with the allies. It was decided to leave in Africa only 15 thousand infantry, 500 horsemen, 40 ships (Polyb., I, 29,7). Consul Regulus was appointed commander of these forces. The army was mainly engaged in plundering and ruining the country. Historiography traditionally associates the course of further events with the mediocrity of the Roman commander. Kovalev S.I. uk. op. P.192. So, after several successful raids, he was asked to make peace, but he refused, putting forward unacceptable conditions. (Polyb., I, 31, 5)

At this time, the Carthaginians were not idle either. So, good cavalry was recruited from the nomads of Numidia, a large number of infantry were recruited, and the Greek Xanthippus, a man of Laconian upbringing, excellently tested in military affairs, was invited to the post of commander of the army (Polib., I, 32, 2). In the spring of 255, his newly trained army defeated the Romans. And the consul Regulus was captured and, according to one version, was soon executed. As a result, only 2 thousand Romans managed to take refuge in the fortress of Klupeia (Polyb., I, 34, 7-12), from where the fleet soon took them out. In general, it must be said that the year 255 was extremely unsuccessful for the Romans: almost all large naval formations were destroyed by terrible storms, including those ships that transported the army being evacuated to Italy. Of course, such large material and human losses could not but affect the affairs of Rome. Many researchers believe that the African campaign was unsuccessful and ended in complete disaster. Razin E.A. uk. op. P.298 But in reality this is not entirely true. Such large-scale military actions for the first time showed the power of the young Roman state and its capabilities in achieving a military goal. Rome also managed to undermine the economy of Carthage for some time, which made it possible to better prepare for the next stage of the struggle. Whether Rome had aggressive goals when organizing a campaign in Africa is a highly controversial issue. How should this enterprise be viewed: as an adventure or as an attempt to gain a foothold in enemy territory? The answer to this question is very difficult, if not impossible. And yet, if we consider the invasion of Africa as an attempt to finally put an end to Carthage, then the logic of the behavior of the Roman Senate, which ordered most of the troops to return to Italy, remains unclear. Unfortunately, due to the tragic death of most of the army (Polib., I, 37), we were never able to find out about its true purpose. After all, it is quite possible that it was she who was prepared for the task of clearing Sicily of the enemy.

Over the next 12 years, Sicily became the main scene of conflict. Military operations boiled down mainly to attempts by both sides to capture one or another city. So the city of Panormus was besieged by the Carthaginians. But attempts to take it were unsuccessful. At the same time, the Romans annexed a number of settlements, also blocked the large fortress of Lilebei (Polyb., I, 42), and captured Eryx. Perhaps the lower activity of the Carthaginians is explained by the fact that at that time another party came to power in Carthage and a change of course occurred. A new intensification of actions began in 242, when the consul Gaius Lutatius Catullus, at the head of a newly assembled large fleet, set off for the shores of Sicily, completely unexpectedly for the Carthaginians (Polyb., I, 58, 9). The Romans quickly captured the Drepana harbor and all the piers of Lillebey. Having hastily assembled and equipped its squadron, Carthage sent it to Sicily under the command of Hanno (Polib., I, 60, 2-4). The decisive battle took place near the Aegatian Islands in March 241. In it, Carthage lost 120 ships. In general, this year was in many ways a turning point for both sides, as both powers realized that the war had reached a dead end. Therefore, it is no coincidence that calls for a truce began to be heard more and more often from different sides. But still, the initial initiative came from Carthage: the Senate gave Hamilcar the authority to conduct military negotiations. Both commanders-in-chief worked out the text of the peace treaty, which is reported by Polybius (I, 62,8-9). According to it, the Carthaginians were obliged to leave all of Sicily, not fight with Hieron, not go to war with Syracuse and its allies, hand over all prisoners to Rome without ransom, and also pay 2,000 Euboean talents of silver within 20 years. But the Roman government considered the treaty too lenient and refused to ratify it. A commission was sent to Carthage, which became convinced that any major concessions were unlikely to be achieved, and the enemies could resume the war. Therefore, in the final version of the agreement, only a few points were changed. In particular, the indemnity was increased to 3.2 thousand talents, which were to be paid over 10 years, and among other things, Carthage undertook to cleanse the Aeolian Islands (Polib., I, 63,3). On these terms, the treaty was approved by the Roman popular assembly in 241 BC. And so ended the 23-year struggle, which cost both sides a lot of effort.

ANCIENT WORLD HISTORY:
East, Greece, Rome/
I.A.Ladynin and others.
M.: Eksmo, 2004

Section II

The rise of slavery in Italy.
Creation of the Roman Mediterranean Power
(III-I centuries BC)

Chapter V

The struggle of Rome with Carthage (264-201 BC)

5.2. First Punic War (264-241 BC)

The war over Sicily between Rome and Carthage broke out in 264 BC. e. The reason for it was the dramatic events in Messana, the second most important (after Syracuse) city in Sicily. Campanian mercenaries (so-called Mamertines), back in 284 BC. e. As a result of the rebellion, those who captured the city and plundered it initially gained a foothold in it, but during the ensuing war with the Syracusan tyrant Hieron II they found themselves in a desperate situation and turned to Rome for help. Intervention in Sicilian affairs meant for Rome an inevitable war with Carthage. After some hesitation, the Senate, under pressure from the comitia, nevertheless accepted the Mamertines into the Italian Union and sent a consular army to help them. Carthage declared war on Rome, and hostilities began.

In Sicily, the affairs of the Romans initially went well: they defeated the troops of the Syracusans and Carthaginians, liberated Messana from the siege, and the following year, having won a second victory over the combined forces of Syracuse and Carthage, they forced Hiero to conclude peace and alliance with Rome. In 262 BC. e. The Romans, after a six-month siege, occupied Akragant and pushed the Carthaginian troops to the southwestern corner of the island. Meanwhile, the Carthaginian fleet, which dominated the sea, inflicted significant material damage on the enemy, completely paralyzing Roman-Italian trade. The Carthaginians landed troops in the most vulnerable places of the Apennine Peninsula and ruined the allies of Rome. It was obvious that without a strong fleet, the Roman Republic could not count on a quick successful conclusion to the war. Having mobilized the forces and resources of the Italian allies, Rome already in 260 BC. e. had a fleet of 120 warships. In the first clash near the Aeolian Islands, the Carthaginians easily gained the upper hand, capturing the entire Roman squadron (17 ships) led by the consul, but were subsequently defeated in the battle of Milae (260 BC). The Carthaginian fleet lost 50 ships, 3 thousand people killed and 7 thousand prisoners. The Roman consul Gaius Duilius successfully used boarding bridges (“crows”) in this battle, which were thrown onto the decks of the galleys: this made it possible to use the superiority of the Romans in hand-to-hand combat.

In 259-257 Don. e. military operations took place in Sicily and Sardinia without decisive successes on both sides. In 256 BC. e. The Roman fleet (330 galleys), having defeated the Carthaginian squadron (350 ships) at Cape Eknom near the southern coast of Sicily, headed to the shores of Africa. Having landed, the Romans in a short time captured, according to Appian, over 200 cities and towns subject to Carthage. Having established a winter camp in Tunisia, the consul Marcus Atilius Regulus intended to begin the next campaign with the siege of Carthage. The peace initiative of the Carthaginians was rejected by Regulus, who demanded unconditional surrender. However, the situation soon changed radically: the Spartan Xanthippus formed and trained a new Carthaginian army, which in the spring of 255 BC. e. inflicted a crushing defeat on the Romans, and the consul was captured, where he died some time later. In addition, the Roman squadron, which failed to save Regulus’s army, encountered a storm on its way back, in which three-quarters of the ships were lost. As a result, Rome had to re-form the army and equip the fleet.

The fighting of the second stage of the war (255-241 BC) took place in Sicily with varying degrees of success. In 254 BC. e. The Romans captured Panormus, but the following year lost another 150 ships due to a storm. The outfitting of new ships progressed slowly due to financial difficulties. Meanwhile, after a series of defeats suffered by the Carthaginian troops from the Romans in 252-249. BC e., of all their Sicilian possessions, the Carthaginians retained only Lilybaeum and Drepana.

The Romans besieged Lilybaeum, but the siege dragged on because the Carthaginians freely supplied the besieged with everything they needed from the sea. After the Roman fleet under the command of the consul Publius Claudius Pulcher in 249 BC. e. was defeated at Drepana, losing 93 ships, 8 thousand people killed and 20 thousand prisoners, and the next year two other squadrons died in a storm, the Carthaginians seized supremacy at sea. In Sicily their commander was Hamilcar Barca ("Lightning") from 247 BC. e. successfully fought with the Romans, inflicting sensitive blows on them.

Both sides were exhausted by the long war. In 248-243. BC e. military operations were limited to minor skirmishes on land and at sea. The position of the Romans turned out to be more favorable, since they occupied a significant part of Sicily and blocked the last Carthaginian strongholds - Lilybaeum and Drepana. However, without a fleet it was impossible to deliver a decisive blow to the enemy, and there was no money in the treasury for the construction of ships. Then the Romans, using donations collected by subscription, created a squadron of 200 galleys. In March 241 BC. e. In the battle of the Aegatian Islands, the new Roman fleet under the command of the proconsul Gaius Lutatius Catulus and the praetor Publius Valerius Fulton completely defeated the Carthaginian squadron of Hanno, which lost 120 ships. After this, the fall of Lilybay and Drepana was a foregone conclusion.

Carthage asked for peace, which was concluded in 241 BC. e. In accordance with the terms of the agreement, the Carthaginians had to leave Sicily and the Aeolian Islands, pay an indemnity of 3.2 thousand talents (about 84 tons of silver) and hand over all Roman prisoners. Subsequently, taking advantage of the uprising of peasants, shepherds, slaves and mercenaries against Carthage, the Romans freely took Sardinia and Corsica from him (238 BC) and organized the first provinces there (as well as in Sicily) (227 BC . e.).

(264-241 BC)

In the IV-III centuries BC. e. Rome gradually defeated all its political opponents in Italy. As a result of the Latin War, three wars with the Samnites and the conquest of the cities of Magna Graecia in southern Italy, the Roman Republic extended its influence to almost the entire Apennine Peninsula. Only the Gauls who lived in the Po River valley remained unconquered. Thus, Rome became a strong power and began to dream of new conquests.

Its counterweight was Carthage. In political, economic and military matters, he occupied a dominant position in the Western Mediterranean. The city of Carthage arose as a Phoenician colony in Africa at the end of the 9th century BC. e. Gradually it became a powerful state with vast possessions covering North Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, western Sicily, the Balearic Islands, southern Iberia up to Cadiz (southwest Spain).

We all know that two bears do not get along in the same den. And Rome and Carthage precisely became these very bears, whose den was the Western Mediterranean. And the island of Sicily had the most important strategic importance in it. Control of Sicily guaranteed a dominant position over the trade routes linking the western and eastern waters of the Mediterranean.

Carthage kept a very close eye on the growing power of Rome. At first, these two states were even allies. But the Roman Republic became more and more powerful, and, in the end, the moment came when the treaty of alliance began to interfere with it. That is, Rome decided on a military conflict with Carthage in order to prove its superiority by force of arms.

The brewing confrontation resulted in the Punic Wars, and the First Punic War took place in 264-241 BC. e. This military conflict lasted 23 years without interruption. It must be said that ancient historians called this war “Punic”, and not “Carthaginian” or “Roman-Carthaginian”. The point here is that the Romans called the Carthaginians “Punians” in their own way. And therefore, in ancient sources there is not a single record that mentions the Carthaginians; they were characterized as Punics.

Beginning of the First Punic War

Most of Sicily was under the control of Carthage. Only Syracuse had complete independence. After the death of the tyrant of Syracuse, Agatholcus in 289 BC. e., political unrest and unrest began on the island. They were caused by the Mamertines (sons of Mars). This is what the mercenaries of Agatholk called themselves. After his death they were sent home. But the mercenaries knew nothing but how to fight. They captured the city of Messina and proclaimed it their republic.

Messina turned into a den of robbers. They began to raid the interior of the island and took control of the entire northeast of Sicily. Hiero II was the king of Syracuse. This man, depending on the political situation, sympathized either with Carthage or Rome. In 266 BC. e. he defeated the Mamertines and liberated all lands from them except Messina.

The robbers panicked and turned to Rome for help. He decided to take the Mamertines under his protection, which displeased Carthage. He sent his fleet under the command of Hanno to Messina. Hanno's warriors occupied the city fortress, and the Mamertines and Hiero II concluded a truce.

In the spring of 264 BC. e. The envoy of the Roman Republic, Gaius Claudius, arrived in Messina. However, the Mamertines declared that they no longer needed Rome's help. But the Romans, interested in the city, decided to turn the situation around. Guy Claudius gathered residents in the city square. Hanno also came to this meeting. The Romans treacherously captured him and, under torture, forced him to give the order to withdraw the Carthaginians from the city.

The Carthaginian garrison left Messina, and the Roman legionaries settled there and took control. It was these events that provoked the First Punic War, since Carthage did not want Rome to gain a foothold in Sicily.

A large Carthaginian army was sent to Messina, which, in alliance with Hieron II, began a siege of the city. The Romans also sent their army to the island. As a result of the fighting, the Punes lifted the siege of Messina and left. The Romans besieged Syracuse, but the siege ended unsuccessfully for them. The Roman army left Sicily, which did not mean the end of the war.

Progress of hostilities

Sicily is a hilly volcanic island with complex terrain. Therefore, no large-scale battles were fought on the island. Everything was limited to minor battles and skirmishes. The siege of cities was mainly practiced, and seaports became the main targets. The warring parties viewed them as bases where they could land troops and deliver food.

War in Sicily

In 263 BC. e. 4 Roman legions were transported to the island. Impressed by such strength, Hiero II entered into an alliance with Rome and pledged to supply food to the legionnaires. The Romans captured several dozen cities in the eastern part of Sicily, but the invasion of the western part of the island ended in defeat.

At the same time, Carthage formed a large mercenary army of Ligurians, Celts and Iberians. It consisted of 50 thousand infantry, 6 thousand cavalry and 60 elephants. It was planned to throw this force against the Roman legionaries, relying at the same time on well-fortified cities. The infantry, elephants, and cavalry were concentrated in the city of Acragante in southwestern Sicily.

The Romans approached there and a 6-month siege began, as a result of which the city fell. For Carthage this was a serious defeat. But he had a fleet that was significantly superior to the Roman one. This prompted Rome to quickly build its fleet. He began to successfully resist the Carthaginian squadron, thanks to boarding practice. Military operations on land continued with varying success.

In 260 BC. e. A naval battle took place, which went down in history as the Battle of Mila. In it, the Carthaginian fleet was defeated, and Rome after that became a real naval power. After this, the Romans began an attack on the west of Sicily and advanced towards the city of Terme. However, they were defeated by the Carthaginians and thrown back.

Only in 258 BC. e. The Romans managed to retake the initiative. They captured several cities in the central regions of Sicily and reached Palermo, but were unable to take it. After this, the Romans came to the conclusion that the war in Sicily could drag on for a long time and not bring any results. Therefore, it was decided to start a military campaign in Africa.

Military company in Africa

To do this, in 256 BC. e. The Roman Republic equipped its fleet with 330 warships. This naval force met at Cape Eknom with the Carthaginian fleet, numbering 350 ships. In a naval battle, the Carthage fleet was defeated. After this, the Romans landed in Africa, and the First Punic War continued in lands that had long belonged to the Phoenicians.

The Romans were commanded by Marcus Regulus. He devastated the lands of Carthage. The situation was aggravated by the uprising of Libyans who supported the invaders. To save the situation, the Carthaginians transferred a strong contingent of troops from Sicily, consisting of infantry and cavalry. This military unit entered into battle with the Roman legions. It went down in history as the Battle of Adis in 255 BC. e. Marcus Regulus completely defeated the enemy, and Carthage sued for peace.

Negotiations began, but Regulus, inspired by the victory, wanted too much. As a result, the negotiations ended in nothing, and hostilities continued. But this time Carthage decided to use the services of mercenaries from Greece, commanded by the Spartan Xanthippus. He led the entire Punian army and in the battle near the city of Tuneta in 255 BC. e. defeated the legions of Marcus Regulus. War elephants, which crushed the ranks of the Roman infantry, played a big role in the victory. Regulus himself and 500 other soldiers were captured.

To save the remnants of their military contingent in Africa, the Romans equipped a new fleet of 350 ships. They managed to defeat the Carthaginian fleet and save their defeated African units. But on the way back to Italy, a storm broke out, destroying almost the entire Roman fleet. And the Punes suppressed the uprising of the Libyans and burned the city of Akragant in Sicily, since they did not hope to hold it. Thus ended the African campaign of the Roman Republic. However, the First Punic War, despite everything, did not stop.

Further military actions

We must give credit to the Roman Republic. She quickly regained her strength and created a new fleet of 140 ships. After this, the strategy of capturing Carthaginian cities in Sicily continued.

The Romans attempted to capture Marsala from the sea, which was the center of Carthaginian power on the island. An attempt was also made to re-land a military unit in Africa. But all these attempts ended in failure.

However, the Roman legions achieved success in the north of Sicily. Their main goal was Palermo. In 251 BC. e. the city fell after fierce resistance from the Carthaginians. After this, many cities in western Sicily made peace with the Romans. Among them were Ietas, Solus, Tyndaris, Petra.

Inspired by the victory, the Roman legions attempted to capture Marsala. They gathered a large army near the city and besieged it for a long time. But they couldn’t take it. And in 249 BC. e. The naval battle of Drepan took place. In it, the Roman fleet was completely destroyed, and Carthage regained supremacy at sea.

After this, there was a decline in hostilities, as both warring parties were extremely exhausted. In 247, Hamilcar (father of Hannibal) became the commander-in-chief of the Carthaginians in Sicily. He skillfully repelled the attacks of the Romans and struck back. For his successful and swift attacks, he received the nickname Barka (lightning). But this military leader was unable to turn the tide of the war.

By 242, Rome had built a new large fleet of lightweight ships. And in 241, this flotilla met the naval forces of Carthage in the Battle of the Aegatian Islands. The Punic fleet was completely destroyed, and Rome again began to dominate the sea. Thus, the army of Hamilcar Barca was cut off from Carthage. As a result, interruptions began in the supply and payment of salaries to mercenaries.

Rome and Carthage after the First Punic War on the map

In Carthage itself, meanwhile, aristocratic landowners gained power. They opposed the continuation of the war and reduced spending on the navy. These people instructed Hamilcar Barque to begin peace negotiations with the Roman Republic.

They ended in 241 BC. e., and the First Punic War ended. Rome won, but on conditions quite acceptable to Carthage. The latter lost Sicily and the Aegadian Islands, and had to pay a large indemnity for 10 years. He was forbidden to attack Syracuse and its allies. Both sides committed themselves not to fight each other in the future. At the same time, Corsica, Sardinia and North Africa remained under the complete control of Carthage.

Both powers were extremely exhausted after the 23-year war. During the hostilities, Rome lost 700 ships, and Carthage 500. As for the number of people, losses were measured in tens of thousands on both sides, but there is no exact data. The Roman Republic became a great maritime power, but the war did not reconcile Carthage with Rome. Disagreements between states died down only for a while. And as you know, a smoldering spark can turn into a flame at any moment.

1st Punic War. Organization of the first provinces.

1. Chronology. 264-241.

2. Reasons and reasons for the war. The Mamertines were mercenaries of the Syracusan tyrant Agathocles. After his death, 289 were left idle and captured Messana and began to live there.

The Syracusan Hiero captured Messana, for which he was elected king of Syracuse, Hiero II. The Mamertines called for help from the Carthaginians, for whom Messana was important as a) a trading point and b) a springboard for a possible push into Italy. The Mamertines realized how screwed up they were, and two parties arose among them: some proposed to recognize the dominance of Carthage, others - to call on the Romans for help. The 2nd won and an embassy was sent to Rome with a corresponding proposal. Rome faced a difficult decision, because... a) they haven’t fought with Carthage before, they don’t know what it is capable of b) the war will definitely bring young and active people to power, and this is bad for nobles c) Sicily is not only a geological continuation of App. peninsula, but also a logical continuation of the Roman policy of conquest; if Carthage takes Messana, Rome will never see Sicily. We decided to support Messana (264).

3. Progress of the war.

264 – 241 - First Punic War (Rome - Carthage).

264 - capture of Messana by the Romans; Appius Claudius left a garrison there and the 264 campaign ended.

263 - an alliance was concluded with Hieron (Syracuse); Carthage holds the southwest corner of Sicily (Agrigentum); troops are being recruited.

262 - capture of Agrigentum and battle with Carthaginian reinforcements; all killed and sold into slavery; complete displacement of the Poons from Sicily (with the exception of the city of Lilybaea).

260 - creation of the first Roman fleet; there are already few Puns in Sicily => you need to move to the mainland, and for this you need a fleet; it is much worse than the Carthaginian one, but it was invented by the so-called. crow.

260 - Battle of the Lepar Islands (Pune - Rome); the first Roman victory at sea.

260 - Battle of the Nile (Rome - Pune).

259 - Lucius Cornelius Scipio took Corsica (Aleria); the punes are still in the southwestern corner of Sicily, and it is not easy to dislodge them from there => a daring plan to strike Africa.

256 – Roman expedition to Africa (Marcus Attilius Regulus)

256 - Battle of Cape Eknom (Rome - Pune); on the way to Africa; the Romans land in Africa; one of the consuls sails to Rome with the loot; only Regulus remains in Africa; approaching Carthage, he offers a humiliating peace for the Carthaginians; they reject him and invite the experienced Spartan commander Xanthippus.

255 - destruction of the army and fleet of Regulus (Xanthippus); The Romans leave the Athenian theater. Now the war is taking place mostly in Sicily. Palermo taken. But the Romans are constantly caught in storms and run aground - inexperienced.

250 - the Carthaginians make an unsuccessful attempt to take Palermo; This is the first time the Romans have defeated the elephants, and this is important.

250 - Roman siege of Lilybaeum and Drepana (long, tedious and fruitless)

247 - Carthaginian troops in Sicily were led by Hamilcar Barca; transition to active politics; At the same time, Hamilcar was deprived of the support of Carthage, which turned to wars with the peoples of Africa.

242 - creation of the second Roman fleet; This is a big surprise for the Poons; Catullus blocks Drepana and Lilybaeum from the sea, as a result of which the fortresses finally begin to die out from hunger.

241 - Battle of the Egamian Islands (Rome - Pune); decisive; an unkempt Pune fleet came to meet Catullus; broken.

241 – “peace” treaty with the Puns; Hamilcar and Catullus. Polybius (I, 62, 8 - 9): “On the following conditions, if they are pleasing to the Roman people, there should be friendship between the Carthaginians and the Romans: the Carthaginians are obliged to cleanse all of Sicily, not to fight with Hiero, not to go to war with the Syracusans, nor on their allies; the Carthaginians are obliged to hand over all prisoners to the Romans without ransom; The Carthaginians are obliged to pay the Romans two thousand two hundred Euboean talents of silver over a period of twenty years.” The treaty was not ratified immediately. The size of the indemnity was increased to 3,200 talents, the period of its payment was reduced to 10 years, the Poons undertook to liberate the Aeolian Islands.

4. Consequences of the war.

a. Carthage. Not catastrophic, because besides Sicily there is Spain and much more; indemnity is also not a problem, because a lot of money. The idea of ​​revenge.

b. Rome. The emergence of the provincial system. Testing the Roman-Italian Alliance (it will face a more serious test in Pun 2).

5. Reasons for the victory of Rome.

a. Morality. Rome has citizens personally interested in victory; Carthage has an oligarchy that oppresses neighboring cities.

b. Army. Rome has legions improved after internal wars (321 Caudino Gorge), Carthage has mercenaries, weakening during a protracted war.

With. Union. Rome relies on the Roman-Italian Alliance.

11. 2nd Punic War and its significance for the creation of the Roman Mediterranean power.

1.Chronology. 218-201.

2. Reasons and reasons for the war. Spanish campaign of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal. Spain is seen as a springboard for revenge. There are a lot of minerals and potential mercenaries there. 237 Gum & Gus sailed to Spain, and before sailing they made 9-year-old Hannibal swear eternal hatred of the Romans. 229 Hamilcar drowned in the river, and under his son-in-law, Carthage’s possessions in Spain expanded to the river. Ebro. New Carthage founded. The Romans are very concerned about Gus’s successes in Spain (231, 226 - two embassies with a note of protest), but they do not come, because... War with the Gauls is brewing. 221 Gus was killed and Hannibal Hamilkarovich Barkid began to rule. 226 During the last embassy, ​​Rome entered into an alliance with Saguntum. 219 Gunn took it, and this was the reason for war.

3. Strengths and plans of the parties. Hannibal was preparing a campaign through the Alps, for which he actively consulted with the Celts. They promised support and guides. The hike promised to be difficult, but this is the only solution. A certain Monomakh, according to Polybius, suggested that Hannibal teach his soldiers to eat human flesh. Hannibal counted on the fragility of the Roman-Italian alliance and was greatly mistaken. The Romans decided to attack Spain and Africa simultaneously (they apparently did not see through Hannibal’s plans).

4. Progress of the war.

219 - capture of Saguntum by the Puns; in the spring of 218 - declaration of war.

218 – Hannibal’s crossing of the Pyrenees and the Alps; his troops are in shambles (½ of the army was lost); Hannibal is actively recruiting troops from the Gauls; before that - brief meetings with Scipio at Rodan, during which Scipio finally understood what the point was. He sailed to guard Hannibal at the exit from the passes; Tiberius was hastily recalled from Africa to help Scipio.

218 - Battle of Ticinus (Pune - Rome (Publius Cornelius Scipio)); Scipio understood the superiority of the Punic cavalry; retreats deeper into the peninsula, awaiting the help of Tiberius. An uprising of the Gauls is about to begin; we must flee to Latium.

218 - Battle of Trebia (Pune - Rome (Titus Sempronius)); Sempronius arrived to help Scipio; he is full of strength and determination, he wants to give the Poons a general battle; Scipio dissuades him, but he is sick and lies with his teeth against the wall; Hannibal, meanwhile, had prepared the battle well: ambush, rest; Sempronius succumbed to provocation and was beaten. All but 1 elephant died. Hannibal moves to Wed. Italy, Rome is trying to stop him; The decision was made to beat the Romans piecemeal.

217 - Battle of Lake Trasimene (Pune - Rome (Gaius Flaminius Nepos)). Hannibal again provoked the consul, ambushed him, and killed everyone. The Italic prisoners were released without ransom - an ideological war (he wanted to destroy the Roman-Italian union). Hannibal then goes south, devastating the war and resting his army. In Rome, panic => dictatorship of Quintus Fabius Maximus. He headed for a protracted war (hence the Kunctator), without descending into the plain, where he could be defeated by the strong Puna cavalry. The patience of the Romans snapped when Cunctator missed Hannibal on his way out of Samnium. The chief of cavalry under Cunctator, Minucius Rufus, was also endowed with dictatorship => for the first time in Rome there were 2 dictators.

216 - Battle of Cannae (Pune - Rome (Gaius Terentius Varro)). See the corresponding ticket; This is a turning point battle. Then Hannibal directs all his forces to destroy the Roman-Italian alliance. 216 Capua, the second city in Italy after Rome, fell away. But central Italy is still under Rome. There is panic in Rome, 2 legions of slaves are recruited, oracles are questioned, sacrifices are made. Spain briefly finds itself under Rome, then moves back.

215 - alliance of Carthage with Philip V of Macedon (Mac 1 215-205). Illyrian War. The Romans ceded minor territories. Alliance with the Achaean League against Philip and peace.

213 – expedition to Sicily (Marcus Claudius Marcellus); after the death of Hiero, Syracuse falls away from Italy; war is necessary. Long siege. Activities of Archimedes. Capture and plunder of the city. by 210 all of Sicily was taken.

211 - capture of Capua; The Romans besieged the city for a long time, Hannibal went to Rome to distract them (Hannibal ante portas), but this did not help. The fallen allies begin to defect to Rome. Both sides are exhausted.

210 – expedition to Spain. Capture of New Carthage by Scipio. Hasdrubal makes a dash to Italy (again through the Alps) in order to help Hannibal, who is locked in Apulia. At the Battle of Metaurus he is defeated and dies.

204 - expedition to Africa (Publius Cornelius Scipio). Battle of the Great Fields. A successful expedition.

202 - Battle of Zama (Rome - Pune); Features of the formation of the Roman army - with the aim of giving passage to enemy elephants.

201 – “peace” treaty with the Poons. Carthage was to lose all its extra-African possessions. It remained an independent state, but was deprived of the right to wage war without the permission of the Roman people. Masinissa must be returned all the possessions of both the king himself and his ancestors “within the limits that will be indicated by him.” The Carthaginians were obliged to compensate for all damage caused during the violation of the truce of the previous year, return all prisoners and defectors, hand over all warships, with the exception of 10 three-deckers, as well as all elephants. In addition, Carthage pledged to maintain Roman troops in Africa for 3 months and pay an indemnity of 10 thousand talents for 50 years, contributing 200 talents annually. To secure the agreement, the Carthaginians were obliged to give 100 hostages at the direction of Scipio. Scipio received the nickname "African".

5. Results of the war.

a. Rome. The first power in the Mediterranean. The country is ruined, but the Roman-Italian alliance is strengthening, because... The authority of Rome increased, and there were reasons to tighten the management of the union, which was done. The political weight of the nobles is growing and the democrats are falling. In a war, it is not beneficial to have military leaders replaced every year => there were precedents when the same person was consul several times. Weakening of the principle of collegiality. Development of military art.

Against Carthage occupy a significant place in the history of the Ancient World. They influenced the further development of the Mediterranean and all of Europe. Second 218-201 BC e. - the brightest of the three that took place. It is also called the Hannibal War, or the war against Hannibal. In addition to Rome and Carthage, Numidia, Pergamum, the Aetolian League, Syracuse, the Achaean League and Macedonia took part in this confrontation.

Background

In 242 BC. e. A peace treaty was signed, ending the First Punic War. As a result of this agreement, Carthage lost control of the income from the possession of Sicily, and the almost monopoly trade of the Carthaginians in the Western Mediterranean was greatly undermined by Rome. As a result, Carthage was in a difficult economic situation, and its ruling dynasty of the Barcids was at a political disadvantage - the opposition intensified. Even then it was clear that the Second Punic War would soon take place between Rome and Carthage with the aim of destroying one of them, since there was no place for two major powers in the Mediterranean.

Rivalry for Spain

Hamilcar, commander-in-chief of the Carthaginian army, launched campaigns to conquer the territories of Spain. Firstly, it was very rich in natural resources, and secondly, it was possible to get to Italy quite quickly from Spain. Hamilcar, together with his son-in-law Hasdrubal, was active in expanding the borders of Carthage for almost 10 years, until he was killed during the siege of Helica. His comrade-in-arms, Hasdrubal, became a victim of the Iberian barbarian in New Carthage, founded by him.

New Carthage instantly became the center of all Western Mediterranean trade, as well as the administrative center of the Punic possessions. Thus, Carthage not only compensated for its losses as a result of the First War with Rome, but it also gained new markets, and the silver mines of Spain enriched the Barkids and deprived their political opponents of any support. Second Punic War 218-201 BC e. was only a matter of time.

Rome's worries

Roman politicians and military leaders were very concerned about the growing power of Carthage. Rome understood that now it was not too late to stop the Poons, but after some time it would be difficult. Therefore, the Romans began to look for a reason to start a war. During the lifetime of Hannibal's father, Hamilcar, a border was drawn between Carthage and Rome in Spain along the Iber River.

Rome enters into an alliance with Sogunt. It was clearly directed against Carthage, and specifically to stop its advance further north. The beginning of the Second Punic War was approaching, Rome did not need such a strong neighbor, but it also could not openly act as an aggressor, so an alliance was concluded with Sogunt. It is clear that Rome did not intend to defend its ally, but Carthage’s attack on it provided a pretext for starting a war.

Hannibal of the Barkids dynasty

Hannibal was destined to become a symbol of the struggle against Roman rule in the Mediterranean basin; he succeeded in what no one had dared to do before him. He was a talented commander and military leader; his soldiers respected him not for his high origins, but for his personal merits and leadership qualities.

From an early age, Father Hamilcar took his son on hikes. All his adult life he was in military camps, where from childhood he looked death in the face. Dozens, hundreds, if not thousands of people were killed before his eyes. He's already used to it. Constant training turned Hannibal into a skilled fighter, and his study of military affairs turned him into a brilliant commander. Meanwhile, Hamilcar did everything in order to get closer to the Hellenistic world, so he taught the Greek alphabet to his son and accustomed him to the culture of the Greeks. The father understood that Rome could not be dealt with without allies, and he taught his sons to their culture, and also encouraged an alliance. Hannibal was to play an important role in this process. He had been planning the Second Punic War for many years. And after the death of his father, he swore that he would destroy Rome.

Causes of the war

There are three main reasons that led to the outbreak of the second war between Rome and Carthage:

1. Humiliating consequences for Carthage under the terms of the peace treaty that ended the First Punic War.

2. The rapid growth of the territories of Carthage, as well as its enrichment due to the richest possessions in Spain, which resulted in the strengthening of its military power.

3. The siege and capture of Soguntum, allied with Rome, by Carthage, which became the official reason that resulted in the Second Punic War. Its reasons were more formal than real, and yet they led to one of the largest confrontations in the entire history of the Ancient World.

Beginning of the war

After the death of Hamilcar and the assassination of Hasdrubal, Hannibal was elected commander in chief. Then he had just turned 25 years old, he was full of strength and determination to destroy Rome. In addition, he had a fairly good set of knowledge in the field of military affairs and, of course, leadership qualities.

Hannibal did not hide from anyone that he wanted to attack Sogunt, whose ally was Rome, and thereby involve the latter in the war. However, Hannibal did not attack first. He had Soguntus attack the Iberian tribes that were under the rule of Carthage, and only after that he moved his forces against the “aggressor”. Hannibal rightly counted on the fact that Rome would not provide military assistance to Sogunt, since he himself fought against the Gauls and Illyrian pirates. The siege of Sogunt lasted 7 months, after which the fortress was taken. Rome never provided military assistance to its ally. After the capture of Sogunt, Rome sent an embassy to Carthage, which declared war. The Second Punic War has begun!

Hostilities

The war lasted more than 15 years. During this time, military clashes either between Rome and Carthage, or between their allies, almost never ceased. Tens of thousands of people died. Over the years, the advantage changed hands: if in the initial period of the war luck was on Hannibal’s side, then after some time the Romans became more active, inflicting a number of major defeats on the Poons in Iberia and North Africa. At the same time, Hannibal remained in Italy. Hannibal himself achieved great results, making the entire local population tremble before his name.

The Second Punic War showed that Hannibal had no equal in open battle. This is evidenced by the battles at the Ticinus and Trebbia rivers, at Lake Trasimene and, of course, the legendary battles that are sewn into military history like a red thread.

The fighting took place on several fronts: in Italy, Spain, Sicily, North Africa and Macedonia, but the “engine” of Carthage and its allies was Hannibal’s army and himself. Therefore, Rome set itself the goal of “bleeding” it, blocking the routes of provisions, weapons and reinforcements for waging war in Italy. Rome succeeded when he realized that Hannibal first needed to be exhausted without general battles, and then finished off. This plan was successful, but before it, Rome suffered one defeat after another, especially the Battle of Cannae. In this battle, Carthage had 50,000 soldiers, Rome - 90,000. The advantage was almost twofold, but even with such a numerical superiority, Rome failed to win. During the battle, 70,000 Roman soldiers were killed and 16,000 were captured, while Hannibal lost only 6,000 men.

There are a number of reasons that led to the victory of Rome. Firstly, this is the fact that the army of Carthage consisted mainly of mercenaries, who did not care at all who they were fighting for - they received payment for it. The mercenaries did not have any patriotic feelings, unlike the Romans, who defended their homeland.

Secondly, the Carthaginians themselves, located in Africa, often did not understand why they needed this war. Within the country, the Barkids again formed a serious opposition that opposed the war with Rome. Even after the Battle of Cannae, the oligarchs of Carthage halfheartedly sent small reinforcements to Hannibal, although this help could have been much more significant, and then the outcome of the war would have been completely different. The whole point is that they feared the strengthening of Hannibal's power and the establishment of a dictatorship, which would be followed by the destruction of the oligarchy as a social class.

Thirdly, the rebellions and betrayals that awaited Carthage at every turn, and the lack of real help from its ally, Macedonia.

Fourthly, this is, of course, the genius of the Roman military school, which acquired a wealth of experience during the war. At the same time, this war became a difficult test for Rome, putting it on the brink of survival. The reasons for the defeat of Carthage in the Second Punic War can still be listed, but they will all stem from these 4 main ones, which led to the defeat of one of the most powerful armies of the Ancient World.

Difference between the Second and First Punic Wars

The two wars were completely different, although they have a similar name. The first was aggressive on both sides, it developed as a result of the rivalry between Rome and Carthage for the possession of the rich island of Sicily. The second was aggressive only from the side of Carthage, but carried out a liberation mission.

The result in both the First and Second Wars was the victory of Rome, a huge indemnity imposed on Carthage, and the establishment of borders. After the end of the Second Punic War, the causes, consequences and historical significance of which are difficult to overestimate, Carthage was generally prohibited from having a fleet. He lost all his overseas possessions and was subjected to an exorbitant tax for 50 years. In addition, he could not start wars without the consent of Rome.

The Second Punic War could have changed the course of history if the commander-in-chief of the Carthaginian forces, Hannibal, had greater support within the country. He could have defeated Rome. Moreover, everything was heading towards this; as a result of the Battle of Cannae, Rome did not have a large army capable of resisting Carthage, but Hannibal, with the available forces, would not have been able to capture a well-fortified Rome. He was waiting for support from Africa and the uprising of Italian cities against Rome, but he never received either the first or the second...