Member states of the Entente and their allies. Creation of an entente

Entente (from the French Entente, Entente cordiale - cordial agreement) - the union of Great Britain, France and Russia (Triple agreement), took shape in 1904-1907 and united during the First World War (1914-1918) against the coalition of the Central Powers more than 20 states including USA, Japan, Italy.

The creation of the Entente was preceded by the conclusion in 1891-1893 of the Russian-French alliance in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance (1882) led by Germany.

The formation of the Entente is associated with the delimitation of the great powers at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, caused by a new balance of power in the international arena and the aggravation of contradictions between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy on the one hand, France, Great Britain and Russia, on the other.
The sharp aggravation of the Anglo-German rivalry, caused by the colonial and commercial expansion of Germany in Africa, the Middle East and other areas, the naval arms race, prompted Great Britain to seek an alliance with France, and then with Russia.

In 1904, a British-French agreement was signed, followed by a Russo-British agreement (1907). These treaties actually formalized the creation of the Entente.

Russia and France were allies, bound by mutual military obligations, determined by the military convention of 1892 and subsequent decisions of the general staffs of both states. The British Government, despite contacts between the British and French General Staffs and the Naval Command established in 1906 and 1912, made no definite military commitments. The formation of the Entente softened the differences between its members, but did not eliminate them. These disagreements were revealed more than once, which Germany used in an attempt to tear Russia away from the Entente. However, the strategic calculations and aggressive plans of Germany doomed these attempts to failure.

In turn, the Entente countries, preparing for war with Germany, took steps to separate Italy and Austria-Hungary from the Triple Alliance. Although Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance until the outbreak of World War I, the ties between the Entente countries strengthened with it, and in May 1915 Italy went over to the side of the Entente.

After the outbreak of the First World War, in September 1914 in London between Great Britain, France and Russia an agreement was signed on the non-conclusion of a separate peace, replacing the allied military treaty. In October 1915, Japan joined this agreement, which in August 1914 declared war on Germany.

During the war, new states gradually joined the Entente. By the end of the war, the states of the anti-German coalition (not counting Russia, which left the war after the October Revolution of 1917) included Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, Italy, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua , Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador, Japan.

The main participants in the Entente - Great Britain, France and Russia, from the first days of the war entered into secret negotiations about the goals of the war. The British-French-Russian agreement (1915) provided for the passage of the Black Sea straits to Russia, the London Treaty (1915) between the Entente and Italy determined the territorial acquisitions of Italy at the expense of Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Albania. The Sykes-Picot Treaty (1916) divided Turkey's Asian possessions between Britain, France and Russia.

During the first three years of the war, Russia pulled back significant enemy forces, quickly coming to the aid of the Allies as soon as Germany launched serious offensives in the West.

After the October Revolution of 1917, Russia's withdrawal from the war did not disrupt the victory of the Entente over the German bloc, for Russia fully fulfilled its allied obligations, unlike England and France, who more than once broke their promises of assistance. Russia gave England and France the opportunity to mobilize all their resources. The struggle of the Russian army allowed the United States to expand its production capacity, create an army and replace Russia that had withdrawn from the war - the United States officially declared war on Germany in April 1917.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the Entente organized an armed intervention against Soviet Russia - on December 23, 1917, Great Britain and France signed a corresponding agreement. In March 1918, the Entente intervention began, but the campaigns against Soviet Russia ended in failure. The goals that the Entente set for itself were achieved after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, but the strategic alliance between the leading countries of the Entente, Great Britain and France, was preserved in subsequent decades.

The general political and military leadership of the bloc's activities in various periods was carried out by: the Inter-Allied Conferences (1915, 1916, 1917, 1918), the Supreme Council of the Entente, the Inter-Allied (Executive) Military Committee, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces, the main headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, the commanders-in-chief and headquarters on separate theaters of war. Such forms of cooperation were used as bilateral and multilateral meetings and consultations, contacts between commanders in chief and general staffs through representatives of the allied armies and military missions. However, the difference in military-political interests and goals, military doctrines, the incorrect assessment of the forces and means of the opposing coalitions, their military capabilities, the remoteness of the theaters of military operations, the approach to the war as a short-term campaign did not allow the creation of a unified and permanent military-political leadership of the coalition in the war.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources

Questions 42-43.The formation of the triple alliance and the Entente and their military-political confrontation at the beginning of the 20th century.

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 greatly changed international relations in Europe and determined the rise of Germany as one of the leading players in the international arena. After this war, Germany took a course to establish its hegemony in Europe. France was her only obstacle. The ruling circles believed that France would never accept the loss of Alsace and Lorraine and would always strive for revenge. Bismarck hoped to deliver a second blow to France in order to relegate her to the level of a minor power. Bismarck begins to isolate France, to make sure that she has as few sympathetic countries as possible who would come to her aid. Bismarck pursues an active policy of creating an Anti-French Alliance, choosing Russia and Austria-Hungary. For Russia, it would be of interest to get rid of the consequences of the Crimean War (according to the results, Russia was forbidden to have a Black Sea Fleet). In the 1870s Russia's relations with Great Britain on problems in the East are complicated. Austria-Hungary sought to enlist the support of Germany in order to dominate the Balkans.

AT 1873 created Union of the Three Emperors(If one of the states is attacked, the other two will help him in the war).

Bismarck began to put pressure on France - in 1975 he was provoked Franco-German alarm of 1975(in France, a number of priests advocated revenge on E. and Lot. Bismarck accused the French authorities that this was their initiative, began to prepare a war against the French). Alexander 2 specially arrived in Berlin to personally tell Wilhelm that he did not support Germany in her war with France. This was one of the first blows to C3imp. He was also undermined by the contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary due to rivalry in the Balkans. And in 1879 a customs war broke out between Russia and Germany.

Formation of the Triple Alliance began with the design of 1879 Austro-German Confederation. This rapprochement was facilitated by the deterioration of Russian-German relations (Russia stood up for France during the war of alarm in 1875. And in 1879, after the introduction in Germany of high duties on bread imported from Russia, the latter followed up with retaliatory measures, which led to Russian- German customs war).

On October 7, 1879, in Vienna, the German ambassador Reiss and Andrássy, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary, signed a secret alliance treaty. This treaty obliged each of its participants to provide assistance to the other with all military forces in the event of an attack by Russia and not to enter into separate negotiations with it. If the attack was made by any other side, then - neutrality. However, if the attacking power was supported by Russia, then the parties must act jointly and with all their might. The union was concluded for 5 years, but subsequently extended until the world war.

The next step in the creation of the military-political bloc of the Central European powers was the accession to Austro-German Union of Italy (1882). The latter was prompted to sign the treaty by the aggravation of relations with France (in 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, which was negatively perceived in Italy).

Despite claims against Austria-Hungary, Italy concluded in 1882 the so-called Tripartite Alliance. According to it, the parties pledged not to take part in any alliances and agreements directed against one of the parties to the treaty, Germany and Austria-Hungary provided Italy with military support in the event of a war with France. Italy assumed similar obligations in the event of a French attack on Germany. Austria-Hungary in this case remained neutral until Russia entered the war. The parties adhered to neutrality in case of war with any other than France, and the parties provide support to each other in the event of an attack by two or more great powers.

Formation of the Entente began after the Franco-Russian rapprochement. In 1893, the parties signed a secret military convention.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. Relations between France and England began to improve. England needed continental troops in case of war with Germany. France just had a large land army and sharply conflicted relations with Germany. So far, one could not count on Russia, because. Britain supported Japan in the Russo-Japanese War.

France, on the other hand, needed a strong ally. Russia's positions were weakened by the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. and the beginning of the revolution.

On April 8, 1904, an agreement was signed between the governments of Britain and France on major colonial issues, known in history as the Anglo-French Entente. It established the spheres of influence of countries in Siam (England - the western part, France - the east). The most important was the declaration on Egypt and Morocco. In fact, the colonial rule of England in Egypt and France in Morocco was recognized.

The 1904 treaty did not contain the terms of a military alliance, but all the same, the Anglo-French Entente was directed against Germany.

By 1907 there was an Anglo-Russian rapprochement. Russia's turn to Great Britain is largely connected with the deterioration of relations between the former and Germany. The construction of the Baghdad railway by Germany created a direct threat to Russia. Petersburg was concerned about the German-Turkish rapprochement. The growth of enmity was largely facilitated by the Russian-German trade agreement of 1904, imposed on Russia under pressure from Germany. Russian industry began to be unable to withstand the competition of German goods. Russia wanted to raise its international prestige by rapprochement with England, and also counted on loans from the British side.

The British government regarded Russia as a double ally - in a future war with Germany and in the suppression of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in the East (in 1908, Russia and Britain opposed the revolution in Persia together).

In 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement was signed. In the presence of the Franco-Russian (1893) and Anglo-French treaties (1904), the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 completed the creation of a military-political bloc directed against the coalition of powers led by Germany.

Military-political confrontation between the countries of the Entente and the Triple Alliance in the last thirdXIX - earlyXXin.

Germany, together with Austria-Hungary, stepped up expansion in the Balkans and the Middle East, invading the sphere of interests of Russia and Great Britain. AT 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed occupied for a long time Bosnia and Herzegovina(In 1908, the Young Turk revolution in Turkey, during which the liberation movement of the Slavic peoples begins. Deciding to occupy B. and Herts., A-B buys a concession from Turkey for the construction of a railway to the city of Thessaloniki - Access to the Aegean Sea. Then she officially declares the annexation and Russia protests. However, weakened after the Russo-Japanese war, Russia cannot do anything and suffers a diplomatic defeat) and invited Bulgaria and Romania to share on the three Serbia. Serbia was preparing to repulse any invasion, counting on the support of Russia. But Russia was not ready for a war with Austria-Hungary, on whose side Germany acted, in 1909 it directly pledged to help the Habsburg Empire if Russia interfered in Austro-Serbian relations. Under pressure from Germany, Russia recognized Austria-Hungary's authority over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Russia tried in vain to weaken the rapprochement between Germany and Austria-Hungary, and Germany failed to tear Russia away from the Entente.

The strengthening of the alliance with Austria-Hungary and the relative weakening of Russia allowed Germany to increase pressure on France. First Moroccan Crisis 1905-1906 In 1905, Germany proposes the division of Morocco. She announced that she was applying for the port of Agadir. Wilhelm 2 goes on a trip to Palestine (Germany is the defender of the Muslim peoples) - part of the population of Morocco is imbued with sympathy for Germany and demands the convening of an international conference on the Muslim issue. In 1906 in Spain in the city of Alziserass a conference was held, the result of which was that no one supported Germany in its claims.

Taking advantage of the French invasion of Morocco in 1911 (suppression of unrest in the city of Fess), Germany sent its warship to Agadir (" panther jump") and announced its intention to seize part of Morocco. The conflict could lead to war. But Great Britain resolutely opposed Germany's claims, which did not want the appearance of German colonies near Gibraltar. Germany then did not dare to clash with the Entente and she had to be content with part of the Congo, which she ceded France in exchange for recognizing its authority over Morocco, but since then it has become clear that war between the European powers could break out even over colonies, not to mention more serious mutual claims.

Amid rising tensions, another attempt by Britain to conclude an agreement with Germany under which each of them undertakes not to participate in an unprovoked attack on the other failed. The German leaders proposed a different formula: each side undertakes to remain neutral if the other is involved in the war. This would mean the destruction of the Entente, which Great Britain did not dare to do. In fact, the mutual neutrality of Germany and Great Britain was out of the question, as economic competition became fiercer, and the arms race intensified. The Anglo-German negotiations of 1912 gave hope for the settlement of only minor contradictions over spheres of influence, but gave the ruling circles of Germany the illusion that Britain's neutrality in a European war was not ruled out.

The further weakening of the Ottoman Empire, long considered the "sick man of Europe", led to the emergence of a bloc of the Balkan states directed against it. ("Little Entente"). It was created on the initiative of Serbia, supported by Russia and France. In the spring of 1912, Serbian-Bulgarian and Greek-Bulgarian treaties were signed (after - still Montenegro), with which Montenegro acted in solidarity, which was the first to start hostilities against the Ottoman Empire on October 9. The armed forces of the Balkan states quickly defeated the Turkish army ( First Balkan War 1912-1913). In October 1912, these 4 states start a war with the Turks, Bulgaria made a great contribution. In November 1912, the Bulgarian. army went to Constantinople. In November, Turkey turned to the great powers for mediation.

The successes of the Balkan bloc alarmed Austria-Hungary and Germany, who feared the strengthening of Serbia, especially the annexation of Albania. Both powers were ready to oppose Serbia by force. This would cause a clash with Russia and the entire Entente, which was confirmed by Great Britain. Europe was on the brink of war. To avoid it, a meeting of the ambassadors of the six great powers was held in London, at which the Entente patronized the Balkan states, and Germany and Austria-Hungary patronized the Ottoman Empire, but they still managed to agree that Albania would become an autonomy under the supreme authority of the Sultan and Serbian troops from it will be withdrawn.

After long and difficult negotiations only May 30, 1913 between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states was signed peace treaty. The Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territory, Albania and the Aegean Islands.

However, because of these territories, conflict broke out between the winners. The Montenegrin prince besieged Scutari, not wanting to cede it to Albania. And Serbia and Greece, with the support of Romania, which demanded compensation from Bulgaria for its neutrality, sought from Bulgaria part of the territories it had inherited. Russian diplomacy tried in vain to prevent a new conflict. Encouraged by Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria opposed its former allies. flared up Second Balkan War 1913. austro - Hungary prepared to support Bulgaria with armed force. Only the warnings of Germany, which considered the moment unsuccessful, and Italy kept her from speaking out. Bulgaria, against which the Ottoman Empire also fought, was defeated.

Once again, the ambassadors of the great powers in London took up Balkan affairs, seeking to win over the Balkan states to the side of their blocs and backing up their arguments with loans. On August 18, 1913, a peace treaty was signed between the participants of the second Balkan War, according to which Serbia and Greece received a significant part of Macedonia, Romania got Southern Dobruja, and the Ottoman Empire got part of Eastern Thrace.

The Balkan wars led to a regrouping of forces. The Austro-German bloc increased its influence on the Ottoman Empire, reinforced by sending a German military mission there, and attracted Bulgaria to its side. And the Entente retained its predominant influence in Serbia, Montenegro and Greece and attracted Romania to its side. The Balkans, a focus of intertwining interests and conflicts, has become Europe's powder keg.

A well-known example of the confrontation of political blocs in the international arena is the clash of large countries during the 1900s.

During the period of tension before the events of the First World War, strong players on the world stage came together to dictate their policies and have an advantage in resolving foreign policy issues. In response, an alliance was created, which was supposed to be a counterbalance to these events.

Thus begins the history of confrontation, the basis of which was the Entente and the Triple Alliance. Another name is Antanta or Entente (translated as "cordial consent").

Countries - members of the Triple Alliance

The international military bloc, which was originally formed to strengthen hegemony, included the following list of countries (see table):

Germany- played a key role in the formation of the union, concluding the first military agreement.
Austria-Hungary- the second participant who joined the German Empire.
Italy- joined the union last.

A little later, after the events of World War I, Italy was withdrawn from the bloc, but nevertheless the coalition did not break up, but on the contrary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria additionally entered it.

Creation of the Triple Alliance

The history of the Triple Alliance begins with an allied agreement between the German Empire and Austria-Hungary - these events took place in the Austrian city of Vienna in 1879.

The main clause of the agreement indicated the obligation to enter into hostilities on the side of the ally, if aggression was carried out by the Russian Empire.

In addition, the pact included a requirement to comply with the neutral side if the allies were attacked by someone other than Russia.

At the same time, Germany was worried about the growing position in the international arena of France. Therefore, Otto von Bismarck was looking for ways to push France into isolation.

Favorable conditions developed in 1882, when the Austrian Habsburgs were involved in the negotiations, which played a decisive role in Italy's decision.

The secret alliance between Italy and the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc consisted in providing support for troops in the event of French military aggression, as well as maintaining neutrality in an attack on one of the coalition member countries.

Aims of the Triple Alliance in World War I

The main goal of the Triple Alliance on the eve of the war was the creation of such a military-political coalition, which in its power would oppose the alliance of the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France (opponents).

However, the participating countries also pursued their own goals:

The German Empire, due to its rapidly growing economy, needed as many resources as possible and, as a result, more colonies. The Germans also had claims to the redistribution of spheres of influence in the world, aimed at the formation of German hegemony.
The goals of Austria-Hungary were to establish control over the Balkan Peninsula. For the most part, the case was carried out for the sake of capturing Serbia and some other Slavic countries.
The Italian side had territorial claims to Tunisia, and also sought to secure its access to the Mediterranean Sea, bringing it under its absolute control.

Entente - who was part of and how it was formed

After the formation of the Triple Alliance, the distribution of forces in the international arena changed dramatically and led to a clash of colonial interests between England and the German Empire.

Expansive action in the Middle East and Africa prompted Britain to act more actively, and they began negotiations for a military agreement with the Russian Empire and France.

The beginning of the definition of the Entente was laid in 1904 when France and Great Britain concluded a pact according to which all colonial claims on the African question were transferred under its protectorate.

At the same time, obligations for military support were confirmed only between France and the Russian Empire, while England in every possible way avoided such confirmation.

The emergence of this military-political bloc made it possible to level the differences between the major powers and make them more capable of resisting the aggression of the Triple Alliance.

Accession of Russia to the Entente

The events that marked the beginning of the drawing of the Russian Empire into the Entente bloc occurred in 1892.

It was then that a powerful military agreement was concluded with France, according to which, in case of any aggression, the ally country would withdraw all available armed forces for mutual assistance.

At the same time, by 1906, tensions between Russia and Japan were growing, caused by negotiations on the Treaty of Portsmouth. This could provoke the loss of some Far Eastern territories by Russia.

Realizing these facts, Foreign Minister Izvolsky set a course for rapprochement with Great Britain. This was a favorable move in history, since England and Japan were allies, and an agreement could settle mutual claims.

The success of Russian diplomacy was the signing of the Russo-Japanese Agreement in 1907, according to which all territorial issues were settled. This greatly influenced the acceleration of negotiations with England - the date of August 31, 1907 marked the conclusion of the Russian-English agreement.

This fact was final, after which Russia finally joined the Entente.

The final design of the Entente

The final events that completed the formation of the Entente bloc were the signing of mutual agreements between Britain and France to settle colonial issues in Africa.

This included the following documents:

The division of the territories of Egypt and Morocco was made.
The borders of England and France in Africa were clearly separated. Newfoundland completely departed from Britain, France received part of the new territories in Africa.
Settlement of the Madagascar question.

These documents formed a bloc of alliances between the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France.

Plans of the Entente in the First World War

The main goal of the Entente on the eve of the First World War (1915) was to suppress the military superiority of Germany, which was planned to be implemented from several sides. This is, first of all, a war on two fronts with Russia and France, as well as a complete naval blockade by England.

At the same time, the members of the agreement had a personal interest in:

England had claims to the rapidly and steadily growing German economy, the rate of production of which had an overwhelming effect on the English economy. In addition, Britain saw the German Empire as a military threat to its sovereignty.
France sought to regain the territories of Alsace and Lorraine lost during the Franco-Prussian clash. These lands were also important for the economy due to the large amount of resources.
Tsarist Russia pursued as its goals the spread of influence on the important economic zone of the Mediterranean and the settlement of territorial claims on a number of Polish lands and territories in the Balkans.

The results of the confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance

The result of the confrontation following the results of the First World War was the complete defeat of the Triple Alliance- Italy was lost, and the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires, which were part of the union, collapsed. The system was destroyed in Germany, where a republic reigned.

For the Russian Empire, participation in the Entente and the First World War ended in civil clashes and revolution, which led to the collapse of the empire.

The creation of the Entente was preceded by the conclusion in 1891-1893 of the Russian-French alliance in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance (1882) led by Germany.

In 1904, a British-French agreement was signed, followed by a Russo-British agreement (1907). These treaties actually formalized the creation of the Entente.

During the first three years of the war, Russia pulled back significant enemy forces, quickly coming to the aid of the Allies as soon as Germany launched serious offensives in the West.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources

BRITISH-RUSSIAN NEGOTIATIONS IN 1907

At the beginning of 1906, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Lamzdorf, resigned. Instead, Izvolsky, a former envoy to Copenhagen, who had long moved in the Germanophobic Danish court environment, was appointed. Izvolsky was very inclined towards Anglo-Russian rapprochement. He was very afraid of new complications with Japan and sought to prevent them through an agreement with England. He also hoped that such an agreement would allow Russian diplomacy to resolve the issue of the straits.

In March 1907, the Russian fleet visited England, in Portsmouth. A group of Russian officers, at the invitation of the king, came to London; Here they were warmly welcomed. Gray himself attended the performance organized for Russian sailors.

Izvolsky's fears about Japan had serious grounds. Negotiations for a fishing convention, initiated by the Treaty of Portsmouth, did not proceed smoothly. At the beginning of 1907 they led to a new aggravation of Russian-Japanese relations. Petersburg was afraid that Japan would use Russia's temporary impotence to take away her Far Eastern possessions. Izvolsky believed that an agreement with England would be the best way to obtain certain guarantees against Japan. The foreign office also understood that it was necessary to provide a Russian rear in the Far East in order to fully use Russia against Germany. However, England and Japan remained allies. In August 1905, during the Portsmouth negotiations, the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Alliance was renewed. At the same time, allied obligations were also extended in the event of an attack by any power on India. The treaty effectively recognized Japan's protectorate over Korea. Thus, British diplomacy retained Japanese insurance both against Russia and in case of war with Germany. But now England had to improve Russian-Japanese relations in order to extend insurance to its future Russian ally.

On July 28, 1907, the fishing convention was finally signed; On July 30, 1907, a Russian-Japanese political agreement was also signed. Japan recognized Northern Manchuria - north of the Hunchun line, Lake Birten, the mouth of the Nonni River - as a sphere of influence of Russia. For its part, tsarist Russia recognized South Manchuria and Korea as the sphere of Japan. This agreement significantly improved Russo-Japanese relations. If Russian fears for the security of Vladivostok, Primorye and the CER were not completely dispelled, they were nonetheless weakened. Shortly before the conclusion of the Russian-Japanese agreement, an agreement between Japan and France (June 10, 1907) also took place.

Finally, on August 31, 1907, not without the assistance of France, the Anglo-Russian agreement was signed. From the Russian side it was signed by Izvolsky, from the English side - by the ambassador in St. Petersburg, the champion of the English-Russian Entente A. Nicholson.

The agreement covered Afghanistan, Tibet and Persia. Persia was divided into three zones: northern - Russian, southern (more precisely, southeastern) - English and middle - neutral. Each side undertook not to seek concessions of a political or commercial nature in a "foreign" zone and not to prevent their partner from obtaining them. In the neutral zone, each side retained the right to seek concessions without interfering with the same actions of the other party to the agreement.

The agreement provided for the right to control the revenues of the Persian government in the Russian and English zones. Control was supposed to be introduced in the event of a malfunction of the Persian government in payments on loans to the Russian Accounting and Loan Bank or the English Shahinshah Bank. At the same time, the Russian government could establish control over the income of the Persian treasury coming from the regions assigned to the Russian zone. The British government received appropriate opportunities within its zone. Both governments undertook to "preliminarily enter into a friendly exchange of opinions in the form of determining, by mutual agreement, the indicated control measures."

Tsarist Russia recognized Afghanistan as being "outside the sphere of Russian influence" and pledged "to use the mediation of the British government for all its political relations with Afghanistan."

Both Russia and England pledged not to interfere in the internal affairs of Tibet, not to violate its territorial integrity, and to communicate with it exclusively through the suzerain Chinese government.

Contrary to the efforts of Izvolsky, the agreement did not mention Constantinople and the straits: England did not give Russia any obligations on this score.

The agreement of 1907 created the so-called Triple Entente - a triple Entente consisting of England, France and Russia, opposing the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

World history of diplomacy.

http://www.diphis.ru/anglo_russkoe_soglashenie-a370.html

THE END OF THE ENGLISH-RUSSIAN "GREAT GAME" IN ASIA

During the critical years, Russia's foreign policy, as it were, faded into the background before the domestic one, but it was during this time that a significant turn took place in it. Until then, the main features of Russian policy were an alliance with France, good relations with Germany, an agreement with Austria on Balkan affairs, rivalry with England along the entire "front" of Asia, and open hostility with Japan, which had just been interrupted by the Treaty of Portsmouth.

The new British ambassador, Sir Arthur Nicholson, arrived in St. Petersburg in May 1906 with instructions to establish an Anglo-Russian rapprochement; he met in this a sympathetic attitude from the new Minister of Foreign Affairs A.P. Izvolsky. The British government at first counted heavily on the Russian "Cadet" circles; but Sir A. Nicholson soon came to the conclusion that the stake should not be placed on the Duma, but on Stolypin, and was greatly alarmed when the English Prime Minister Campbell-Bannermann exclaimed at an inter-parliamentary banquet after the dissolution of the First Duma: "The Duma is dead - long live the Duma" . King Edward VII was no less annoyed by this than the ambassador.

Back in the summer of 1906, the visit of British ships to Russian ports was canceled at the request of Russia. But negotiations on the settlement of disputed Asian issues nevertheless began.

On August 18 (31), 1907, the Anglo-Russian agreement was signed. England abandoned Tibet; both powers recognized China's sovereignty over that country. Russia was relinquishing claims to Afghanistan; both powers pledged to respect its independence and inviolability. Persia was divided into three zones: northern, with Tabriz, Tehran, the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and the central region, up to Ispagan and Khanikin, was part of the Russian sphere of influence; the southeastern part, adjacent to Afghanistan and India, was considered the British zone; and between them there was a "neutral" common strip, which included almost the entire coast of the Persian Gulf. Both powers at the same time mutually pledged to protect the integrity and independence of Persia.

The Russian press, in general, greeted the agreement sympathetically. Novoye Vremya called the agreement with Japan and England “liquidation”, the completion of old calculations, and wrote: “The agreement of August 18 marks a new phase in the Asian grouping: it means a rejection of that Indian campaign, which has more than once inflamed the imagination in Russia ...” A similar idea was expressed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs A. P. Izvolsky, defending the draft agreement in the Council of Ministers. "We must put our interests in Asia to the right place otherwise we ourselves will become an Asian state, which would be the greatest misfortune for Russia.”

S.S. Oldenburg. Reign of Emperor Nicholas II

http://www.empire-history.ru/empires-211-16.html

ROLE A.P. Izvolsky IN CONCLUDING THE ENGLISH-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT

After the formation of the Anglo-French Entente, Russian diplomacy had to balance between its ally and the recent implacable enemy - England. Russia needed the support of England to stabilize the situation in the Far East: while still an envoy to Japan, Izvolsky came to the conclusion that the key to mutual understanding between St. Petersburg and Tokyo lay in London. The course towards an agreement with England meant a turn in the country's foreign policy. However, influential conservative circles in Russia insisted on the need to maintain and strengthen ties with the monarchist governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the conditions of the revolutionary crisis. Izvolsky had to reckon with these views. He also took up the reorganization of his own department, in which, according to the minister, "stagnation and decay" reigned. The minister brought the information service of the ministry to a modern level, put into practice the systematic distribution of copies of the main diplomatic documents to foreign missions. He managed to change the entire ministerial elite. The new minister reduced the number of diplomatic missions in Germany and increased the number of full-time consulates abroad. This increased the efficiency of the work of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The first stage of Russia's negotiations, which began in May-June 1906 with England, Japan and Germany, can be regarded as a period of diplomatic sounding and identification of mutual demands. The weakness of Russia's foreign policy positions dictated to Izvolsky the tactic of putting forward non-principal issues at the talks at first, as well as convincing the governments of the three powers that the policy of agreement with each of them was not directed against the other and did not aim to disrupt the balance of power that had developed in Europe and the Far East. The tactic of maneuvering suggested to Izvolsky the diplomatic methods of its implementation - intensive and systematic personal contacts with his foreign colleagues and heads of government, both official and private, first used on such a large scale by the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs.

However, Izvolsky's main difficulties at this stage were related to domestic political problems. Already in June 1906, having barely mastered the duties of a minister, Izvolsky was forced to join in the liquidation of the government crisis that arose in connection with the dispersal of the Duma and the resignation of the government of I.L. Goremykin. Negotiations with England were suspended. Izvolsky proposed the creation of a "responsible ministry" with the participation of the liberal opposition. But the most difficult thing for Izvolsky was to overcome the resistance in the ruling circles of Russia to his new course when working out the terms of agreements with England and Japan. During the discussion of the terms of the agreement with England on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Persia and Afghanistan, his main opponent was the Chief of the General Staff F. Palitsyn, who insisted on expanding the "Russian zone" in Persia. In the SGO (Council of State Defense), Izvolsky was forced to fight against plans for a revanchist war with Japan. In developing and discussing the terms of agreements with Japan and England, Izvolsky showed flexibility, perseverance, and especially the ability to convince. Subsequently, he confessed to the French ambassador in Paris: "You cannot imagine all the struggle that I had to endure in 1907 with everyone, right down to my employees in the ministry."

At the beginning of 1907, Izvolsky managed to win Stolypin over to his side and, with the help of Kokovtsov, change the mood of the members of the special meeting, as well as break the resistance of the military in the SGO. He skillfully used the press, convincing the public of the benefits of rapprochement with England and Japan. The final stage of negotiations with these powers covers the period from the beginning of 1907 until the signing of conventions in June - August of the same year.

Izvolsky's approach to working out the terms of the agreements was distinguished by realism. Realizing clearly the weakening of Russia's positions in Central Asia, the need to abandon, at least temporarily, active policy in this region, but at the same time defend the conquests already made, he agreed to the British proposal to divide Persia into three zones: northern ("Russian"), southern ("English") and neutral, with equal opportunities for the two countries. Thus, the real situation in the whole complex of relations between the two rivals in Persia was consolidated. The principle of consolidating the status quo extended to Tibet, whose territorial integrity under the sovereignty of China was recognized by Russia and England. Bitter disputes were connected with Afghanistan, which Russia for the first time recognized as lying outside the sphere of its interests. For concessions in Iran and Afghanistan, Izvolsky did not fail to receive from British diplomacy an important compensation for his future policy in the Middle East: a promise to support Russia in resolving the issue of the straits. In setting the terms of a political demarcation with Japan, Izvolsky rejected Japanese demands that went far beyond the Treaty of Portsmouth, and at the same time, in the name of reaching an agreement, he paid for it with significant concessions, mainly in economic matters.

Alexander Petrovich knew how to single out the main problems, to subordinate secondary issues to the main - political ones. Thus, by the end of 1906, the negotiations with Japan on the implementation of the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth, which had reached an impasse, he proposed to raise the negotiations on the conclusion of a general political convention to a higher level. In pursuing the "policy of agreements," Izvolskoy quite successfully applied the tactics of active foreign policy maneuvering, using the interest in Russia of both blocs of powers. In practice, this position was expressed in not speeding up negotiations with England without first improving relations with Germany, and just as much as necessary so as not to sow illusions in Germany about the possibility of reviving the monarchical Union of the Three Emperors and at the same time not to arouse the suspicions of the Entente. . At the same time, it was supposed to prevent the anti-German orientation of the agreement with England. In negotiations with Japan and England, the goal was to use Tokyo's dependence on London and Paris, the interest of the Entente in the speedy return of Russia to Europe; therefore it was necessary to coordinate negotiations with both countries, giving them a certain synchronicity, giving priority to the agreement with Britain, because this, as it was thought, would also advance the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese agreement. However, the feedback was also meant: in negotiations with Japan, they expected to use the American card.

Izvolsky managed to reach generally acceptable terms of agreements with England and Japan. Although contemporaries accused Izvolsky of being too compliant with his partners, the latter were reproached for the same by their compatriots. Most historians admit that both agreements generally corresponded to the real balance of power in the Far East and Central Asia and fixed the positions of the powers occupied by that time. And yet the diplomatic art of Izvolsky was defeated in negotiations with Germany. The scale and severity of the contradictions between the two powers, and most importantly, the alliance with France and the policy of political rapprochement with England, limited the "tactics of the possible" used by the Russian minister. In view of the cardinal disagreements on the main issues (Balkan and Middle Eastern), Izvolsky had to be satisfied with the conclusion of the so-called Baltic Protocol (October 1907) on maintaining the status quo in the Baltic region, which was not of fundamental importance for relations between Russia and Germany. This protocol created only the appearance of restoring the balance between Russia and the German bloc, since Russia's real tilt towards the Entente increased. In the chain of agreements concluded by Izvolsky, the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 occupied a key position. Its objective general political significance, like that of the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 on delimitation in Africa, was that it laid the foundation for the establishment of the Triple Entente.