Beginning of the conquest N. Bonaparte Europe
The end of the XVIII century. And a powerful army was created in France following her in France. She became the basis of the country's grand success in the long series of wars.
After the victories of Jacobins 1793 -1794. Belgium, German lands on the left bank of the Rhine were attached to France; Holland has fallen dependent on France. Attached areas were imposed on the attached areas, from there they took the best works of art. During the years of the directory (1795 -1799), France began to establish their domination in Central Europe and Italy. Rich Italy was considered a source of food and money, as well as the most convenient way to conquer in the future colonies in the East. In the course of hostilities 1796-1798. Austrian possessions, Italian principalities and Switzerland were addressed to France.
However, in 1798-1799. France was defeated in Mediterranean and Italy. In 1799, the power in the country captured Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1800, he defeated Austrian troops at Marrengo. The second antifranzu coalition, in which the main roles played the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Turkey, actually broke up. Only the United Kingdom continued the war, but she also concluded peace with France in Amiens with France.
Napoleonic wars.
In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself emperor France. Soon he resumed conquering wars to solve internal problems due to the robbery of neighbors.
In 1805, the Third Antifrangesz Coalition (United Kingdom, Russia, Austria, Sweden) emerged, and after its defeat - the fourth antifranzu coalition (United Kingdom, Russia, Prussia, Sweden; 1806). In 1809, the United Kingdom and Austria as part of the fifth antifranzu coalition again tried to resist Napoleon. In battles near Austerlitz (1805), Jena (1806), Friedland (1807), Vagram (1809) Napoleon is thorn the opponent's army. True, in the war on the sea, the French suffered defeats from England (Trafalgar, 1805), which threw plans for Napoleon on landing in Britain. During the war to the territory of France, Belgium, Holland, German lands, west of the Rhine, part of Italy, Dalmatia were joined. Most other European countries have affected France. Napoleon eliminated the sacred Roman Empire. In Spain, Italy, Germany, the Brazda of the Board switched to relatives or approximate Napoleon. With Russia, Austria and Prussia, France concluded allied contracts, although contradictions, especially Russian-French, persisted.
the domination everywhere in Europe contributed to the layer of feudal orders. However, national humiliation, defeats in favor of France, the violence of invaders led to the growing of the liberation struggle. In Spain, from 1808, an active partisan war is deployed. Napoleon's campaign to Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600-thousand "Great Army". In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia passed on their side, and then Austria. Together with the UK and Sweden, they made up the sixth antifranzu coalition. The decisive victory over Napoleon coalition won in 1813 near Leipzig ("Battle of Peoples"). In 1814, the Allies joined the territory of France and took Paris.
Napoleon renounced the throne and was sent to the link to the island of Elba off the coast of Italy. In France, the royal power in the face of Louis XVIII (the brother of executed Louis XVI) was restored. In accordance with the Parisian peace treaty, imprisoned on May 8, 1814, France refused to all their conquests, taking borders that existed on January 1, 1792. However, the final issue of the borders was to decide on the Vienna Congress, which opened in September 1814. 1 Martha, the sessions of the Vienna Congress were interrupted by the news of the landing on the southern coast of France regarding the small detachment of Napoleon, who, without meeting serious resistance, entered Paris on March 20. This period is known in history as a "a hundred days" of Napoleon (March 20 - June 22, 1815). Against the restoration of the Napoleonic Empire, the seventh antifranzuz coalition spoke, which united almost all European countries. On June 18, 1815, Anglo-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of Englishman A. Wellington and Prussac G. L. Blucher in the battle of Waterloo defeated Napoleon. The re-overthrown emperor was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, and in France the power of the Burbon dynasty was restored.
Viennese system.
By decision of the Vienna Congress, Russia received territorial increments. (Most Poland, before Prussia), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), Prussia (part of Saxony, Rhine region). Great Britain got the Dutch colonies - Ceylon Island, Cape Colony in South Africa. Thirty-nine German states united into the German Union, while maintaining their full independence.
New European policies now defined countries - Winners: Russia, United Kingdom, Austria and Prussia. So there was a Vienna system, which, despite the contradictions between the countries, in general preserved stability until the middle of the XIX century.
In September 1815, the monarchs of European countries (Russia, Austria and Prussia; later the monarchs of most European countries joined them, including France) united into the so-called Holy Union. Until 1822, the members of the Union were going to the Congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. The United Kingdom, formally not entitled to the Holy Union, also took an active part in the activities of congresses. For decisions of congresses to countries where national liberation and revolutionary movements began, troops were introduced to combat them. The Austrian invasion repaid a revolution in Naples and Piedmont, France intervened in revolutionary events in Spain. The expedition to Latin America was preparing to suppress the liberation struggle in Spanish colonies there. But in 1823, US President James Monroe defended the American continent from the intervention in his affairs of Europeans (Montro Doctrine). At the same time, this was the US request to control the whole of America.
The recognition of England in 1824. The independence of the former Spanish colonies undermined the unity of the Holy Union. In 1825-1826. Russia has changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against Turkish yoke, having supported the Greeks, while the position of Austria remained sharply hostile to the rebels. Contradictions inside the sacred union have increasingly grow. After 1830, its activities were actually discontinued.
International relations in the second half of the XIX century.
The Vienna system finally collapsed after the revolutions of 1848 - 1849. In Europe and followed events. Contradictions between Russia and the United Kingdom with France led to the eastern (Crimean) war 1853 - 1856. Against Russia, the coalition of Great Britain, France, Turkey and the Sardinian kingdom, who openly supported Austria and secretly - Prussia. As a result of the defeat of Russia, its positions were shaken on the Black Sea and in the Balkans.
After the Eastern War, France became one of the leading powers, at the head of which was the emperor Napoleon III, Napoleon's nephew I. The French have kept the plan for the capture of the left bank of the Rhine. At the same time, Prussia was preparing for war with France, since she was the main opponent of the unification of Germany under the rule of Prussian kings. In the course of Franco-Prussian (Franco-German) war 1870 - 1871. Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat. To the united Germany, proclaimed empire, Alsace and Lorraine moved.
At the end of the XIX century. Contradictions between European powers again aggravated, especially because of the colonies. The most acute was the confrontation in the triangle England - France - Germany. These countries were looking for allies in the inevitable confrontation.
On May 20, 1882, between Germany, Italy and Austria (so since 1867, the Austrian Empire was called) a secret treaty was signed. Germany and Austria-Hungary have committed themselves to speak in support of Italy in the event of an attack on the last France, and Italy took the same obligation towards Germany. With the signing of this agreement a triple union was issued.
In early 1887 it seemed that the war between France and Germany was inevitable, but Germany had to abandon her, as Russia was ready to assist France. It was associated with increasing contradictions between Russia and Germany. The first cracks in the previously traditional union between Russia and Prussia occurred during the Crimean War. In 1878, Germany took an unfriendly position in the Berlin Congress according to the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877 - 1878. Nevertheless, allied agreements were operating between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary ("Union of Three Emperors").
The French-German military alarm of 1887 coincided with the next exacerbation of relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary due to rivalry in the Balkans. It also led to the rapprochement of Russia with France. The anniversary of the two states contributed to the French investments and loans provided by Russia, increasing the volume of trade. In 1891, an agreement was concluded between France and Russia, and a year later, the Military Convention. In 1893, the Frankourous Union was finally decorated.
The rapprochement of France and Russia supported the desire of part of the ruling circles of Great Britain to come to an agreement with Germany. United Kingdom tried twice to buy support for Germany promise to provide the right to new colonies, but the Germans requested too many territories. Later, contradiction between the United Kingdom and France and the United Kingdom and Russia, also relating to the colonies, were settled. As a result, in 1904-1907. Agreements were concluded between the United Kingdom, France and Russia. The armed union was called "Triple Consent", or Entente (from FR. Entegente Cordiale - Cardiac Consent). Thus, Europe was divided into two hostile military blocks.
Questions and tasks
What was the causes of wars of the beginning of the XIX century?? Describe the course and results of the most important battles, territorial changes, the results of wars.
What is the Vienna system? What was its value?
What contradictions existed in Europe in the second half of the XIX century?? What military blocks and why arose at the end of the XIX - early XX century?
Some historians believe that the First World War has become an inevitable consequence of folding in Europe two opposing military blocks. Do you agree with this opinion or war could be avoided? Agregate your answer.
Fill the table.
§ 67. International relations in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
Europe at the beginningXVIIV
By the beginning of the XVII. In Europe, strengthened the axis of the influence of the Austrian dynasty Habsburgs Representatives of which ruled in the Sacred Roman Empire and Spain. The prospect of the Spanish-Austrian joint actions taled the prerequisites for the aggravation of the conflict of Habsburgs with France. With the strengthening of the Habsburg Empire, Denmark and Sweden could not be reconciled. Position in Europe in the XVIIV. Completed by the presence of an Ottoman threat. The entire South-East of Europe and most of Hungary were under the rule of the Turks.
Thirty-year war.
A kind of continuation of the religious warrior XVI century. Stated thirty-year war (1618-1648). In addition to religious disagreements between the Catholics and Protestants, its reasons were contradiction between the emperor and princes in Germany, as well as the conflict between France and the Sacred Roman Empire and Spain, where Gabsburg ruled. The ruler of France Cardinal A. Richelieu in his country struck a decisive blow to Huguenotes. However, in Germany, he supported Protestants who fought against the emperor. As a result, an intracherman conflict quickly converts into a pan-European war. In 1618 in the Czech Republic, where since the time of the Gusitsky wars XV century. Strong positions occupied close to Protestants of the Gusites, an uprising began against the emperor. However, 131620 Czechs were defeated, which meant the end of the relative independence of the Czech Republic within the framework of the Sacred Roman Empire. In 1629, the defeat suffered Denmark, who entered into a war with the emperor to call the Protestant princes of Germany.
Then, Sweden is drawn in the war, which France and Russia helped. Swedish king Gustav II Adolf She won several victories over the army's troops, but died in 1632. In 1635, France was openly started war against the emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire and Spain. French and Swedes in the 40s. XVII century Catholic army rolled several times. In the course of many years of conflicts, all parties have been guide by the principle of "War feeds the war" and mercilessly robbed the peaceful population, which led to the terrible devastation of Germany.
In 1648, two civil contracts were concluded in Westphalia.
Sweden and France received increment at the expense of the Sacred Roman Empire. According to the Westphalian world, Sweden seized almost all the southern shores of the Baltic Sea, becoming one of the strongest states of Europe. The Westphalian world officially secured the political fragmentation of Germany, in which the power of the emperor was reduced to zero, and the princes became independent states. Spain finally recognized the independence of Holland.
International relations in the second half xVII - XVIII centuries.
The second half of XVIIV. It became in Europe a period of strengthening France. This was facilitated by the situation in other countries. Spain and the Sacred Roman Empire experienced a crisis after a devastating thirty-year-old war. In England, after restoration, the cousins \u200b\u200bof the French king of Louis XIV, dependent on him, were ruled. From 1672, Louis Xiv led the war for expanding his possessions. The two of the first wars with Spain were successful, although to join the Spanish Netherlands to France, what her king dreamed of, failed. To France, a number of border areas were departed. In 1681, taking advantage of the attack on the Vienna of the Turks, which he supported and straightened to Christian countries, Louis XIV seized Strasbourg. But on this his successes ended.
France's war is 1688-1697 P. with all European countries ended to no avail. The economy of France was undermined by continuous wars. In the meantime, England intensified. During the three English-Dutch wars, in which England was supported by France, she managed to press her main competitor to the sea everywhere and in the colonies. The colonial possessions of England raised rapidly. After the "glorious revolution\u003e 1689, the ruler of Holland Wilhelm Orange was coming to power in England. The situation in Europe has changed dramatically.
Wars XVIII century.
The last Spanish king from the Habsburg dynasty was densely. In the will, he passed his possessions to the nearest relative - the grandson of Louis XIV. There was a prospect of uniting France and Spain. All the neighbors of France spoke against this. The war broke out in 1701. Everywhere the French and Spanish troops suffered defeat. France was even more undermined. Only the disagreements of the enemies prevented an offensive for her complete disaster. In 1713-1714. Contracts were concluded, according to which the grandson of Louis remained the King of Spain, but the union of the two countries was forever forbidden. France has lost its colonies in America. The Netherlands and Spanish possessions in Italy moved to the Austrian Habsburgs.
In 1700 - 1721. There was a northern war, undermining the power of Sweden. Russia won in the Northern War and became among the great powers.
In 1740, the war broke out for the Austrian legacy. The King of Prussia Friedrich 11 captured Silesia from Austria. Austria was supported by England, Russia and other countries. The remaining ownership of Austria was able to defend.
Seven-year war 1756 - 1763. became the result of a sharp tangler contradictions. The fighting was carried out not only in Europe, but also in America, Asia, so the seven-year war is called the prototype of world war. In Europe, France, Austria, Russia and a number of German states fought with Prussia headed by Friedrich N and its allies from among other German states. England helped Prussia, but did not fought directly in Europe. She in alliance with Spain seized all French possessions in America (Canada and Louisiana) and India. Prussia was defeated by Russia, France also captured all the possessions of the English king in Europe. However, these victories were implanted after the arrival of Peter III and the exit of Russia from the war. Borders in Europe, unlike other continents, remained unchanged.
§ 68. International relations in the XIX century.
The beginning of the French conquest.
In the course of the Great French Revolution and wars with counter-revolutionary and monarchical states in France, a powerful revolutionary army was created. It for a long time predetermined the international situation in Europe. It became the basis of the success of France in a long number of wars, started in 1792.
After the victories of 1793 - 1794. Belgium and German lands on the left bank of the Rhine were attached to France, Holland was turned into a dependent republic. With the attached areas came both with conquered territories. They were imposed on them various defeats, the best works of art were held. During the years of the directory (1795 -1799), France sought to ensure their domination in Central Europe and Italy. Italy was considered a source of food and money and conveniently to conquer in the future colonies in the East. In 1796-1798. General Napoleon Bonaparte I won italy. In 1798, he began a campaign to Egypt, who belonged to the Ottoman Empire. France capture Egypt threatened by the colonies of England in India. The fighting in Egypt went for the French successfully, but English counter-admiral Nelson destroyed the French fleet in the battle of Abukir. The French army was in the Western and, in the end, was destroyed. Bonaparte himself, throwing her, fled to France, where he captured the power, becoming in 1804 by Emperor Napoleon. The establishment of the authorities of Napoleon contributed to the defeat of France in Italy from the coalition troops in the composition of Russia, England, Austria and Sardinia in 1798 -1799 P. The Allied troops in Italy headed A. V. Suvorov. However, due to the minor policies of Austria and England, the Emperor of Russia Paul 1 came out of the coalition. After that, Bonaparte was easily defeated Austria.
Napoleonic wars.
Shortly after the proclamation of Napoleon, the emperor resumed the gaining wars in order to solve internal problems due to the neighboring robbery.
Under Austerlitz (1805), Iena (1806), Friedland (1807), Vagram (1809) Napoleon defeats the armies of Austria, Prussia, Russia, who fought with France in the third, fourth and fifth coalitions. True, in the war on the sea, the French endured defeat from England (especially during Trafalgar in 1805), which threw plans for Napoleon on landing in Britain. In the course of Napoleonic wars, Belgium, Holland, part of Germany, west of the Rhine, part of North and Central Italy, Illyria were attached to France. Most other European countries have affected her.
From 1806 against England, a continental blockade was installed. Napoleonic domination contributed to a layer of feudal orders, however, national humiliation and eclipses from the population led to strengthening the liberation struggle. In Spain, the partisan war is deployed. Napoleon's campaign to Russia in 1812 led to the death of his 600-thousand "Great Army". In 1813, Russian troops entered Germany, Prussia and Austria passed on their side. Napoleon suffered defeat. In 1814, the Allies enter into the territory of France and occupy Paris.
After the link Napoleon on the island of Elba and restoration in France of the royal power in the face Louis XVIII. The heads of the Allys of the Anti-Francourt's coalition gathered in Vienna to solve the issues of the post-war world. The sessions of the Vienna Congress were interrupted by the news of returning in 1815 to the power of Napoleon ("One hundred days"). June 18, 1815 English-Dutch-Prussian troops under the command of A. Wellington and G. L Blucher In the battle of Waterloo defeated the troops of the French emperor.
Viennese system.
By decision of the Vienna Congress, Russia (part of Poland), Austria (part of Italy and Dalmatia), Prussia (part of Saxony, Rhine Region) received territorial increments. The South Netherlands moved to the Netherlands (until 1830, when Belgium was formed as a result of the revolution). England received Dutch colonies - Ceylon, South Africa. 39 German states united into the German Union, while maintaining their full independence.
The world and peace of mind in Europe was called upon to support Soyu all states, headed by the leading powers of the continent - Russia, United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, as well as France. So there was a Viennese system. Despite the contradictions of the powers and revolution in a number of countries, the Viennese system as a whole maintained stability in Europe until the beginning of the 50s. XIX century
Monarchs of European countries combined in the so-called Sacred Soyuz, they gathered until 1822 at the Congresses, where they discussed measures to maintain peace and stability on the continent. On decisions of these congresses there was interventions to the countries where the revolution began. The Austrian invasion redeemed the revolution in Naples and in Piedmont, France intervened in revolutionary events in Spain. The invasion of Latin America was preparing for suppressing the national liberation struggle there. But England was unprofitable was the emergence of the French in Latin America, and she appealed to the United States for help. In 1823, US President Monroe I defended the entire American mainland from Europeans. At the same time, it was the first US application for control over the whole of America.
Congress of 1822 in Verona and the invasion of Spain were the last general actions of members of the Holy Union. The recognition of England in 1824 of the independence of Latin American countries, former Spanish colonies, was finally undermined by the unity of the Holy Union. In 1825-1826. Russia has changed its attitude towards the uprising in Greece against Turkey, having supported the Greeks, while the position of Austria in this matter remained sharply negative. All expanding liberal movement in European powers, the development of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in all countries to the foundation ocked the Holy Union.
International relations in the second half of the XIX century.
The Vienna system finally collapsed after the revolutions of 1848-1849. Increased contradictions between Russia, on the one hand, and England and France - on the other, led to the eastern (Crimean) war 1853-1856. Russia suffered a defeat from the coalition of England, France, Turkey and the Sardinian kingdom, which was openly, supported Austria and secretive - Prussia. As a result of the war, Russia's position on the Black Sea was shaken.
France became one of the leading European powers. Emperor France Napoleon III helped Italy in her war against the Austrian Empire. For this, Italy gave way to Savoy and Nice. Began preparation for the seizure of France of the left bank of the Rhine. Prussia began to prepare for wars for the combination of Germany. In the course of Franco-Prussian (Franco-German) war 1870-1871. Napoleon III suffered a crushing defeat. Alsace and Lorraine moved to United Germany.
At the end of the XIX century. The contradictions between the powers were even more aggravated. The colonial rivalry of the great powers was particularly intensified. The most acute contradictions between England, France and Germany.
On May 20, 1882, a secret agreement was signed between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary, according to which Germany and Austria-Hungary have committed themselves to speak in support of Italy in the event of an attack on the last France, and Italy took the same commitment to Germany. All three powers were obliged to join the war with the strikers. Italy, however, stated that in the event of an attack of England to Germany or Austria-Hungary, she would not provide assistance to the allies. With the signing of this contract was issued Triple Alliance.
In early 1887 it seemed that the war of France and Germany was inevitable, but the latter had to abandon her, as Russia was ready to assist France.
The Franco-German military alarm coincided with the exacerbation of relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary. As soon as the term of the Austro-German-Russian Neutrality Treaty ended, Russia did not want to reiterate him with the participation of Austria-Hungary. Germany decided to go on a bilateral conclusion of a treaty with Russia - the so-called "reinsurance contract". According to the agreement, both parties were obliged to comply with the neutrality in the event of a war of any side with another power. At the same time, Germany conducted policies to exacerbate relations with Russia. But this led to the rapprochement of Russia with France - the main opponent of Germany.
France's gaze appealed to Russia. The volume of foreign trade between the two countries continuously increased. Significant French investments in Russia and major loans provided by French banks contributed to the approach of the two states. The hostility of Germany to Russia and more clearly manifested. In August 1891, an agreement was concluded between France and Russia, and a year later, the Military Convention. In 1893, the Union was finally decorated.
The acute struggle of England with France and Russia supported the desires of part of its ruling circles to come to an agreement with Germany. English Government twice tortured the axis to buy German support for the promise of colonial compensation, but the German government requested such a price that England refused this transaction. In 1904-1907 An agreement was issued with France and Russia, which was called "Triple Consent" - Entente (translated from French - "Cardiac Consent"). Europe was finally divided into hostile military blocks.
Questions and tasks
1. What are great geographical discoveries? What are their causes?
Tell us about the main discoveries. What were their consequences?
2. What changes occurred in the economy of leading countries in the XVI-XVIIIIIIV.? What invention contributed to these changes?
3. What is a revival? What was his main ideas? What are the achievements of rebirth figures?
4. What are the reasons for the Reformation? What trends were in the Reformation?
How did the Catholic Church fought with the Reformation? What are the consequences of the Reformation?
5. What is absolutism and what is the causes of its occurrence? What are the features of absolutism in different countries?
6. Why did the English revolution occurred? Describe its move and consequences.
7. How did the US education occurred? What is the meaning of this event?
8. What are the causes of the Great French Revolution? Tell us about it and the forces participating in it. Why are they talking about the worldwide historical meaning of this revolution?
9. Describe the main styles and tell us about the main achievements of the Western European Culture of the XVII-XVIIIIII.
10. What is the Epoch of Enlightenment?
11. List the reforms carried out in Russia in the middle of the 20th century?
What are their results?
12. What is Okrichnina? What is its meaning and consequences?
13. How did the attainnation of the peasants in Russia?
14. What is a troubled time? List the main events of this period. What made it possible to defend Russia's independence?
15. How did Russia economy develop in XVIIV.? What new appeared in the economy?
16. What is the importance of the development of Siberia?
17. What changes in the state administration occurred in Russia in the XVII century??
18. Describe the folk uprisings of XVIIV.
19. Tell us about Russia's foreign policy in XVII.
20. What changes occurred in the inner life of Russia and its international situation during the period of the Board of Peter 1?
21. Give Peter Great Characteristics.
22. What is the era of palace coups? How did the economy and the social system of Russia developed in this era?
23. Tell us about the basic events of the internal and foreign policy in the era of palace coups.
24. What is "enlightened absolutism"?
25. How did the economy and social sphere developed during the Board of Catherine II?
26. What are the causes of the peasant war under the leadership of E. I. Pugachev?
27. What are the achievements of Russia's foreign policy of the second half of the XVIII century? What are the reasons for the victories of Russian weapons?
28. What are the main achievements of Russian culture of the XVI - XVIII centuries.?
29. What was the features of the development of the Ottoman Empire
Taya, India in the XVI - XVIII centuries.?
30. How did the colonial expansion of Europeans in the XVI-XVPI centuries?
31. What is an industrial coup? How developed the economy of advanced countries in the XIX century??
32. What changes in the political life of the countries of Europe and the United States occurred in the XIX century?? What socialist teachings arose during this period? What is the essence of Marxism?
33. What are the main achievements of the European Culture of the XIX century??
34. Tell us about the main events of the internal and foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the XIX century. Why did Russia won Napoleon?
35. What are the causes and goals of the Decembrists' movement? What is its value?
36. Expand the main directions of the internal and foreign policy of Nicholas 1. Why did Russia suffer in the Crimean War?
37. What are the main directions of social thought in Russia in the second quarter of the XIX century?
38. Describe the main reforms carried out in Russia in the 60s.
XIX century What are their causes and meaning? What is counter does? .
39. Tell us about the public movement at the board of Alexander P.
What is population and what is its meaning?
40. What are the achievements of Russia's foreign policy of the second half of the XIX century?
41. What was the flourishing of Russian culture in the XIX century??
Cathedral of the Parisian Mother of God. Main facade. XII - XIII centuries.
Changes in France in the socio-economic field, due to the growth of productive forces, caused a number of changes in the political superstructure.
The emergence of cities testified not only about the violation of the closasstence of feudal farms and the strengthening of economic ties between individual regions, but also on the creation of real prerequisites for the unification of France into a single or less centralized state.
The city formed a new public layer, which embodied the further development of production and exchange and was the natural ally of the royal power in its struggle with major feudalities for the union of feudally fragmented France into a single state.
The presence of citizens (burghers) interested in the elimination of feudal fragmentation and endless devils that prevented the development of crafts and trade strengthening the position of the central government.
"All revolutionary elements," Engels pointed out, which were formed under the surface of feudalism, they were in the royal power, just like the royal power to them. The Justice of the Royal Power and Burgertism began its beginning since the X century; It was often disturbed by conflicts - because during all middle ages, the development was not continuously in one direction; But still, this union, resumed, became all stronger, everything is more powerful, until finally, he did not help the royal authority to win the final victory ... ".
The beginning of the strengthening of royal power in France falls on the XII century. It is by this time that the struggle of cappeaps within the royal domain with large feudalities who wished to preserve their political independence there.
The support of the royal power in this fight was the middle and small feudal feudalles, who wouldingly support the monitoring efforts of the king in the conditions of aggravation of class contradictions in France.
"Associate more extensive areas in feudal kingdoms," Marks and Engels wrote, "the need for land nobility and cities. Therefore, at the head of the organization of the dominant class - the nobility - there was a monarch everywhere. "
Starting from the XII century, kapeting (which due to the development of trade increased significantly) so much that they managed to subjugate all major feudal serenities of the royal domain. Of particular importance in this respect was the Board of Louis VI (1108-1137), which received the nickname thick.
But after France's kings dealt with recalcitrant feudals inside the royal domain, they had to immediately encounter a new, stronger and dangerous enemy, who served as the main opponent on the continent, with the kings of England.
In 1154, the Count Anjui, the Senor of the Extensive Area, which bordered with the Royal Domain, entered into the English throne as Heinrich II and thereby put the beginning of the Anzhuy Dynasty, PLA Plantagenets Dynasty.
In the hands of the English kings from the Platagenets dynasty, therefore, huge possessions - England and a significant part of France, namely the Duchy of Normandy (associated with England since the Norman conquest of 1066), County Anjou with subordinate counties of Maine and the Turile and Duchy of Aquitaine In the hands of Henry Plantagenet as a result of his marriage with Alienor Aquitan, the divorced wife of the French king Louis VII (1137-1180).
The ownership of the English king on the continent in the XII century six times exceeded the ownership of the King of France and, in addition, closed to the sea for him.
It is quite clear that the question of further expanding the royal domain and the unification of politically fragmented France was directly related to the struggle against the English king. This struggle made a decisive character in the Board of Philip II August (1180-1223).
As a result of many years of struggle with Plantagenets, Philip II August, invariably observed in his activities to help cities, managed to subordinate to his power to Normandia, Maine, Anjo, part of the Poitu with the city of Poitiers. In the hands of the English kings, only the southern part of the Pouot and Duchy of Aquitaine remained.
But this strengthening of the French king's power immediately caused concerns from his immediate neighbors, and against Philip II August was an extensive coalition, which included Count Flanders, Duke of Lorraine, English King and the German Emperor.
However, Filipp II August won each of his opponents separately, and then the decisive defeat of the hostile coalition in Buckwe was a decisive defeat, where in June 1214 mm managed to break the connected troops of the German Emperor and Graph Flande. This victory was of great importance for the further development of France and was encountered by the population of its northern and northeastern regions with great joy.
Using the diplomatic scandal of 1827, associated with the insult of Hussein-dehe, the Ottoman ruler of Algeria, the French General Consul (Dya hit the consulpasil in the face), as a preposition, France invaded and quickly captured the city of Algeria in 1830, after which she also quickly took Under the control of other coastal settlements. As a result of the internal political struggle in France, it was re-made a decision to preserve control over the territory; In addition, additional armed forces have been repeatedly sent to Algeria over the next years to suppress resistance and move into the country's depths.
The resistance of the French expansion was provided by the detachments under the command of Ahmed-Bay in Constantine, primarily in the east, and nationalist forces in the Cabilia and the West of the country. Contracts with nationalists under the command of ABB al-Qadir allowed the French army to first focus on the elimination of the remaining threat from the Osman's forces in Algeria, destroyed in 1837 after the capture of Konstantin. Al Qadir continued to provide stubborn resistance in the West. In the end, forced to flee in Morocco in 1842, due to heavy lesions and the powerful offensive of the French troops, he continued to lead the partisan war, until the Government of Morocco, in accordance with French diplomatic pressure after the country's defeat in the first Franco Moroccan War, did not drive him out of Morocco . He surrendered to the French troops in 1847.
History
With the arrival of fresh troops, Marshal decided to go to the offensive. In early April, he spoke with a 9-thousand squad from Algeria to occupy Medeaga and Miliana to provide this to the possession of the plain of methage. He broke a part of the Emir's troops at the foot of the Atlas, but learning about the plight of Colonel Kavenyak, who with a handful of people for 6 days defended Sherchel against several thousand banks, he rushed to him on revenue. This 18-day march from Shershel to Blide was essentially a continuous fight in the mountains and forests with strong detachments, which are one of the nearest associates of Emir Sidi-Embarek. On May 12, the French approached the Musey mountain pass, where the main forces of Emir were concentrated. After the bloody battle, a long time, the defile was taken and broken Abd al-Kadir departed to the Oran region. In May, the French troops occupied Medaag, and then in June and Miliana. In both items, garrisons were left. In mid-August, Emir went to Maskaro, so that new sets releasing their regular troops, but his associates Sidi Embarek, El Berkani and Ben-Sale did not give peace by the French before the winter.
In the Orange region, there was also a fierce struggle throughout the year. Especially remarkable in early 1840, the defense of Mazagran 120 people against the 5th or 6-thousandths of the Khalifa army Maskara Ben-Tami. In early March, Khalif Tlemsen Bu-Hammedi, raving the Allied French tribes of the Duara and dare, moved to Mazagran, south-west of Oren. Yusuf's post commandant reflected the attack and passionate about the persecution fell into an ambush, located in the gorge of the Shada Self, but the prudent orders and the column arrived from Oren's ability to retreat a detachment to protect Maazgran. Several successful raids (Razzias) Lambian, appointed in August Commander of the Orange Region, complemented a list of hostilities in 1840.
In general, despite the whole range of brilliant victories, the position of the French by the end of 1840, except for Constantine, was the same as in the early 1830s: they were in power only a few seaside items, where they were subjected to constant attacks; It was not reliably assigned to them even the plain of a methagin: the ownership of Moneyago and Miliano did not give the last reliable support, to maintain the same messages with these towns, almost all free troops were spent.
Only Marshal Bureggo, appointed by the Governor of Algeria in 1841, was finally completed, after many efforts to complete the case of conquering the region, which was worthy of the France of so many victims and expenses. Gifted by determination and tirelessly active, Bureao vigorously told the struggle. He set up the destruction of Abd al-Kadir; For lasting mastery, he accepted a plan of action, similar to the closel plan: a solid occupation of the most important points and constant maintenance of messages between them through moving columns, which ruin the dwellings and devastating the fields of repeated tribes, should encourage them to the world or force them to move them into the inner Regions of the country.
In this minute, this plan had an incomparably more chance of implementation, because the strength of the French troops had already reached 70,000, which arrived in the spring reinforcements brought them up to 73,500 infantry and 13,500 cavalry. Along with this, the formation of parts of the National Guard (Militia) began in the country, to which the defensive of cities and camps was launched, which freed regular troops for action in the field.
The main operating database for his actions against Emir General Bureguo elected plain of methage, covered by a number of fortified points. For the offensive operations, they were prepared by the cities of Medeaag and Miliana, as well as several fortified points in the Orange region and Konstantine. The Bureao personally took over in April to ensure both these cities with a significant number of supplies. He had a few skirmishes with the enemy, but the desire to involve ABB al-Qadir in the general battle was not successful. In May, he began simultaneous offensive actions on the entire theater of hostilities by several detachments: herself, headed by a 6-thousand squad with a siege park, led the offensive from the Mostagem to Textemit, General Barage D'Ilene was sent from the plain of methughere on Bogar and Tazu, General Negrie - from Konstantin on Mzil and Biskra. At the same time, they were expelled in various directions several movable columns: Colonel Bed from the Mostagem, Colonel Shangarne - from Miliana and Colonel Lafontaine - from Philippeville.
On May 18, Burezo made a campaign. After several minor combat clashes, the Bureau took Tetembet, blew up the citadel, built at the height that dominates the city and betrayed the flames had warehouses and the weapons factory. Following this, he took possession, also almost without resistance, the city of Mascara and the surrounding items, where he left the garrison. In the fall, the commander-in-chief again personally accepted the command and ruined the sign, the Motherland of Emir and Side, where he was arranged a strong citadel. In the city of Maskarra, he pulled a whole division of Lambian, which in the fall and winter undertakes from here a number of expeditions inside the country and conquered almost all the surrounding tribes.
In the spring of 1842, Burego took possession of Tlemsen and Seboda, the latest fortified points of Emir, as well as the area closest to them. The first was left garrison. These initial actions of the Burego have not yet had a decisive result, but they completely changed the part of the parties. The entire inner part of the Orange region was already at this time in the hands of the French, and Abd al-Kadir, forced lately to move exclusively to the defensive war, in the summer of 1842 he moved to the south, to the mountainous region Vanzeris (south of the city of Tetembapt), inhabited warlike cabin. But Bureby and pursued it there by sending five columns from different sides to the mountains. Within a few weeks, the entire mountain range of Vanzeris was conquered, and ADA al-Kadir was forced to go into the desert areas of northern sugar.
For a while, his traces were lost, but soon an emir reminded himself by the French. At the end of December 1842, with a 30-thousand detachment, he suddenly appeared in the Shelda River Valley, and the appearance of it in the center of the French location served as a signal to a new uprising of the newly conquered tribes. The troops were immediately moved here at the same time from the Algerian and Oran regions. Abd Al Qadir again was forced to move away to the southern steppes. The French turned to the persecution of Emir and, along with this, were forced to start a number of expeditions to conquer the outbred natives. These winter expeditions, extremely heavy by climatic conditions, were negligible according to the results: Abd al-Cadir shied away from decisive collisions, the natives scattered in one point, a few days later were collected in another. In the spring, Emir was forced to move to the mountainous country of Yagubia (in the upper reaches of the Sig and Gabra rivers), and at the end of April, General Lamorisier pushed him out from there to the Desert of the Andag.
The steppes were generally a reliable shelter of the Emir: his mobile home apartment, the so-called "smali", consisted of 1300 tents, which were easily moved to them from one edge of the desert to another, and the French cost a lot of work to find out exactly where it is in this minute. In this "Smile" troops were placed, fighting supplies, all the wealth of Emir and his family; The constant cover was 5,000 shooters and 2,000 riders. The Bureau instructed the Duke of Omalsky to find and destroy this enemy mill.
Taking into account the remoteness of Medega from the Supporting Theater of Military Activities, the Duke Omalsky arranged his base point in the village of Bogro. Performing on May 10 from the village of Bogar with a detachment of 1200 infantry, 600 cavalryists, 2 mountain weapons and a 20-day reserve of contentment, the duke behaved energetic offensive. Lambier was ordered from Maskary to promote the search for the duke. On the evening of May 14, having learned about the location of "Smali" in the area of \u200b\u200bthe village of Gorzhela, 170 km from the bog, the French surrounded this village, but it turned out that Smala was located further, 60 km on southeart West at the Ussan-He-Roque. As soon as the Duke Omalsky moved in this area, he learned that "smali" by order of Emir retired to the east of Tagil's river. To overtake it, it was necessary to make an 80-kilometer transition through anhydrous steppe. Fearing that she did not slip away from him, the Duke leaving the infantry, made this transition from one cavalry for 1.5 days this transition through an annemy steppe and the opponent will overtake on May 16. Despite the tremendous inequality of forces, some defenders "Smali" numbered at least 5 thousand people, he was an unexpected attack almost without losses mastered the enemy camping by interrupted to 300 and took captivity about 3,000 Arabs; Also in the hands of the winners were treated and an opponent correspondence. Emir managed to run to Morocco. The French lost 9 killed and 12 wounded in this attack. The residues of smalie twice were overtaken by Lambier. The consequence of these clashes was the destruction of most of the regular ABD al-Qadir troops. The actions of 1843 ended with the victory of the General Tempur of the Emir's companion, Sidi-Embarek.
The consequence of success worked in 1843 was the conquest of Algeria, with the exception of several points in Sakhar and the Andagada, employed by the Emir's troops and a large Cabilia (a mountainous country, stretching to the West and South of Budsia). At the same time, the French built a number of fortified camps on the northern outskirts of the desert, submitted to themselves several closest sugar tribes and energetically continued the construction of roads, bridges, villages and other things. On the left bank of Sheliff, on one meridian with a threshold, the city of Orleanville was founded. The strengthened camps were built in the Tenads, between the Tenaine and Orleanville, the Tenad-El Gad, near Thaza and the theater, where they were intended to keep the Dahra and Vanzeris tribes in the obedience. At the same time, roads from Shershel to Miliana and from Algeria to Constantine were built. For the expedition of 1843, the BEJO received Marshall rod.
In the spring of 1844, the Duke Omalsky took the biscura and Tugurt and forced many Sugara rulers to pay the French to the French. At the same time, Marshal himself made the first attempt to approve power in a large Cabilia. With a column of 7 thousand people, he moved to this country, there was a few defeats to the natives and took Dulley, but his future successes were stopped by the Westers from the West.
Meanwhile, Abd Al Qadir remained in Morocco, the ruler of which Abder-Raman has long been playing against France an ambiguous role. At all time continuing the warmans by the French in Algeria, the Moroccan rulers secretly provided their misfortune to them. They excited the uprising of local tribes and supported Emir to troops, military tools and subsidies. Twice, in 1831 and 1836, Abder Raman made ideas about his hostile actions, but both times in response was to express the desire to preserve the world.
The distress situation of ADA al-Kadir, when he appears in Moroccan possessions, caused an active participation to him. The fanatical population of the country met Emir with lively sympathy and local semi-tribal tribes proclaimed a sacred war against Christians, which Abder-Raman apparently did not want to interfere. The war began on May 30 by a sudden attack of Moroccan militias on a detachment of General Lambian, who was on the border of Morocco in Lella Maria. The attack was able to reflect and the enemy retired to the ush. A few days later, Marshal Burego arrived here and after barren negotiations with the Moroccan government took the city of Ishdu. During June and July, nothing important happened. By the beginning of August, the strength of the French corps has increased. There were 8,500 infantry people, 1800 cavalrymen and 16 tools were concentrated here. The Moroccan army consisted against them in the composition of 10 thousand infantry, 20 thousand cavalry and 11 guns under the command of the son of Emperor Mulu Magomet, located in several camps on the right bank of the Isley River 8 km from the Ushda. It is thorough assuming that having excellence in the power of Muli-Magomet will not evade the battle, Bureggu decided to attack it.
Deciding on a sudden attack, the Bureau produced his famous night march to the whole detachment in a strictly large rhombic square. The direction of the direction served as a head battalion of one of the corners of Kara. Half of the battalions followed the head ledgers to the right and left from him, the other half was also moved by the ledge, but only in the reverse order, the ledgers do not outward, but inside. The battalions walked every minute ready to rebuild into battalion kara. Towards, lazaret and portion cattle moved inside a kara; Cavalry in 2 columns is also inside a kara, on both sides of the drive; Artillery for 4 faces of Kare against intervals between battalions. This marching order was at the same time and combat.
On the morning of August 14, the French army went to the enemy camp. Moroccan cavalry took a number of mad attacks, but the French easily reflected them with a bang and rifle fire, continuing the offensive to the camp. When Marshal saw that the enemy was quite upset by his strength, he put forward a cavalry, which supported by the infantry, made a decisive attack and mastered the camp, with all the reserves and artillery of the enemy. The French continued to close the enemy, who by noon was finally broken and turned to a flight on the way to Fet. Its further persecution of intensive troops, with a strong heat, turned out to be impossible. The losses of the French were insignificant, only 27 killed and 36 wounded. For this victory, the Marshal Burego was erected into the ducal dignity.
A few days before that fight, negotiations were started in Tangier, and the Bureao sent to the Moroccan shores of the fleet, under the commander of the Duke Juanville (3 linear ship, 1 Frigate, 2 Brig, 6 steamers and several small ships) with a 2-thousand landing detachment . The reluctance of Abder Raman join the negotiations made the French start on August 6 bombing of the tanger. From a distance of 850 meters from the coast, fire was opened and despite the fact that 120 guns placed on the coastal batteries were answered by the French, after a few hours of strengthening the tantarian were turned into a pile of ruins.
A few days later, the city of Mogador (August 15-17) was bombarded and destroyed - the most important seaside point of the Moroccan Empire, through which all trade and diplomatic relations were conducted. At the same time, the French made landing and occupied the fortified island that covered access to the harbor. Following this, the city itself was taken, but the French immediately left him by destroying the fortifications.
Agrowed near the strikes, Abder-Raman hurried to start negotiations and on September 10 concluded with the French, the Tangier's peace treaty with the French, which was obliged to dissolve the troops gathered at the borders with Algeria, strictly punish the insurgents of the uprising, to abandon all the assistance of France's opponents and expel out of the country abd Kadir, or conclude it in one of the cities of the western coast of Morocco. The French, for their part, after the fulfillment of the conditions, they were obliged to clear the island of Mogador and the city of Ishdo. The determination of mutual borders should have become the subject of a special convention, after the proper survey on the spot. After the conclusion of the world in Tangier, fell in the spirit of Abd al-Kadir with the families of his adherents and 700 people of infantry and cavalry went to the limits of Sahara.
In the whole country came calm; New paths have fallen and the crossings were arranged to facilitate the reports of seaside lands with southern regions, and Sakhara. Trade relations between residents of the body and Sahara resumed. Meanwhile, the emir sent his Sahara agents, trying to indignant the tribes conquered by the French. The mistakes of him were successful: in April 1845 in Dakhre, some Mohamed-Ben-Abdala appeared in Dakhre - some Mohamed-Ben-Abdala appeared, called a later bu-Maza (goat's father) and began to excite Dakhra residents to the Holy War against Christians. The uprising quickly spread in Damre and went beyond its limits. Bu-masted by these successes rushed to Vasheris where the sacred war broke out. Although both revolutions were energetic and cruel measures, they managed to put out soon, but they cost France of considerable work and losses, especially in Dakhre, where the war was carried out with extraordinary cruelty: most of the tribe Cali Ria, not wanting to submit, in one cave; The French to force the enemy to surrender, laid down at the entrance to the cave a giant fire and supported it for 2 nights. Fanatics mostly died.
Similar uprising, but smaller sizes, raised by Emir's adherents and in other districts. So, in mid-September, almost the same day, in the Orange region in the West, trains were rebelled, and in the east flitte. To maintain the first of the opposites Abd al-Kadir himself switched through the western border of Algeria. Lieutenant Colonel Montagnac, the commandant of Gemma Gazauat, to support tribes, submissive French, moved with a detachment of 400 people to meet Emir, but this detachment surrounded from all sides by Arabs was completely destroyed. Only 12 people returned to Gemma Gazauat. As soon as Lamoricist who returned to the place of the Bureby, in connection with the departure of the latter in Paris, he learned about the defeat of Montagnac, he immediately moved to Emir to meet him, broke his advanced squads and forced him to retire to Moroccan possessions.
In mid-October, Emir invaded Vanzeris, but the cumulative efforts of Lambian, Yussuf and the Bureau who returned again, forced him to retreat in the Sahara.
In early 1846, Abd Al-Cadir again appeared quite unexpectedly in a large Cabilia, sitting on the western slope of Jur-Jira threatening through the River Isser and the invasion of Metju. The Bureguo immediately collected about the bogar, a small detachment and forced marches went to the chart, but before his arrival, General Jathil broke the Emir's troops at the River Dzhelma, flowing into Medis and forced that for the retreat of Jebel-Amur Mountains.
Meanwhile, Cavenik after an unsuccessful search, in February, "Smalie" Emir, located in Moroccan possessions, moved against the false propeller Magometal-El Fadey, who led most of the tribes in the Oran region. Not far from Tlemsen, at the end of March, the militia of false prophets were scattered. At the same time, Bu Maz again excited Dahra, but the uprising was quickly suppressed. Then Bu Maz rushed to Vanzeris and here connecting with the calif of Emir El Segore, held several weeks at first against the Duke of Omalsky, and then against the Bureby himself.
Meanwhile, ABD al-Kadir, wanting to get rid of the persecution of the UNUSYUF, overtaking him in the mountains of Jebel-Amur and get close to his "Sail", moved to Stitten and then to the Moroccan border, was defeated by Shellla from the mobile colonel Raino, and in July Joined his "Small" with 400 horsemen and several infantrymen who were in the most pitiful form.
In early 1847, a bu-maz surrendered and was sent to France. Having got rid of this skillful partisan, which Abd al-Cadir himself considered a dangerous rival, Bureggo in May 1847, Burego decided to firmly seize the big chance. To do this, he moved two columns: 8 thousand under his personal leadership from the city of Gemza and 7 thousand under the leadership of General Bedo - from the city of Buzhia. Both columns were to connect to the Aduze Valley. The columns moved in mid-May. After a series of victorious battles, the French finally seen this robbery country. At the same time, Bureggio sent several expeditionary columns to handle the northern sugar tribes worried. After completing this, the conquest of Algeria, Bureggu requested him to change him from the post of the Governor's General, and at the beginning of September 1847 the Duke of Omalsky was appointed in his place.
Meanwhile, Abd Al Qadir, desperate in the possibility of successful fighting on the territory of Algeria, the independent state decided to establish an independent state in the eastern half of Morocco, forced her at Abder Raman. For several months, in a deep secret, he prepared edible and military supplies, formed and put in order his troops and led propaganda among the local population, especially among the Cabilians who lived in the rhypha mountain range. But Emir did not take his strength. At the end of 1847, as soon as he raised the uprising, quickly gathering the troops of the Moroccan emperor, the bloody measures were suppressed by him. First, Beni Amer and other Algerian tribes that moved with Emir were exterminated. And it strongly worn on the reef cabin, forcing them to remain loyal to Abder Raman. And in early December, the Abder-Raman himself moved his army in two columns against ABD Al Qadir troops. In the first combat clash, the emir attacked one of the Moroccan camps and had some success, but on the other day he was surrounded from all sides on River Mloe with excellent enemy forces and rushed for the Kiss River on the border of Algeria. But here he was met by the French; General Lamorison blocked his way to the east and made it thrown up the Valley of the Kiss Border River to the south, through the Mountain Pass Kerbus. After receiving the news, Lambier sent to Kerbus on the night of December 22, a strong roadside, with whom Emir met the next day. Not knowing the true forces of the French and without seeing another outcome, Emir surrendered on December 22, dissolving his "smali" with 5,000 people.
Yermolov - Marabou Sidi-Bragim, who gave the immortal tradition of their "blue devils" - hiking. The African epic chronologically completely coincided with the French commanders and the troops will be rejected by new laurels, defeating Austria's coexist in Routine, and the winner, 1911. - P. 317-320. - ((in 14 volumes). / 2nd ed. Ed. Under common. Hand. M. I. Bogdanovich. T. 1. - SPb., 1852-1858.
Algerian People's Democratic Republic - a state in North Africa. Arabic sounds like Al-Jazzair ("Islands"); This name is obliged to be small islands near the capital, the port city of Algeria.
From the 8th century, Algeria is part of the Arab West (Maghreb). From the 16th century The country was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, and in the middle of 19 century. Was worked by France. Seven-year war against the French rule ended with the declaration of Algeria's independence in 1962.
Population
In the era of French conquest, the population of Algeria was approx. 3 million people. In 1966, it has already reached 11.823 million people, and in 2003 - 32.82 million people.
Initially, Algeria was settled with nations, speaking on Berber languages. These nations are still in 2000 BC. Moved here from the Middle East. Most of the modern population enjoys in everyday life of the Arabic language. The Arabs settled on the territory of Algeria during the period of Islamic discoveries of 7-8 centuries. and nomadic migrations 11-12 centuries. The mixing of two waves of immigrants with the autochthonous population led to the emergence of the so-called Arab-Berber ethnos, in whose cultural development of which the Arab element belongs to a dominant role.
French conquest
After the conquest of Algeria, France in the 19th century, the number of the European part of the population has increased, and by 1960, OK has already lived here. 1 million Europeans. Most of the French roots, the opposites of the rest moved to Algeria from Spain, Italy and Malta. After declare the independence of Algeria in 1962, most Europeans left the country.
Most of the population of Algeria - Muslim-Sunni (Malikita and Hanafis). The state religion of the country is Islam. There are approx. 150 thousand Christians, mostly Catholics, and approximately 1 thousand adherents of Judaism.
The state language is Arabic, but the French language is still widespread.
In France, more than a million immigrants from Algeria constantly live; In addition, in the most former colony there are a significant number of francophones, which led to the creation of a peculiar Franco-Algerian culture. The diplomatic relations between Algeria and the United States, interrupted during the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, were restored in 1974.
History
Conquest Algeria Muslims. At the end of the 7th century AD Arabs Muslims appeared on the territory of North Africa. With their arrival relatively quickly, in the same age, the remains of the Byzantine Board disappeared, and Berbres obeyed the Arabs. They accepted Islam and adopted the language, culture, the board system, creating Arab-Berber civilization that existed to the present day.
In the period of Arab conquests in Spain and Sicily, the main center of Arab power was Tunisia, later Spain itself and Morocco. Although in the period Arab Board on the territory of Algeria (700-1500), minor public entities arose, they, as a rule, were subordinate to the rulers of Tunisia, if they were in the eastern part of the country, or the rulers of Morocco, if they were in the West.
Turkish control. At the end of the 15th century. Christian Spain, defeating the last on its territory Muslim state Granada, sent troops to Africa and captured Algerian ports of Merms-El Kebir, Oran, Algeria, Annaba and Bedjahi. Local Arab rulers appealed to the Padysham of the Ottoman Empire. Turks expelled Spaniards from North Africa.
The founders of the Algerian military colony, subsequently known in Europe called Algerian Regency, were the Barbarossa brothers. In 1553, after long clashes between the Arabs, the Spaniards and the Turks, Tlemsen was attached.
For more than 100 years, the country was controlled by governors (pasha) appointed from Istanbul. After 1671, Algeria as a Turkish ownership began to enjoy significant autonomy led by the ruler, lifelongly elected by the highest officials and officers of the civil, military and maritime services of Algeria.
French rule.
1830 - the beginning of French colonization.
There was a huge expedition out of 100 military and 357 transport vessels with a land argent of 35,000 people. and 4000 horses. The land army was under the beginning of General Burman, the fleet - under the top of Vice Admiral Duperre. The French landing began without interference July 14, 1830 in Sidi Ferrukh Bay; But while they began to strengthen their position, on July 19, they were attacked by the son-in-law, Ibrahim-Agi, with 30000 Turks. The French, however, reflected this attack and took away all the tools and traffic from the enemy. Soon after that, the bombardment began and from Sushi and from the sea, so that already on July 5, actions had surrendered, agreeing to the surrender, subject to free deviation for himself and Yanychar. His fleet, weapons and the state treasury of 50 million francs went into the hands of the winners.
The most dangerous enemy the French found in the face of Abd al-Qadir Al-Jazzairi, who, as chapter 30 Arab tribes, connected to the Sacred War, was proclaimed by Emir Maskara.
Abd Cadir Al-Jazzairi - Son Sheikh and the follower of Sufism, the National Hero of Algeria, the Communist Party, the leader of the national liberation movement of Algeria against French colonial conquest, scientist, speaker and poet.
It took from a very ancient and notable marabuta (priest) kind in Oren.
He studied in Maskar, in the spiritual School Hetné, who was under the leadership of his father, highly respected Marabuta Sidi El Magiddin. Thanks to extraordinary abilities, piety, learning and art to own weapons, Abd Al-Kadir also gained wide fame in his youth. To get rid of the persecution of the suspicious Algerian act, he fled to Egypt, where he first had to meet with European civilization. Hence he made a hajj in Mecca and returned to his homeland. At this time, the French won Algeria, driving the Turk. At the same time, however, many Arab tribes rebelled.
The uprising was started by the Arab-Berber tribes of the province of Oran in May 1832. Abd al-Cadir was the leader of the uprising.
Abd al-Kadir managed to overcome the fragmentation of different social groups. During the resistance, the rebels created a joint state with the capital in Muscar. The war was bloody, the French suffered a number of defeats and were forced to conclude a peace treaty in February 1834.
In 1835, the war resumed, but the French were again broken - and in May 1837 the next peace treaty was concluded, according to which France acknowledged the power of Abd al-Qadir on most of the Western Algeria. The years 1837-1838 were the highest point of the heyday of the ABD Al Qadir. The economy was militarist due to the need to confront the further invasion of the French. Military industry developed intensively: saber, rifle, foundry, cannon and powder enterprises were created. In the country, along with the militia of the tribes, a regular army was organized, several defense lines were created. During the truce ABD al-Kadir, reforms were carried out: an administrative, dividing country into several regions; economic aimed at redistribution of income in society; Judicial and tax. The State ABD Al Qadir produced its own currency.
On October 18, 1838, the French violated the peace treaty of 1837. The French army took possession of Konstantin, and by 1843 he captured most of the country, weakened by the treason of large feudal.
Abd Al-Kadir was hidden on the territory of the neighboring Morocco, the authorities of which also participated in resistance to the French troops. However, they also suffered a defeat and were forced to send Abd al-Kadir from the country. In 1845, a new uprising began in Algeria, which was headed by ABD al-Cadir who had returned from the expulsion. In 1847, the rebels were broken. On December 22, 1847, Abd Al Qadir surrendered to General Lamorison and Duke Omalsky - and was sent to France.
1848 - Algeria declared the territory of France, divided into departments led by prefects and the French Governor General. The best lands of the country are settled by the colonists from Europe.
In France, Abd al-Kadir lived under a soft, honorable supervision with his relatives, until Napoleon III freed him by appointing a pension. On December 21, 1852, he moved to Bursa, and then settled in Damascus, where in the summer of 1860 the Christians undergoing severe persecution. Since then, its quiet, contemplative life was interrupted only by him at the time of the races on a manty. He once again made a hajj, visited the World Exhibition in Paris in 1867 and in November 1869 attended the opening of the Suez Canal - there he met with the great Imam Dagestan and Chechnya Shamil.
One of the characteristic features of the National Hero of Algeria was his peacefulness and tolerance.
In historical chronicles, the exchange of letters between the Sheikh Abd al-Cadir and Imam Shamil was recorded. Of them it becomes obvious that even at the height of hostilities, they both opposed violence and cruelty, called for a peaceful dialogue with representatives of other denominations. There is no doubt that these letters should be a public domain so that of them can learn for themselves a lot of new ones who do not understand the essence of Jihad, believing that under it implies the total destruction of dissenters.
Abd al-Kadir wrote a very interesting religious and philosophical essay, which Duga translated from Arabic to French under the title "Rappel à l'intelligent; Avis à l'Indifférent "(Paris, 1858).
Armed struggle (for example, ABD Al-Qadir rebellion) lasted almost until the end of the XIX century.
Modern Algeria
In the course of the referendum on self-determination held on July 1, 1962, 91% of Algerians spoke for independence. July 3, 1962 Algeria became an independent state.
In 1963, a new constitution was adopted, in accordance with which Algeria became the presidential republic. In September 1963, Ben Bella was elected first president of the country.
Today Algeria is a large country in North Africa. It is here that the main marine and airways are held between the Atlantic, the Middle East, Africa and Europe. The Algerian government has ambitious plans - to bring the country to a number of most economically developed states.
Revenues from the sale of oil allowed Algeria to pay off external debts and launch a whole series of state projects aimed at developing the economy.
However, financial stability could not bring security to the country.
