The landing of the French English troops in the Crimea. The invasion of the Crimea and the siege of Sevastopol

Completing the sorting of the Crimean events, I look through the Crimean War in detail. So far, I have looked through 1853 and 1854, and there are questions.

Already in January 1853 - long before the conflict- Russian troops moved to the Danube.
In February 1853, the Emperor of Russia leads intensive personal talks with the British Ambassador.

February 23, 1853 (old style) Menshikov arrived in Istanbul and began to demand the right to patronize the Orthodox throughout the Ottoman Empire. Since the head of the Russian Orthodox Church is the emperor himself, this de facto means a change of citizenship - it was this trick that the Romanovs almost pulled in 1865 in Egypt.

February 28 Petersburg decided not to insist on the exclusive rights of the Russian Orthodox Church in Jerusalem. This means that the religious motives for starting a war are already disabled, and the future Crimean War since February 28, there is no longer a war for the rights to the Holy Land.

The Russian Chancellor reads out the secret dispatches of agents to the ambassadors of those very European countries, with whom to fight.

The Russian public of that time had no idea about the essence of the conflict. I.e, historians have no documents, confirming that the then public knew about the rights of Russia to holy places. The question is, is the essence of the conflict thrust into our noses.

In April, the Sultan satisfied ALL the demands of Russia - both in relation to the Holy places, and even on the right of patronage, while Russia withdrew all its claims to the European powers on February 28th. In the same April, Russia and France amicably agreed on the holy places. And then the ambassadors of France and Britain come to Istanbul and begin to put pressure on the Sultan and promise all kinds of support in the war with Russia. What's this?

The Vienna note of May 31 allows the parties to end the conflict without losing face, and everyone agrees to it - except the Sultan. Back in April, the Sultan was ready to go for a much tougher option.

HistoryOrb writes that on August 8, 1853, the Russian fleet appeared in Nagasaki. In fact, these were the schooner "Pallada" and the schooner "Vostok" being towed. According to Russian information, they entered Nagasaki on August 10, and this discrepancy of 2 days is strange.

The dates of the "case at Iskachi" also differ by 2 days - we have October 11 (23), and in the West - October 25.
The Battle of Akhaltsikhe has a date of November 12 and November 13-14, which is far from the same.
The defeat of the Anatolian army near Bashkadiklyar has the dates November 19 (December 1) and November 27. 3 days difference.
the two-day shelling of Chetati took place on January 6, 1854, and on January 11-12, and this is not a difference in style.
On April 6, 1854, British ships were already fired upon from Odessa, but the Anglo-French fleet will appear at Odessa only 2 days later, on April 8.
Even the declaration of war on Russia by England and France has different dates: March 26 and 27, 1854, and there is also the 28th.

Then, in March 1854, the squadrons of England and France entered the Black Sea, but on October 22, 1853 they were already doing this. And once again it happened on December 23, 1853 - it's cool to enter the Black Sea three times.

COSSACK RELATIONS WITH THE ENEMY
... in 1853, 16 ships arrived in the port of Yeysk from abroad and wheat was taken out to England, France and Turkey about 93 thousand pounds. in the amount of 62 thousand rubles (29).

And here is what K. Marx writes: England covered the expenses of Russia in her wars against France, France paid for Russia's war against Persia, Persia - her war against Turkey, Turkey and England - her war against Poland; Hungary and the Danubian Principalities must now cover the costs of her war
(Printed in the New York Daily Tribune, No. 3828, July 25, 1853)

Finally found!
Chapter XIV. Supply of troops from November 21, 1853 to March 11, 1854
http://dugward.ru/library/nikolay1/zayonchkovskiy3.html

Further...
May 1854 English ships delivered to Gelendzhik pontoon bridges for crossing across the Kuban River.
Here is Gelendzhik and the Kuban river basin. Question for the experts: Where were the British going to go? ?

1854 September 14-15, the expeditionary force landed in oldforth(Crimea).
Question: where does the English toponym come from in Crimea ?

1854 - Crimean War: British and French defeat Russian forces 50 000 man (HistoryOrb, judging by the date, the battle of Inkerman is implied)
In 1854, more than a quarter of the personnel of the British troops were killed or wounded at the Battle of Inkerman. The person conducting the interview noted that there was almost nothing left in the general's memory. “When part of them returned to join up with scattered companies, he remembered nothing but sobbing soldiers. They were hysterical all night."
Russian wiki writes that the British lost not a quarter of their personnel, but three-quarters. Such losses are quite rare.
What really happened there ?

Now the losses in the Crimean War are estimated at 250 thousand people, but five years ago another figure was circulating - a million killed and died from wounds and diseases. Now this figure is no longer found.

AND MAIN:
I found a map of hostilities in the Crimean War and could not answer main question: And for what?
What did the Europeans want? Dominant Turks in the Black Sea? So they don't really need it.
The only reliable hypothesis was put forward by Kamalov: there was a battle for the oil fields of Azerbaijan and Romania.
And the Black Sea with ports was important only as a transit corridor.

The strength of Russian weapons and the dignity of a soldier made a significant impression even in lost wars - there were such in our history. Eastern, or Crimean, war of 1853-1856. belongs to them. But at the same time, admiration went not to the winners, but to the vanquished - the participants in the defense of Sevastopol.

Causes of the Crimean War

Russia took part in the war on the one hand and a coalition of France, Turkey, England and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other. In the domestic tradition, it is called Crimean - its most significant events took place on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. In foreign historiography, the term " Eastern war". The reasons for it are purely practical, and all the participants did not object to it.

The real impetus for the clash was the weakening of the Turks. At that time, their country was nicknamed the "sick man of Europe", but strong states claimed the "sharing of the inheritance", that is, the possibility of using Turkish possessions and territories to their advantage.

The Russian Empire needed free passage of the navy through the Black Sea straits. She also claimed to be the patron of the Christian Slavic peoples who wanted to free themselves from the Turkish yoke, especially the Bulgarians. The British were especially interested in Egypt (the idea of ​​the Suez Canal had already matured) and the possibility of convenient communication with Iran. The French did not want to allow the military strengthening of the Russians - Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte III, the nephew of Napoleon I, defeated by ours, had just (officially since December 2, 1852) on their throne (revanchism intensified accordingly).

The leading European states did not want to allow Russia to become their economic competitor. France because of this could lose the position of a great power. England feared Russian expansion in Central Asia, which would lead the Russians directly to the borders of "the most valuable pearl of the British crown" - India. Turkey, having repeatedly lost in Suvorov and Potemkin, simply had no choice but to rely on the help of the European "tigers" - otherwise it could simply fall apart.

Only Sardinia had no special claims to our state. She was simply promised support for her alliance in the confrontation with Austria, which was the reason for her entry into the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Claims of Napoleon the Small

Everyone was not opposed to fighting - everyone had purely pragmatic reasons for this. But at the same time, the British and French were clearly superior to ours in technical terms - they had rifled weapons, long-range artillery and a steam flotilla. The Russians, on the other hand, were smoothed and polished,
looked great in parades, but fought with smooth-bore junk on wooden sailboats.

Under these conditions, Napoleon III, nicknamed V. Hugo "Small" for his apparent inability to compete with his uncle's talents, decided to speed up the events - it is not for nothing that the Crimean War is considered "French" in Europe. He chose as an occasion a dispute over the ownership of churches in Palestine, which were claimed by both Catholics and Orthodox. Both were not then separated from the state, and Russia was directly obliged to support the claims of Orthodoxy. The religious component well masked the ugly reality of the conflict over markets and bases.

But Palestine was under the control of the Turks. Accordingly, Nicholas I reacted by occupying the Danubian principalities, vassal to the Ottomans, and Turkey after that, with good reason, on October 4 (16 according to the European calendar), October 1853, declared war on Russia. It remains for France and England to be "good allies" and do the same on March 15 (March 27) next year.

Battles during the Crimean War

Crimea and the Black Sea acted as the main theater of military operations (it is noteworthy that in other regions - in the Caucasus, Baltic, Far East- Our troops were mostly successful). In November 1853, the Battle of Sinop took place (the last big sailing battle in history), in April 1854, Anglo-French ships fired on Odessa, and in June the first skirmish near Sevastopol took place (shelling of fortifications from the sea surface).

Source of maps and symbols - https://en.wikipedia.org

It was the main Black Sea port of the empire that was the goal of the allies. The essence of the hostilities in the Crimea was reduced to its capture - then the Russian ships would have turned out to be "homeless". At the same time, the allies remained aware that it was fortified only from the sea, and it had no defensive structures from land.

The landing of the allied ground forces in Yevpatoria in September 1854 was precisely aimed at capturing Sevastopol from land by a roundabout maneuver. The Russian commander-in-chief, Prince Menshikov, organized the defense badly. A week after the landing, the landing was already in the vicinity of the current hero city. The Battle of the Alma (September 8 (20), 1854) delayed his advance, but in general it was a defeat for the domestic troops due to unsuccessful command.

But the Sevastopol defense showed that our soldier had not lost the ability to do the impossible. The city held out in the siege for 349 days, withstood 6 massive artillery bombardments, although the number of its garrison was about 8 times less than number stormed (a ratio of 1: 3 is considered normal). There was no support for the fleet - outdated wooden ships were simply flooded in the fairways, trying to block the enemy's passages.

The notorious defense was accompanied by other famous, iconic battles. It is not easy to describe them briefly - each is special in its own way. So, the one that happened under (13 (25) October 1854) is considered the decline of the glory of the British cavalry - this branch of the army suffered heavy inconclusive losses in it. Inkermanskaya (October 24 (November 5) of the same year) showed the advantages of French artillery over Russian and a poor idea of ​​\u200b\u200bour command about the capabilities of the enemy.

On August 27 (September 8), 1855, the French took possession of the fortified height dominating the policy, and 3 days later occupied it. The fall of Sevastopol marked the defeat of our country in the war - there were no more active hostilities.

Heroes of the First Defense

Now the defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War is called - in contrast to the Second, the period of the Great Patriotic War. However, bright characters there is no less, and maybe even more.

Its leaders were three admirals - Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin. All of them died defending the main policy of the Crimea, and are buried in it. Brilliant fortifier, engineer-colonel E.I. Totleben survived this defense, but his contribution to it was not immediately appreciated.

Artillery Lieutenant Count LN Tolstoy fought here. Then he published the documentary "Sevastopol Stories" and immediately turned into a "whale" of Russian literature.

The graves of three admirals in Sevastopol, in the Vladimir Cathedral-tomb, are considered city amulets - the city is invincible while they are with it. It is also considered a symbol that now adorns the 200-ruble bill of a new sample.

Every autumn, the neighborhood of the hero-city is shaken by cannonade - this is historical reconstructions on the battlefields (Balaklavsky, and others). Members of historical clubs not only demonstrate the equipment and uniforms of those times, but also act out the most striking episodes of clashes.

On the sites of the most significant battles installed (in different time) monuments to the dead and archaeological research is underway. Their goal is to become more familiar with the soldier's way of life.

The British and the French willingly take part in reconstructions and excavations. There are also monuments to them - after all, they are also heroes in their own way, otherwise the confrontation was not entirely fair for anyone. And anyway, the war is over.

The spirit in the troops is beyond description. At times ancient greece there was not so much heroism. I have not been able to be in business a single time, but I thank God that I have seen these people and live in this glorious time.

Lev Tolstoy

The wars of the Russian and Ottoman empires were a common occurrence in the international politics of the 18th-19th centuries. In 1853, the Russian Empire of Nicholas 1 entered another war, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and ended with the defeat of Russia. In addition, this war showed the strong resistance of the leading countries of Western Europe (France and Great Britain) to the strengthening of the role of Russia in Eastern Europe, in particular in the Balkans. The lost war also showed Russia itself the problems in domestic politics which led to many problems. Despite victories at the initial stage of 1853-1854, as well as the capture of the key Turkish fortress of Kars in 1855, Russia lost the most important battles on the territory of the Crimean peninsula. This article describes the causes, course, main results and historical meaning in short story about the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Causes of the aggravation of the Eastern question

Under the eastern question, historians understand a number of controversial issues in Russian-Turkish relations, which at any moment could lead to conflict. The main problems of the Eastern question, which became the main one for the future war, are as follows:

• The loss of the Crimea and the northern Black Sea region by the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century constantly stimulated Turkey to start a war in the hope of regaining the territories. Thus began the wars of 1806-1812 and 1828-1829. However, as a result of them, Turkey lost Bessarabia and part of the territory in the Caucasus, which further strengthened the desire for revenge.
• Belonging to the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. Russia demanded that these straits be opened for the Black Sea Fleet, while Ottoman Empire(under pressure from Western European countries) ignored these demands of Russia.
• The presence in the Balkans, as part of the Ottoman Empire, Slavic Christian peoples who fought for their independence. Russia supported them, thereby causing a wave of indignation among the Turks about Russia's interference in the internal affairs of another state.

An additional factor that intensified the conflict was the desire of the countries of Western Europe (Britain, France, and Austria) not to let Russia into the Balkans, and also to close its access to the straits. For the sake of this, the countries were ready to support Turkey in a potential war with Russia.

The reason for the war and its beginning

These troubled moments brewed throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s. In 1853 Turkish sultan transferred the Bethlehem temple of Jerusalem (then the territory of the Ottoman Empire) to the control of the Catholic Church. This caused a wave of indignation of the highest Orthodox hierarchy. Nicholas 1 decided to take advantage of this, using the religious conflict as a pretext for attacking Turkey. Russia demanded that the temple be handed over to the Orthodox Church, and at the same time also open the straits for the Black Sea Fleet. Turkey refused. In June 1853, Russian troops crossed the border of the Ottoman Empire and entered the territory of the Danubian principalities dependent on it.

Nicholas 1 hoped that France was too weak after the revolution of 1848, and that Britain could be appeased by transferring Cyprus and Egypt to it in the future. However, the plan did not work, European countries called the Ottoman Empire to action, promising her financial and military assistance. In October 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia. Thus began, to put it briefly, the Crimean War of 1853-1856. In the history of Western Europe, this war is called Eastern.

The course of the war and the main stages

The Crimean War can be divided into 2 stages according to the number of participants in the events of those years. Here are the steps:

1. October 1853 - April 1854. During these six months the war was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (without the direct intervention of other states). There were three fronts: Crimean (Black Sea), Danube and Caucasian.
2. April 1854 - February 1856. British and French troops enter the war, which expands the theater of operations, as well as a turning point in the course of the war. The allied troops were superior to the Russian ones from the technical side, which was the reason for the changes in the course of the war.

As for specific battles, the following key battles can be distinguished: for Sinop, for Odessa, for the Danube, for the Caucasus, for Sevastopol. There were other battles, but those listed above are the main ones. Let's consider them in more detail.

Battle of Sinop (November 1853)

The battle took place in the harbor of the city of Sinop in the Crimea. The Russian fleet under the command of Nakhimov completely defeated the Turkish fleet of Osman Pasha. This battle was perhaps the last major world battle on sailing ships. This victory significantly raised morale Russian army and gave hope for an early victory in the war.

Map of the Sinopo naval battle November 18, 1853

Bombing of Odessa (April 1854)

In early April 1854, the Ottoman Empire launched a squadron of the Franco-British fleet through its straits, which swiftly headed for Russian port and shipbuilding cities: Odessa, Ochakov and Nikolaev.

On April 10, 1854, the bombardment of Odessa, the main southern port of the Russian Empire, began. After a rapid and intense bombardment, it was planned to land troops in the northern Black Sea region, which would force the withdrawal of troops from the Danube principalities, as well as weaken the defense of the Crimea. However, the city withstood several days of shelling. Moreover, the defenders of Odessa were able to deliver accurate strikes against the Allied fleet. The plan of the Anglo-French troops failed. The allies were forced to retreat towards the Crimea and begin battles for the peninsula.

Fights on the Danube (1853-1856)

It was with the entry of Russian troops into this region that the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began. After the success in the Battle of Sinop, another success awaited Russia: the troops completely crossed to the right bank of the Danube, an attack was opened on Silistria and further on Bucharest. However, the entry into the war of England and France complicated the offensive of Russia. On June 9, 1854, the siege of Silistria was lifted and the Russian troops returned to the left bank of the Danube. By the way, on this front, Austria also entered the war against Russia, which was worried about the rapid advance of the Romanov Empire into Wallachia and Moldavia.

In July 1854, near the city of Varna (modern Bulgaria), a huge landing of the British and French armies landed (according to various sources, from 30 to 50 thousand). The troops were supposed to enter the territory of Bessarabia, ousting Russia from this region. However, a cholera epidemic broke out in the French army, and the British public demanded that the leadership of the army first strike at the Black Sea fleet in the Crimea.

Fights in the Caucasus (1853-1856)

An important battle took place in July 1854 near the village of Kyuruk-Dara (Western Armenia). The combined Turkish-British forces were defeated. At this stage, the Crimean War was still successful for Russia.

Another important battle in this region took place in June-November 1855. Russian troops decided to attack the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire, the fortress of Karsu, so that the allies would send part of the troops to this region, thereby slightly weakening the siege of Sevastopol. Russia won the battle of Kars, but this happened after the news of the fall of Sevastopol, so this battle had little effect on the outcome of the war. Moreover, according to the results of the "peace" signed later, the fortress of Kars returned to the Ottoman Empire. However, as the peace talks showed, the capture of Kars still played a role. But more on that later.

Defense of Sevastopol (1854-1855)

The most heroic and tragic event of the Crimean War is, of course, the battle for Sevastopol. In September 1855, Franco-British troops captured the last point of the city's defense - Malakhov Kurgan. The city survived 11 months of siege, however, as a result, it was surrendered to the allied forces (among which the Sardinian kingdom appeared). This defeat became a key one and served as an impetus for the end of the war. From the end of 1855, intensified negotiations began, in which Russia had practically no strong arguments. It was clear that the war was lost.

Other battles in the Crimea (1854-1856)

In addition to the siege of Sevastopol on the territory of Crimea in 1854-1855, several more battles took place, which were aimed at "unblocking" Sevastopol:

1. Battle of the Alma (September 1854).
2. Battle of Balaklava (October 1854).
3. Battle of Inkerman (November 1854).
4. An attempt to liberate Evpatoria (February 1855).
5. Battle on the Chernaya River (August 1855).

All these battles ended in unsuccessful attempts to lift the siege of Sevastopol.

"Distant" battles

The main fighting of the war took place near the Crimean peninsula, which gave the name to the war. There were also battles in the Caucasus, on the territory of modern Moldova, as well as in the Balkans. However, not many people know that battles between rivals also took place in remote regions of the Russian Empire. Here are some examples:

1. Peter and Paul Defense. The battle that took place on the territory of the Kamchatka Peninsula between the combined Franco-British troops on the one hand and Russian on the other. The battle took place in August 1854. This battle was the result of the victory of Britain over China during the Opium Wars. As a result, Britain wanted to increase its influence in the east of Asia, ousting Russia from here. In total, the Allied troops made two assaults, both ended in failure for them. Russia withstood the Peter and Paul defense.
2. Arctic Company. The operation of the British fleet to attempt to blockade or capture Arkhangelsk, carried out in 1854-1855. The main battles took place in the Barents Sea. The British also undertook the bombardment of the Solovetsky fortress, as well as the robbery of Russian merchant ships in the White and Barents Seas.

Results and historical significance of the war

In February 1855, Nicholas 1 died. The task of the new emperor, Alexander 2, was to end the war, and with minimal damage to Russia. In February 1856, the Paris Congress began its work. Russia was represented by Alexei Orlov and Philip Brunnov. Since neither side saw the point in continuing the war, already on March 6, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed, as a result of which the Crimean War was completed.

The main terms of the Treaty of Paris 6 were as follows:

1. Russia returned the Karsu fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol and other captured cities of the Crimean peninsula.
2. Russia was forbidden to have a Black Sea fleet. The Black Sea was declared neutral.
3. The Bosporus and Dardanelles were declared closed to the Russian Empire.
4. Part of Russian Bessarabia was transferred to the Moldavian Principality, the Danube ceased to be a border river, so navigation was declared free.
5. On the Allada Islands (an archipelago in the Baltic Sea), Russia was forbidden to build military and (or) defensive fortifications.

As for losses, the number of Russian citizens who died in the war is 47.5 thousand people. Britain lost 2.8 thousand, France - 10.2, the Ottoman Empire - more than 10 thousand. The Sardinian kingdom lost 12 thousand soldiers. Austrian casualties are unknown, possibly because Austria was not officially at war with Russia.

In general, the war showed the backwardness of Russia, compared with the states of Europe, especially in terms of the economy (completion of the industrial revolution, construction railways, the use of steamboats). After this defeat, the reforms of Alexander 2 began. In addition, a desire for revenge was brewing in Russia for a long time, which resulted in another war with Turkey in 1877-1878. But this is a completely different story, and the Crimean War of 1853-1856 was completed and Russia was defeated in it.

War-on the border between the Russian im-pe-ri-ey and koa-li-qi-ey countries (Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia, France, Os-man-sky im-pe -ria and Sar-din-ko-ro-left-st-vo), caused by a clash-but-ve-ni-em of their in-te-re-owls in the bass-this-not Black-but th m., on Kav-ka-ze and Bal-ka-nah. Og-ra-no-chen-nye military. dei-st-via were also carried out on the Bal-ti-ke, Bel-scrap m. and Pacific Ocean.

K ser. 19th century Great Britain and France you-tes-no-whether Russia from near-non-sewage markets and under-chi-no-whether your influence -nia of the Os-man-sky im-pe-ry. Ros. right-vi-tel-st-in without-us-pesh-but py-ta-moose to-go-to-rit-sya with Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-her about time-de-le spheres of influence in the Middle East-to-ke, and then decided to restore the morning-ra-chen-nye-zi-tion directly on the press on Os -man-sky im-pe-riyu. Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia and France are able-to-st-in-va-li about-st-re-niyu conflict-ta, ras-count-you-was-la- beat Russia and trade Crimea, the Caucasus and other ter-ri-to-rii from it. For-mal-nym in-house for K. v. in-serve-whether the dispute between the right-in-glorious and some-lich. spirit-ho-ven-st-vom because of the Holy places in Pa-le-sti-ne, on-ho-div-shih-sya under the protection of Russia and France, and fak-ti-che-ski it was about us-ta-nov-le-nii pre-o-la-giving-th influence on the os-lab-len-nuyu Os-man- im-pe-riyu, someone-paradise hoped for the help of the west. countries in the preservation of statehood in the Bal-ka-nah. Feb. 1853 through you-tea-ny in-slan-nick imp. Ni-ko-lai I adm. A. S. Men-shi-kov in-tre-bo-val from Port-you confirm-waiting for the pro-tek-to-ra-ta of Russia over all the right-to-glory-us -mi in the Os-man-sky im-pe-rii. Under-der-zhy-vae-my Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and Fran-qi-ey tour. pra-vi-tel-st-in from-clo-no-lo grew up. but-that and yes-lo permission to enter English-lo-French. es-kad-ry in the Strait of Dar-da-nel-ly. In connection with this, Russia is ra-zo-rva-la di-plo-ma-tich. from-no-she-niya with Os-man-sky im-pe-ri-ey and on June 21 (July 3-la) introduced war-ska into the Du-nai-sky princes-same-st-va - Mol-da-wiyu and Wa-la-hyu. Under-der-zhan-ny Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and Franc-tsi-ey, tour. sul-tan Ab-dul-Med-kid 27 Sept. (9 Oct.) tre-bo-val you-vo-yes grew up. troops from the principalities, and 4 (16) Oct. announced-I-vil Russia howl-well, someone-paradise 20 Oct. (November 1) in turn, about-I-vi-la howl-well of the Os-man-im-pe-rii. To-cha-lu of the war in the Du-nai-sky princes-same-st-wakh would-la-so-medium-to-that-che-grew. army (83 thousand people) under command. gene. from art. M. D. Gor-cha-ko-va (since 1854 - General Feldm. I. F. Pas-ke-vi-cha). On Kav-ka-ze means. part grew. troops would be in-la-vle-che-on in the Caucasian-Kaz-war-well 1817-64, and for covering the Russian tour. gra-ni-tsy sfor-mi-ro-van 30-thousand-thousand corps (gen.-l. V. O. Be-bu-tov). In the Crimea under the arm. Men-shi-ko-va, on-sign-of-no-go-to-man-blowing-shchim of the Crimean army and the Black Sea Fleet, on-ho-di- elk only 19 thousand people. In zap. areas for covering the Russian-Austrian gra-ni-tsy and on the se-ve-ro-for-pa-de was left a large con-ting-gent of troops (256 thousand people), still approx. 500 thousand people os-ta-va-moose inside. regions of Russia.

We didn’t have specific plans for the war against us. Ros. pra-vi-tel-st-vo-ta-lo that you can achieve your own goals, but de-mon-st-ra-qi-en. si-ly, therefore, after joining the Du-Nai-princes-of-the-same-st-va, active actions are not pre-at-ni-ma -lo. This gave the opportunity to the Os-man-im-pe-rii to complete the strategic. unfold-you-va-nie your army by the end of september-rya. Main si-ly tour. troops (143 thousand people) under command. Omer-pa-shi (av-st-ri-ets Lat-tas, re-re-went to the tour. service-boo) would be co-medium-to-the-che-us on Du-nai- com TVD. To Kavka. TVD on-ho-di-las Ana-to-liy-skaya army of Ab-di-pa-shi (about 100 thousand people). Regardless of the number of pre-sunrise, tour. ko-man-to-va-nie wait-yes-lo enter-p-le-niya into the howl-well so-yuz-ni-kov, that’s why in the 1853 camp-pa-nii on Du-nai- skom theater in-en. dei-st-via shi-ro-ko-go times-ma-ha not in-lu-chi-li. To Kavka. TVD in-en. action-st-via on-cha-lis in oct. 1853 out-of-the-way on-pa-de-ni-em and behind the tour. howl-ska-mi grew up. in a hundred St. Nicholas. Ch. si-ly tour. armies under command. Ab-di-pa-shi (about 20 thousand people) on-stu-pa-li on Alek-san-d-ro-pol (Gyum-ri), and the 18-thousandth building Ali-pa-shi - to Akhal-tsikh. In the battles near Ba-yan-du-ra (near Alek-san-d-ro-po-lem) and near Akhal-tsi-hom, pe-re-to-vye from-row grew. troops inflicted a tour. howl-scam and os-ta-but-wee-whether they are pro-movement. In the Bash-ka-dyk-lar-sky battle of 1853, would there be a thunder-le-na ch. si-ly tour. armies in the Caucasus. Ros. Black Sea Fleet with Na-cha-la K. v. us-pesh-but action-st-in-shaft on the sea. com-mu-no-ka-qi-yah pro-tiv-no-ka, block-ki-ro-val tour. fleet in ports. Ros. es-cad-ra under command. vice-adm. P. S. Na-hi-mo-va 18 (30) Nov. in the Si-nop-sky battle of 1853, a complete destruction of the zhi-la tour. es-kad-ru. This be-doy grew up. the fleet for-war-shaft dominance on the Black M. and lost the tour. howl-ska on Kav-ka-ze support-ki from the sea. At the same time, military weakness of the Os-man-im-pe-rii before-op-re-de-li-la join-p-le-tion in the war-well of We-li-ko-bri-ta-nia and France , some on December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854) introduced a united union fleet into the Black Sea. Pro-test of Russia against on-ru-she-niya me-zh-du-nar. convention about pro-li-vah was rejected, grew up. pra-vi-tel-stvo ra-zo-rva-lo di-plo-ma-tich. from-no-she-niya with these countries-on-mi.

In the campaign of 1854 on the Danube theater of operations grew. ko-man-do-va-nie before-at-nya-lo in-torture-ku up-re-dit co-yuz-ni-kov, break-up the tour. arm-mia and from-me-thread the course of the war. Vo-en. action-st-via on-cha-lis 11 (23) March-that re-re-right-howl grew up. troops at the same time in the districts of Brai-lo-va, Ga-la-tsa and Iz-mai-la, behind Isak-chi, Tul-chi, Ma-chi-na , and then Gir-co-in. The people of Bol-gar-rii grew up. howl-ska like os-wo-bo-di-te-lei from the tour. yoke. All in. Greece flashed-well-an-ti-tu-retz-something, one-to-the-far-her-neck on-stu-p-le-nie grew. troops were-lo at-os-ta-nov-le-but because of not-re-shi-tel-no-sti M. D. Gor-cha-ko-va. Only on May 4 (16) by order of imp. Ni-ko-lai I started the siege-yes Si-li-st-rii. Pro-in-loch-ki with the beginning of the camp-pa-nii in-call-whether We-li-ko-bri-ta-nii and France to issue in-en.-by- li-tic. co-use, develop a plan of joint actions and complete the preparation of ex-pe-dits. troops. 15-16(27-28). 3.1854 these countries declared war on Russia and Russian tour. howling-on-pe-re-growing-la in the howling-well of Russia with koa-li-qi-her ev-rop. state-su-darstvo. English-French fleet (34 linear ships-slave, 55 free-ha-tov, mainly sail-Russian-but-pa-ro-with wines-you-mi-dvi-ga-te-la -mi), re-rey-dya to active de-st-vi-pits on the Black m., subjected to Odes-su and other coastal states ro-yes, blo-ki-ro-shaft grew. a fleet (14 sailing lines of the ko-slave and 6 frigates; 6 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ga-tov) in Se-va-sto-po-le. In na-cha-le Apr. 1854 Av-st-ria co-together with Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and Franc-tsi-ey you-dvi-nu-la ul-ti-ma-tiv-nye tre -bo-va-nia, under-der-zhan-nye Prus-si-she, grew up by you. troops from Mol-da-via and Wa-la-hii. I grew up in torture. di-plo-mat-tov to-beat-sya co-gla-siya ev-rop. countries for the withdrawal of a fleet of so-uz-ni-kov from Cher-no-go m. in exchange for accepting their conditions-lo-viy us-pe-ha did not have. By the end of August, it grew. ar-miya in-ki-nu-la for-no-mae-my ter-ri-to-ri, someone-rye would be ok-ku-pi-ro-va-ny av-str-ri- tsa-mi.

In June-July-Le ang-lo-franco-tour. ex-pedic. howl (62 thousand people, 134 on the left and 114 siege weapons) under command. French mar-sha-la A. J. L. St. Arno and Brit. gene. F.J. Rag-la-na co-wed-to-to-chi-lis in Var-na, and 1-6 (13-18) Sept. you-sa-di-lissed in Ev-pa-to-riy bay-those. Attempt to os-ta-but-twist about-moving-the-same-nie against-it-no-ka on the ru-be-the same river. Al-ma (see Al-min battle of 1854) at-ve-la grew up. ar-mii, someone-paradise-went away-cha-le to Se-va-sto-po-lu, and then to the Bakh-chi-sa-raya district, os-ta-viv Se -va-hundred-field without cover for the su-ho-way troops. How-ska so-yuz-ni-kov went to the city from the south. Ang-li-cha-not for-hwa-ti-li Ba-lak-la-vu, but franc-tsu-zy - Ka-we-sho-vuyu bukh-tu, where would you create -lo-ba-zy for providing-ne-che-niya after-blowing combat actions. In Se-wa-sto-po-le 13 (25) Sept. ob-i-vi-whether the siege in the same way, on-cha-las Se-va-sto-pol-skaya ob-ro-on 1854-55. Trying to co-use-no-go-ko-man-do-va-niya for-grab Se-va-sto-pol after 9-day-no-go art. on-str-la, on-cha-that-th 5 (17) Oct. The fire grew. ba-ta-rei inflicted tangible damage to the siege ar-til-le-rii and co-slave-lyam against-v-ni-ka, what for-sta-vi-lo Rag-la- on and gen. F. Kan-ro-be-ra (for-me-niv-she-go Saint-Ar-but) from-lo-live assault. Ros. Voy-ska 13 (25) Oct. before-pri-nya-whether in-torture for-hva-ta uk-re-p-lyon-noy base English. troops in the Ba-lak-la-you area. Chor-gun detachment (gen.-l. P. P. Li-p-ran-di) under the cover of the detachment of the gen.-m. O.P. ka-va-le-rii, one-on-one time-twist so-tich. us-peh failed. The new, general, assault on Se-va-sto-po-la, on-significant so-uz-no-ka-mi on 6 (18) Nov., was co-rvan In-ker-man-skim at the same time 1854, in something, despite growing up. troops, against-nick-carried means-chit. in-te-ri and, from-ka-zav-shis from the storm-ma, re-went to a long wasp-de-go-ro-yes.

To Kavka. TVD tur-ki with-medium-to-chi-li army of Mus-ta-fa Za-rif-pa-shi number of up to 120 thousand people. and in May 1854 they re-went to on-st-p-le-tion on alek-san-d-ro-pol-sky and ku-ta-is-sky on-right-le-ni-yah pro- tiv 40-thousand-thousand-th cor-pu-sa V. O. Be-bu-to-va. Ch. si-ly kor-pu-sa (18 thousand people) at this time from-ra-zha-whether the second in the East. Georgia from the rows of mountaineers under the pre-di-tel-st-vom Sha-mi-la. Despite this, he grew up. howl-ska, action-st-vuya dep. from-rya-da-mi, raz-gro-mi-whether that-rock on the river. Cho-roh, in Kyu-ryuk-Da-rin-sky battle of 1854 and for-nya-li Baya-zet.

In the spring of 1854, military actions began on the Baltic Sea, where would it be on the right-le-na English. and French es-cad-ry under command. vi-tse-ad-mi-ra-lov Ch. Nei-pi-ra and A.F. her ko-slave, 32 pa-ro-ho-do-f-re-ha-ta and 7 pa-rus-ny fre-ga-t). Balt. the fleet consisted of 26 sail-Russian linear ships-slave, 25 fre-ga-ts and cor-ve-ts, of which only 11 were pa-ro-you-mi. For the defense of bases from the sea, it grew. mo-rya-ki for the first time use-pol-zo-va-li min-nye for-gra-zh-de-niya. 4(16) Aug. against-tiv-no-ku managed-elk ov-la-child basic. grew up uk-re-p-le-ni-em on the Aland Islands - Bo-mar-zun-dom. At-torture-ki you-sa-dit others. Autumn-new 1854 co-workers-whether in-ki-well-whether the Baltic m. In the se-ve-re in 1854 several. English and French ko-slave-lei entered the Be-loye m. On the Far East Vos-to-ke in August. 1854 English-lo-French. es-kad-ra before-pri-nya-la in-torture-ku ov-la-det by Pe-tro-pav-lov-sky Port (see Pe-tro-pav-lov-ska ob-ro- on 1854). One-at-a-ko, after-ter-pev in-ra-same-nie, so-uz-naya es-kad-ra ush-la from the banks of Kam-chat-ki. The combat actions on these theater of operations had a second-degree-pe-noe value, so-use-no-ki pre-follow-to-wa-whether the goal was for-sta- to grow up ko-man-do-va-nie from-draw their forces from Ch. te-at-ra - Crimea-go. In de-kab-re to vra-zh-deb-noy Russia ang-lo-french. the coalition was connected to the key of the Av-st-riya (see the Vienna so-yuz-ny do-go-thief 1854), one-on-one in the military. dei-st-vi-yah participation is not with-ni-ma-la.

14 (26) .1.1855 at the request of France, the Sardinian kingdom entered the war, on the right-neck to the Crimea 15 thousandth corps (gen. A. La Mar-mo-ra). In Feb-ra-le grew up. ko-man-to-va-nie before-pri-nya-lo not-successful-to-torture ov-la-det Ev-pa-to-ri-her, after something entered-beer -shey on the pre-table imp. Alexander II changed style from one hundred commands. Crimean ar-mi-ey (128 thousand people, including 43 thousand people in Se-va-sto-po-le) A. S. Men-shi-ko-va and on- meant instead of a hundred not-go M. D. Gor-cha-ko-va. One-on-one change-on-to-man-blowing-shchih could no longer from-me-thread in the same way. In those springs and summers of 1855, the union troops (175 thousand people) produced 5 many-su-precise art. about-stre-catching and pre-pri-nya-whether several. Shtur-mov Se-va-one hundred-on-la. In re-zul-ta-te after the next of them on August 27. (Sept. 8) would-la for-hwa-che-on the key-che-way in-zi-tion in the system of defense Se-va-sto-po-la - Ma-la- hov kur-gan. Ros. ko-man-to-va-nie pri-nya-lo re-she-nie to-ki-nut the city and re-rei-ti to the sowing. shore of the Se-va-sto-pol-sky bay. Res-tav-shie-sya ko-slave-whether for-p-le-na. Os-lab-len-nye allied union troops, occupying the south. part of the city, could not continue to re-press on-stu-p-le-tion.

On the Baltic m. es-kad-ry (20 vin-to-line-ney-ny-ko-slave-lei, 32 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ha-ta and cor-ve-ta, 18 other ships ) under command. counter-ad-mi-ra-lov R. Dan-da-sa and Sh. Pe-no. After under-ry-va not-how-ki-ko-slave-lei grew up. min-nah at Kronstadt did not show pro-tiv-nick active-no-sti. His actions in the main. og-ra-ni-chi-va-lis-ka-doy and about-arrow in-be-re-zhya. At the end of July, he without-us-pesh-but tried to seize Gel-sing-fors (Hel-sin-ki) and to cover his fortress Svea -borg. By the end of but-yab-rya English-lo-French. es-kad-ry in-ki-well-whether the Baltic m. On the Bel-scrap m. whether blocking actions, the effect of someone would be not significant. To Kavka. Theater of operations in May on-cha-moose on-stu-p-le-tion Ch. forces Det. Kavk. cor-pu-sa (gen. from inf. N. N. Murav-yov; 40 thousand people) in Er-zu-rum-sky on the right-le-nii and the next blo-ka-yes 33-thousand-thousandth tour. gar-ni-zo-na in the fortress of Kars. You are a garden on the Black Sea in the be-re-jee Kav-ka-for tour. ex-pedic. cor-pu-sa Omer-pa-shi (45 thousand people) and his on-stu-p-le-ning from Su-hu-ma with the goal of de-blo-ka-dy Kar-sa us- pe-ha don't have. Li-shyon-ny support of the gar-ni-zones of the cre-by-sti 16 (28) no-yab. ka-pi-tu-li-ro-val. Omer-pa-sha with os-tat-ka-mi times-thunder-len-no-go kor-pu-sa went to Su-hu-mu, from-ku-yes in February. 1856 on the co-slave of eva-kui-ro-val-sya to Turkey. The do-ro-ha on Er-zu-rum turned out to be open, but the arrival of winter and for-labor-not-niya with under-the-wire pro-to-freedom did not grow up. howl-scam continue to live on-stu-p-le-nie. By this time-me-no in-en. and eco-no-mich. the possibility of a side would be practical-ti-che-ski is-cher-pa-na, in-en. action-st-via pre-kra-ti-lis on all theaters. After the death of imp. No-ko-lai I in-goiter-but-were-re-go-in-ry in Vienna, and on 18 (30). summed up the result of the Crimean war.

In-ra-same-tion in K. c. would-lo ob-word-le-but eco-no-mich. and in-en. from-a-hundred-lo-stuy of Russia, gro-mozd-cue for-bu-ro-kra-ti-zi-ditch. app-pa-rat state. the administration could not provide the country with the preparation for war, and the errors grew. di-plo-ma-tii with-ve-whether to poly-tich. iso-la-tion of Russia. The war was an important stage in the development of military. lawsuit. After her, the armies of the most-shin-st-va countries would have been based on a carved weapon, a sailing Russian fleet for me-nyon pa-ro -you m. In the course of K. in. about-on-ru-zhi-las not-with-standing-tel-ness so-ti-ki-co-lonn, in-lu-chi-whether the development of so-ti-ka shooter. ce-pei and elements-men-you in zits. war. Re-zul-ta-you K. v. ob-slo-vi-whether pro-ve-de-nie eco-no-mich., so-qi-al-nyh and military. reforms in Russia. He grew up. arm-mii for the time of the war-us so-hundred-vi-whether St. 522 thousand people, touring rock - approx. 400 thousand people, French-call - 95 thousand people, Ang-li-chan - 22 thousand people.

LANDING OF THE ALLIES IN THE CRIMEA. ALMA

The allies made a special bet on Sevastopol and the Crimea, as the place of the main deployment of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, one of the main counterbalances to their global strategic plans. English newspapers, feeding on facts and their assessments from government circles, predicted: "The capture of Sevastopol and the occupation of the Crimea will cover all the costs of the war and provide us with favorable peace conditions." Moreover, in view of their overwhelming military-technical superiority, the Allies counted on quick success.

The newspapers wrote: “In a few weeks Russia will lose the fruits of monetary expenditures, gigantic labors, enormous sacrifices of more than one generation. The fortresses that she erected at a high cost ... will be razed to the ground, blown up and destroyed by the fire of the combined squadrons of France and England.

Not only the newspapers, but also the Allied commanders were filled with similar optimistic hopes. “In 10 days the keys to Sevastopol will be in our hands!” - reported one of the commanders of the coalition forces, French Marshal A. Saint-Arno.

Biography

Saint-Arnaud Armand-Jacques-Leroy (08/20/1796–09/29/1854)

In 1820, with the rank of lieutenant, he entered military service in the bodyguard detachment of Louis XVIII, but was soon dismissed for bad behavior at the request of his own company.

Saint Arnaud tried to seek his fortune in England, then in France, trying to get a job as an actor on the stage under the name of Florivil, and finally came to Greece for this purpose, but everywhere he was unsuccessful.

In 1827, with great difficulty, Arno's relatives managed to reinstate him in the army. But when the regiment in which he was supposed to serve was assigned to the island of Guadeloupe off the coast of America, Arno did not appear. He was persecuted as a deserter and showed up only after the July Revolution of 1830, posing as a victim of his liberal convictions.

He was assigned as an officer in the 64th regiment. In 1836, at his own request, Saint Arnaud was transferred to the Algerian Foreign Legion. Having proven himself in Africa as a brave soldier, in 1837 he was promoted to captain and, having received a battalion, returned to France to serve in the garrison of Metz. He later returned to Africa, where he served under the command of General Koveniak.

In 1842, St. Arnaud was already a lieutenant colonel of the 53rd regiment, and in 1844.- colonel and commander of the Orleansville subdivision. In 1847, for capturing an Arab elder, he was promoted to brigadier general.

In 1848 Saint-Arnaud was on holiday in Paris when the revolution broke out in February. He was appointed commander of the brigade, with which he stormed the barricades on the Rue Richelieu, and then occupied the police prefecture. However, during the retreat of government troops, Saint-Arno was captured by the crowd, but was soon released and returned to Africa again.

Here he commanded the Mostaganem subdivision, then- Algiers, and in 1850 he took command of the Constantine province. In 1851, Saint-Arnaud was appointed head of the expedition to Lesser Kabylia and, having successfully completed it, was promoted to divisional general. Following that, Saint-Arnaud was called to Paris and appointed head of the 2nd Infantry Division of the Army of Paris. On October 26, 1851, Prince-President Aui Napoleon Bonaparte appointed Saint-Arnaud Minister of War, choosing him as his instrument, as a man ready for anything.

Saint-Arnaud prepared a coup d'etat for Louis Napoleon on December 2, 1851, and exactly one year after the restoration of the empire, he was made a marshal of France, then the chief equestrian of the emperor.

When France made an alliance with the Porte against Russia, Saint-Arnaud was given overall command of the French Army of the East. He commanded it at the very beginning of hostilities in the Crimea, but on September 26, 1854, due to completely upset health, he transferred command of the troops to General Canrobert and left the army. On September 29, 1854, while moving to Constantinople, Saint Arnaud died.

From now on, the capture of Sevastopol and the destruction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet became the main strategic goal of the troops of the anti-Russian coalition. Further military-political plans of the allies in the Black Sea basin depended on the solution of these tasks.

In early September 1854, the Allied fleet approached the Crimean shores. In total, about 400 pennants arrived - 89 warships and over 300 transport ships. They were delivered to the 62,000th coalition army for the invasion of the Crimea. French, British and Turkish soldiers and officers were preparing to land on the shore.

Having examined the fortifications of the coastal side of Sevastopol from the ships, the Anglo-French command did not dare to make a landing here. Allied ships followed north to Yevpatoriya. Landing troops seized the city. The main forces of the fleet moved somewhat south of Evpatoria, where the allied army began to land on the shore on September 2, 1854. The French marshal A. Saint-Arnaud and the English general F. Raglan commanded the coalition army.

Biography

Raglan Fitzroy James Patrick

Henry Somerset

(1788–1855)

The youngest son of the Duke of Beaufort, Raglan, from his youth connected his fate with military service, which he began in 1804. Soon he ended up in Spain, where British troops under the command of Duke A. Wellington fought against Napoleon. After some time, Raglan became the Duke's aide-de-camp. In 1809, Wellington appointed him head of his military office. However, Raglan distinguished himself not only in clerical work. On the battlefield, he proved himself to be a fearless and skilled commander. So, he received the next rank and award during the assault on Badajoz, the first to break into a breach in the fortifications pierced by artillery. Raglan also distinguished himself in the battle of Waterloo, the last battle with Napoleon. During the battle, he was seriously wounded, as a result of which he lost his right arm.

After graduation Napoleonic Wars and his recovery, Raglan remained with the Duke of Wellington, who became the leading politician in England. For many years, Raglan served as Secretary to the Commander-in-Chief of the British Army. He accompanied the duke on a number of his diplomatic trips, including being with him on Congress of Vienna. Together with Wellington, he also participated in the Verona Congress of the Holy Alliance, in 1826 he visited St. Petersburg, where the duke signed the Russian-British declaration on the Greek question. In the future, Raglan was for some time a member of the House of Commons of the British Parliament.

In 1852 the Duke of Wellington died. Raglan received the rank of generalfeldzeugmeister and was raised to the peerage with the title of lord. In 1854 he was appointed commander of the British troops in the Crimea. The most difficult period for the allies of the siege of Sevastopol fell on his lot. However, Raglan was not destined to learn about the outcome of this siege. Onum died of cholera (according to other sources - from chagrin) ten days after the unsuccessful assault on Sevastopol on July 6 (18), 1855.

Until these events were still very far away. The Allies were sure of their imminent success. After all, their forces significantly exceeded the forces of the enemy. Nicholas I appointed Prince A.S. as the commander of the military and ground Russian forces in the Crimea. Menshikov, Under his command, the ground forces at that moment numbered 37.5 thousand people. The forces of the Black Sea Fleet were also subordinate to him (about 20 thousand people of naval crews on ships and about 5 thousand on the shore).

The first events of the confrontation unfolding on the peninsula seemed to confirm the hopes of the allies. First of all, they brilliantly succeeded in the landing operation, which is always considered a difficult and dangerous matter. It was then that for the first time those qualities of Menshikov the military leader, which subsequently caused first surprise, then indignation, and even later accusations against him, were clearly manifested.

Menshikov deployed his troops on the southern left bank of the Alma River, which flowed into the Black Sea near Sevastopol. One of the officers, a participant in the events, wrote: “The landing of the enemies began without any interference from our side! Two, three regiments with artillery could decently beat up the enemy who landed - pumped into the sea! But our people indifferently looked at this landing, they did not even make any order to stop the transportation of goods across the Crimea! But the enemy on the very next day after the landing beat off 400 pairs of oxen carrying flour and alcohol to Sevastopol! .. ” Of course, the reason for the indecision of the Russian commander was, first of all, the numerical superiority of the enemy. As a result, the landing of the Allied troops in the Crimea was extremely successful for them.

On September 8 (20), the first battle took place between Russian troops (33 thousand people with 96 guns) under the command of Menshikov and the combined forces of the British, French and Turks (55 thousand people with 112 guns) on the Alma River. The Russian left flank was attacked by the French, the right - by the British. The allied fleet also fired on the left flank. The superiority in forces and weapons, as well as the gross mistakes of the Russian command, led to the fact that the attempt to stop the Allied advance failed.

On the left flank by the sea, the Russians occupied a very convenient position on the heights to the left of the Sevastopol road. General Kiryakov, appointed there by Menshikov at the head of the Russian troops, declared that with one battalion he would “throw the enemy with his hats” (contemporaries believed that it was this general who put this dubious expression into circulation in the Crimean War). However, at the very beginning of the battle, Kiryakov unexpectedly and completely without reason left his positions, which were soon occupied by the French. In other directions, the Russians undertook counterattacks, but the French, who had settled on the heights, could shoot the Russians from a long distance with cannons and rifled guns with impunity. The troops that held back the enemy's attack in other places for about 7 hours were eventually forced to retreat on the orders of Menshikov along the Sevastopol road to the city. The Allies lost about 4.5 thousand people in the battle on the Alma, the Russians - about 6 thousand.

The lost battle on the Alma opened the way for the enemy to the main base of the Black Sea Fleet.

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Chapter 7

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Chapter 12 Alma mater of Russian intelligence officers October 3, 1938 People's Commissar Internal Affairs of the USSR issued an order on the creation of a special educational institution of intelligence profile - the School for Special Purposes (SHON) of the Main Directorate of State Security