At the very beginning of the work of the Vienna Congress, his main participants were almost overviewed among themselves because of the division of those lands in Europe, which they considered their legal remuneration for their contribution to the victory over Napoleon.

Russia has actively achieved the satisfaction of its territorial claims, which played an extremely important role at the final stage of Napoleonic wars. She demanded from other countries recognition of the legality of accession to it in 1809 in 1812 - Bessarabia. The difficulty of this issue was that all these acquisitions were made with the approval of Napoleonic France, with which Russia at that time was in allied relations. But the main thing, Russia claimed the territory of the Great Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon in 1807. All objected to this large states. Prussia and Austria - because the speech in this case was about Polish lands, which moved to these countries under the XVIIIV contracts. About the sections of Poland. United Kingdom and France - because they believed that this would lead to a violation of the balance of forces in favor of Russia.

Sharp differences arose between Austria and Prussia due to the intention of the latter to seize Saxony - a relatively small German state, whose wines were that it was the faithful ally of Napoleonic France: Saxony continued to fight on her side even when all the other allies are already Lean.

In the end, Russia and Prussia managed to agree among themselves. Prussia agreed with the transfer of Russia to the territory of the Great Duchy of Warsaw in exchange for agreement to support its claims to Saxony. However, other states stubbornly did not want to go on any concessions.

Contradictions reached such a heat, which seemed to split between yesterday's allies inevitable. On January 3, 1815, United Kingdom, France and the Austrian Empire concluded a secret military union, actually directed against Russia and Prussia. In Europe, smelled of a new war.

Napoleon Bonaparte, who stared at political events, decided to take advantage of the favorable moment to restore his power in France. In March 1815, he made escape from the island of Elba, where he was exiled after renunciation, landed in France and tried to return his throne. He was supported by the army and wide segments of the population, dissatisfied with the restoration of Bourbon. Arriving in Paris, Napoleon ranked the Tuilry Palace, where Louis XVIII fled in a panic. Here he discovered the randomly left instance of a secret contract of the three powers. Having reroached with his luck, Napoleon handed him to Alexander I in Hope to drive a wedge between the countries of the former Antifranzuz coalition. However, he underestimated the sensitivity of the Russian emperor. Alexander, having familiarized himself with this document, limited himself to an ironic remark about the "weakness, easement and ambition" of European monarchs. He did not weaken his efforts to reconcile the anti-Manzu coalition to fight Napoleon. In his opinion, the Napoleonic Empire rebuzzing from the ashes represented a much greater danger to Russia than the intrigues of the allies.

13 (25) March 1815. United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia signed a new Union Agreement in Vienna for the war with Napoleon. The remaining European states, including the Government of Louis XVIII, received an invitation to join him. Russian troops were sent to Europe, but they did not have time to participate in hostilities. The disconnection came quickly: in the battle on June 18, 1815, at Waterloo in the Netherlands, Napoleon was defeated and renounced the throne. This time, by agreement between the Allies, he was exiled to the edge of the Earth, away from Europe - to the island of St. Helena in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.

Napoleon's attempt to return the throne (known as "a hundred days") was very expensive by France. 8 (20) November 1815, the Allies concluded a new peace treaty with her, on which she lost a number of fortresses on eastern border, as well as Savoy and Nice, and pledged to pay 700 million FR. Contribution. In addition, for the period from 3 to 5 years, France was subject to occupation of the 150-thousand allies army, which he had had and contained.

These actions of Napoleon and covered by European yards fear of "usurper" contributed to the smoothing of the contradictions between the powers, pushed them to mutual concessions. As a result, Russia received the Great Duchy of Warsaw, Poznan remained in Prussia, Galicia retained Austria, and Krakow was proclaimed by the "free city". As part of Russia, Polish lands received the status of the autonomous kingdom (kingdom) of Polish. In addition, the participants in the Vienna Congress recognized Russia's rights to Finland and Bessarabia. In both cases, this was done in violation of historical law. The territory of the Duchy of Warsaw never belonged to Russia, and in ethnically (language, religion) she had little in common with her. The same can be said about Finland, which has long been the ownership of the Swedish kings. In Russia, it was autonomous grand duke (principality) Finland.

In order for compensation for the loss of Finland, Sweden, as an active participant in wars against Napoleonic France, received Norway. This country for several centuries was in Unia with Denmark. How did Denmark guilty before allies? In that before last moment She kept a union with Napoleon, although the most curious European monarchs managed to break relationships with him.

Pulp was settled by the dispute between Prussia and Austria because of Saxony. Prussia eventually received a part of Saxony, although it was counting on its entire territory. But Austria, who wanted to maintain among themselves and Prussia was strongly opposed to this, which was told, a buffer state. According to the views of that time, the presence of small states around the perimeter of their borders was considered by major powers as the most important guarantee of their own security. Prussia was completely content with such a decision of a controversial issue, since it additionally received extensive territories: Westphalia and the Rhine Region in the West of Germany, part of Polish lands, including Poznan and Thorn, as well as Swedish Pomerania and Rügen Island.

Austria also did not remain offended. She was returned to part of the Great Duchy of Warsaw, as well as possession on the Balkan Peninsula, selected before Napoleon. But the main remuneration for his contribution to the war against Napoleonic France Austria received in Northern Italy. There she is still from early XVIII. owned by Lombardy (the capital Milan). Now, in addition to this, she received the territory of the Venice Republic, including Dalmatia. Under the control of Austria, small states of Central Italy were returned - Tuscany, Parma, Modena, etc.

The Little Sardinian Kingdom (Capital of Turin), captured by the French back in the 90s XVIIIV, was restored as an independent state. He was returned to the previously annexed by France Savoy and Nice. In recognition of their merit, it received the territory of the Genoese Republic, abolished in its time by the French and not restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

The fate of the largest republics of the Middle Ages - Genoese and Venetian, - by Napoleon and not restored by the Vienna Congress at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, divided the republic of the United Provinces (Holland). Its territory along with the southern Netherlands, as well as Luxembourg entered the pretty large Netherlands kingdom. This state has not existed before. Its territory in XV. belonged to the Burgundy Duchy, in the XVI-XVIIIIIV. - In turn of Austrian, Spanish and again, Austrian Habsburgs. The Netherlands Kingdom should have served a buffer between France and the German states who saw an additional guarantee of their safety in it.

The common fate of these republics of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the new time was avoided only by the Swiss Confederation. Embodged French Republic And restored by Napoleon as a protectorate, it was preserved by the Vienna Congress and received the status of a neutral state.

The principle of legitimism in its historical interpretation fully tried in Spain, where the bourbon dynasty was restored, and in the south of Italy. In 1813, the Neapolitan King Murat, one of Napoleon's war commander, married to his sister, broke with his father-in-law and joined the anti-brass coalition, hoping to preserve the royal crown. European powers did not touch him for some time. But when, during the "hundred days" Napoleon, Murat did not show a zeal in the fight against the "usurper", he was lowered, arrested and executed. And the Neapolitan kingdom was returned to the Legal Dynasty of Bourbon (branch spanish Burbon), which ruled in the kingdom of both Sicili from the XVIII century.

European monarchs decided not to restore the sacred Roman Empire of the German people. In fact, they reconciled with many territorial changes, which carried out Napoleon in Germany. In particular, they did not meet the hopes of the rulers of hundreds of the abolished small possessions. Most of them dissolved as part of Austria, Prussia or other larger German states.

In the Vienna Congress, it was decided to form a new confederation called the German Union within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. If in the Sacred Roman Empire, the relationship between the head (emperor) and members of the empire (individual states) was carried by a feudal character - the emperor was the senor, and the heads of individual states - his vassals, - in the German Union, the relationship between members of the Confederation was based on a contract. It was signed by 34 monarchies and 4 walf cities (Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck and Frankfurt am Main). In accordance with this agreement, the Allied Seimas was created (meeting), which was constantly focused in Frankfurt. Each of the members of the German Union was presented in it by delegates. The chairman of the Seima was the Austrian representative. His decisions were taken unanimously. No executive institutions existed, as there were no independent budget. Members of the German Union preserved the right to conduct an independent foreign policy and sign any contracts with foreign states if they were not directed against the members of the Union.

The German Union inherited from the Holy Roman Empire a number of archaic traits. Part of Prussian (Eastern Prussia, Poznan) and Austrian possessions (Hungary, Northern Italy, etc.) were not part of the Union. Meanwhile, participation in the Union of Hannover (hereditary ownership of the English kings), Holstein (German Duchy, who was under the rule of the Danish kings) and Luxembourg (belonging to the Netherlands King) provided the opportunity to interfere with foreign states in his case. In this form, Germany existed until the middle of the XIXVEK.

These decisions on territorial issues mostly were enshrined in the final act of the Vienna Congress. He also contained a declaration of freedom of river tract. As an annex to it, the Declaration on the prohibition of the slave trade and the Regulation on the ranks of diplomatic representatives were adopted.

But far from all the questions that caused the concerns of the powers and discussed during the Congress were reflected in the final act. In particular, it said nothing about French and Dutch colonies captured during the war of Great Britain. Ultimately, she managed to retain the island of Malta in the Mediterranean Sea, a cap of the colony in southern Africa and Ceylon island.

The final (General) ACT was signed on May 28 (June 9) of 1815 by representatives of Austria, Great Britain, Russia, France, Prussia, Sweden, Spain and Portugal. In the future, all other states of Europe joined him. The latter signed it in May 1820. Bavaria.

As for the political and ideological issues of the European device, the monarchs gathered at the Vienna Congress showed a well-known readiness to be considered with the spirit of the time and mood of peoples. Moreover, these qualities demonstrated primarily the Russian emperor. Alexander Istosko prevented the desire of his "brothers", as it was customary to contact each other among European monarchs, to restore the absolutist order in Europe and in its countries. He persistently advised Louis Xviii to French people a liberal constitution, to preserve the legislation in which the French lived during the last quarter of a century. It must be said that Louis XViiiII presented to this advice and "bestowed" with his subjects of the Constitution - the Charter, which secured civil equality, basic social, economic and political freedoms. Up to the middle of the XIX. Charter served as a model for the liberal constitutions of many European countries.

Even the Prussian king promised at the Vienna Congress to introduce a constitution in his state in the near future. True, he did not fulfill his promise. Only the Austrian emperor and spanish king Persistently refused to associate themselves like a promise.

As a result, after the Vienna Congress, the principle of constitutional rule was wider than ever earlier. Monarchs of Europe turned out to be more liberal in their domestic politics than Napoleon, this heir and a revolution degressor, which in the region internal politicians Show himself a real despot. After 1815, the Constitution was operated not only in the UK (where an unwritten constitution has emerged, i.e. the set of fundamental laws, political procedures and customs that limit the king power), but also in France, in the Dutch of the Kingdom, Sweden, Norway. Soon after the Vienna Congress in the image and the likeness of the French Charter, a constitution was introduced in a number of Western German states (in Bavaria and Baden, in 1818, Württemberg - in 1819, Hesse Darmstadt - in 1820, etc.). Alexander Lawed by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Polish and the Grand Duchy of Finland, who used autonomy in the Russian Empire. The struggle for the introduction of constitutions has unfolded in Spain, Prussia and Italian states. True, there were still revolutions of the early 20s in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, as well as the revolution of 1830 and 1848-1849, so that the principle of Constitutional Management was adopted by a majority of European states. However, after the Vienna Congress, Europe became not as an example of liberally, freer in political attitude than before.

A few words about the results of the Vienna Congress, which in early June 1815 completed his work. As we remember, the rapid return of Napoleon from the island of Elba and recovery french Empire I accelerated the junction between the winner countries of controversial issues, who excited the minds of the meeting participants within a few months. On May 3, 1815, the treatises were signed between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which determined the fate of Warsaw Duchy, as well as between Prussia and Saxony.

Vienna Congress
Book illustration

Russian Sovereign left Congress two weeks before his end, pre-signing Manifesto About raising weapons against the kidnapper of the French throne by all powers that are stored by the law of piety and truth. He went to the location of his army, which, under the leadership of Field Marshal, Barclay de Tolly moved to Rhine.

On June 8, the act of the German Union was adopted, and the next day, June 9 - the final general act of the Vienna Congress, consisting of 121 articles, which secured the new borders of the states established as a result of the redistribution of Europe. In addition to articles, the final act included 17 applications, including an agreement on the division of Poland, the Declaration on the abolition of negotiations, the rules of shipping on border and international rivers, the Regulation on diplomatic agents, the Act on the Constitution of the German Union and others.

So, according to the decision of the Vienna Congress, Poland was divided. Most of the duke of Warsaw under the name of the Kingdom of Polish became part of the Russian Empire. Alexander I received the title of Tsar Polish. From now on, due to the fact that in 1809, in the Friedrichsgam world, Finland was deployed under the Scypter of the Russian Emperor, who moved the Swedish possessions from the Russian borders to the polar circle and the combustive bay, and in 1812 - Bessarabia, with powerful water barriers in the form of rivers Prut and Dniester The empire was created a kind belt security, excluding the direct invasion of the enemy to the territory of Russia.

Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1814.
The boundaries of Poland on solutions of the Vienna Congress 1815: Salad Color - the Kingdom of Polish in Russia,
blue - part that has departed to Prussia, red - free city of krakow

Western lands of Great Poland with Poznań and Polish Pomorie returned to Prussia. And Austria received the southern part of Malaya Poland and most of the Chervonna Rus. Krakow became a free city. The Vienna Congress declared the provision of autonomy to the Polish lands in all its parts, but in fact it was fulfilled only in Russia, where the will of Emperor Alexander I, known for his liberal aspirations, the Kingdom of Polish was granted the Constitution.

In addition to the duke of the Varshavsky Prussia, North Saxony went, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhine Region, the Swedish Pomerania and Rügen Island. Under the control of Austria, North Italy returned: Lombardy and the Venetian region (Lombardo-Venetian kingdom), Duchy of Tuscany and Parma, as well as Tyrol with Salzburg.

Map of the German Union, 1815

In addition to the Polish, the stumbling block at the negotiations in Vienna was the German question. The winners of the winner were afraid of education in the heart of Europe of the monolithic German state, but were not against the creation of a kind of confederation that served the loop of the borders of unpredictable France. After long disputes, the German Union was created within the borders of the former Sacred Roman Empire of the German nation - a confederation of current German states: the kingdoms, dukes, kurfures and principalities, as well as four republic cities (Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck). Four countries - Austria, Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands - belonged to the Union only part of their possessions. Between these sovereign states, there were no strong economic relations, a single legislation, general finance or diplomatic services. The only central authority was the Allied Seimas, meeting in Frankfurt am Main and consisting of representatives of government governments included in the German Union. Chaired by the Austrian Emperor Sejm. The goal of the union was also very modest: The preservation of the external and internal security of Germany, the independence and inviolability of individual German states.

England in Europe received Gibraltar, Malta, Ionian Islands, and with them a dominant position in the Mediterranean; In the North Sea - Archipelago Helgoland. In addition, she secured as part of the conquered French and Dutch colonies: Lucay Islands and Tobago in West Indies, Mauritius Eastern Madagascar, Cotton Dutch Dutch Guinea, which further strengthened the sea power of the British crown.

Belgium was included in the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the auspices of Wilhelm I Orange-Nassau. France Denmark's alliance lost Norway, which Sweden passed, but received German Schleswig and Holstein. Switzerland, which included Wallis, Geneva and Neuchant, expanded their lands and acquired strategically important alpine passes. It made a confederation of free, independent and neutral cantons. Spain and Portugal remained in the former borders and returned their ruling royal dynasty (Spanish Burbones and Bragans, respectively)

Map of Italy in 1815

And finally, Italy, which is at the member of the ulcer expression of Prince Metternich after decisions of the Vienna Congress represents no more than a geographical concept. Its territory was fragmented by eight small states: in the north, two kingdoms - Sardinia (Piedmont) and Lombardo-Venetian, as well as four dukes - Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca; In the center - the Papal region with Rome as the capital, and in the south - the Kingdom of both Sicilia (Naples-Sicilian). Thus, in Italy, the Pope Pope over the Vatican and Papal Region, the Napletipan Kingdom (Kingdom of both Sicili) was restored after the bloody battle and the flight of the king Joachim Murata were returned to the Bourbon, and Savoy, Nice and Genoa were returned to the restored Sardinian kingdom.

Europe map after the Vienna Congress

As summarized Russian historian Lieutenant General Nikolai Karlovich Schilder: Russia has increased its territory with space about 2100 square meters. Miles with population more than three million people; Austria acquired 2300 square meters. Miles with ten million people, and Prussia 2217 square meters. Miles from 5,362,000 people. Thus, Russia, which on his shoulders made the whole severity of a three-year war with Napoleon and brought the greatest sacrifices for the celebration of European interests, received the smallest reward. Regarding the most significant territorial communities Austrian Empire Schilder eats B. Petersburg letters French politician and diplomat Joseph-Marie de Mester: She (Austria) managed find a huge win in the lottery, which she did not buy tickets ...

But the main outcome of the Vienna Congress was the creation of a new system of international relations in Europe (called Vienna), based on the domination of four great powers - Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, which in 1818, after the withdrawal of the Allied Forces, joined France.

Vienna Congress (1814-1815)

Vienna Congress - The pan-European conference held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, marking the establishment of a new political and legal order in Europe after more than two decades of revolutionary shocks and Wars of the Napoleonic era.

From a formal point of view, a peace treaty between France and its opponents was not the result of the Vienna Congress. "The Eternal Peace and Friendship" between the king of France and the participants of the Antifrangesz Coalition - Russia, Prussia, Austria and the United Kingdom ("Great Powers"), as well as their younger partners of Spain, Sweden and Portugal, were already enshrined in Article I of the first Paris Peace Treaty, signed on May 30, 1814. The article XXXII of this contract also envisaged that all warring parties should send their authorized representatives to the Conference in Vienna within two months.

Nevertheless, the goal of the Vienna Congress was more than the completion of the peaceful settlement and the restoration of old borders. Successfully weakening the Gegemony of France for most of Europe and creating a new international procedure, the agreements achieved at the Vienna Congress approved the balance of forces in Europe, which was responsible for the interests of all the great powers and not allowed large-scale conflicts between them for several decades.

Work of the Vienna Congress.

The Vienna Congress was opened on November 1, 1814 and ended six months later - June 9, 1815, even before the final defeat of Napoleon in the battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, which put the end of his annual return to the throne.

More than 220 delegations and authorized representatives of large and small powers, including former princes and graphs, participated in Congress, and many of whom were desperately tried to restore their former position, filled with French armies. However, as it was stated in a separate secret article to the first Parisian peace treaty: "The appointment of land ... and relationships, from which the system of valid and durable equilibrium should be seen in Europe, will be determined by the Congress on the grounds established by the Allied Howing Agreement." They dominated In the work of the Congress and took responsibility for any politically significant decisions.

The Vienna Congress has never convened in the format of the plenary session with the presence of all the gathered delegates. Eight Signators of the Paris Peace Agreement - "Committee of Eight" sometimes collected as an official governing body. A separate committee on Germany affairs (originally consisting of delegates of Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Hannover and Württemberg) was engaged in the affairs of the German Union. At the same time, there were several specialized committees, such a Committee on Swiss Affairs, the Committee on Wasque, etc., and commissions - statistical, editorial, on the slave trade, according to international rivers, on diplomatic etiquette. However, really important questions Discussed at the meetings of the five powers, which were usually held in the Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Austria - Ballhausplatz.

Decisions of the Vienna Congress.

Everything decisions of the Vienna Congress Act was collected in the Final Act, which consisted of the main document and 17 applications (listed in the CXVIII article). These applications were bilateral or multilateral treaties developed during Congress and signed by interested countries.

Territorial changes.

Decisions on which territories should belong to each state or what territories they should obtain, were determined on the basis of preliminary work carried out by the Statistical Commission. This commission, consisting of specialists of geographers, economists and demographers, carefully calculated the "value of the territory" - the size of the territory, its population and profitability. Thus, the devotees and the obtained areas, the requirements and concessions were approximately equivalent.

Political map of Europe to the Vienna Congress

Maintenance territorial changesApproved by the Vienna Congress, were as follows:

• France:
  • completely abandoned its previous conquests, its borders with minor expansions were restored as of January 1, 1792;
  • we returned most of the colonies in America, Africa and Asia, which was owned by January 1, 1792.
• Russian empire:
  • attached most of the Duchy of Warsaw, which became the autonomous kingdom of Polish;
  • preserved Finland, disheighted from Sweden in 1809.
• Prussia:
  • he received a part of the Warsaw Duchy, called Gross-Duchy of Poznansky, and the free city of Danzig.
  • received almost half of the land owned by the Saxon Kingdom, called the Duchy of Saxon;
  • received Gross-Duchy Bergskoye, Duchy of Westphalian and Earth on the left bank of the Rhine;
  • acquired Swedish Pomerania in exchange for compensation in 5.1 million thalers.
• Austria:
  • in Italy, Istriya retained, received Milan, Lombardy, Venice;
  • received from the Russian emperor, the east of East Galicia, separated in 1809;
  • the members of the Austrian Royal Family received thrones in the Italian dukes - Modena and Tuscany;
  • restored control over Tyrol and Salzburg in Germany.
• Krakow Announced "free independent and completely neutral city", under the auspices of Russia, Austria and Prussia.
• Great Britain At the Vienna Congress, it was striving for its main goal - strengthening control over the seas and the expansion of colonial possessions:
  • officially received Guiana ( South America), captured at the Netherlands in 1803;
  • in the Caribbean, the sea has retained about. Tobago and Saint Lucia captured from France and about. Trinidad captured in Spain;
  • preserved annexed Helgoland Archipelago, which allowed her to control the North Sea and access to the Baltic Sea;
  • received about. Malta (owned by the Maltese Order) and Ionian O-VA (for a long time belonged to Venice), which allowed her to follow the Ottoman Empire and the passage between the Western and Eastern Mediterranean;
  • on the way to India, retained, captured by the cap and oh. Ceylon from Holland and about. Il de France (Mauritius) in France.
• Italy, derogatory ninnable "purely geographical expression" was divided into seven parts:
  • The Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, educated by the decision of the Vienna Congress from the North Italian regions of Lombardy and Venice, was part of the Austrian Empire;
  • Tuscany - Provided by ERCGERSOGU Ferdinand III Gabsburg, Uncle Emperor Austria;
  • Modena - transferred to Ersgertzogu Franz Esto, to the representative of the House of Habsburg;
  • Parma - transferred to the lifelong possession of Marie Louise, a spouse of overthrown Napoleon;
  • The Kingdom of both Sicilia, created by the union of the Neapolitan and Sicilian kingdoms, was returned to King Ferdinand IV Bourbon;
  • The Kingdom of Sardinia, who joined the Principality of Monaco and the Duchy of the Genoese, returned to the former reigning house;
  • The papal region was returned to Pope with the exception of Avignon and Comment Venaisin, who remained part of France;
• German Union. The Vienna Congress decided to form the Union of German States on August 6, instead of the Sacred Roman Empire on August 6, 1808. The Union was a confederation of 39 states (against more than 300 in 1792), which includes: the German part of the Austrian Empire, five kingdoms (Prussia, Saxony, Württemberg, Hanover, Bavaria), seven great dukes, twenty-two principalities and four free cities ( Lubeck, Bremen, Hamburg and Frankfurt).
• SwitzerlandDecisible neutral, retained its 19 cantons and attached the currency, the Geneva region and the neutral principality, which became its new cantons.
• Sweden Entered into the Ulya with Norway (separated from Denmark - the former Alien Napoleon), forming, in fact, the Confederate State - the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway.
• Kingdom of Netherlands - A new state formed from the former United Netherlands and the Province of Belgian under the rule of Nassau-Orange.
• Hanover (consisting in UI with the UK) became the kingdom, increasing its territory due to Hildesheim, part of the Bishopric Münster and Eastern Frisia. The Kingdom of Hannover entered the German Union.

Codification of diplomatic law.

In Annex XVII to the final act of the Vienna Congress " diplomatic agents"Signed by the main powers on March 9, 1815, hierarchical ranks of diplomatic representatives were established.

Three classes were defined in the position:

1. Ambassadors, papal legats or nunitions (only they were "representatives of their sovereigns");
2. Messengers, ministers and other authorized sovereigns; and
3. Attitors in affairs, authorized at ministers of foreign affairs.

However, the most innovative innovation of the Vienna Congress can be considered an article IV, which provides that the seniority of diplomatic agents of the same class should be determined by the date of the official notice of their arrival to the yard.

Since the origin of modern European diplomacy in the 16th century, relative ranks and the situation between the ambassadors were of paramount significance. Since diplomats were representatives of their sovereigns, any signs of respect or negligence was considered a direct reflection of the dignity of their sovereign.

Introducing such fairly formalized criteria and establishing a strict ban on special privileges in related or family relationships in article VI, or by political reasons, the great powers in the Vienna Congress wanted once and for all put an end to the past non-conventions.

Condemnation of slave trade.

Another significant achievement of the Vienna Congress, having far-reaching legal consequences, is the adoption of the Declaration on the condemnation of the slave trade ("Declaration of Powering on the termination of bargaining with blacks"), released on February 8, 1815, and later included in the final act as an application XV.

The Declaration on the abolition of the slave trade was compiled by the UK representative by Lord Kastlry and received broad public support in his country, where a humanitarian movement, inspired by the English popular philosophy, successfully lobbied the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ban.

In the declaration, it was categorically stated that "the branch of trade, known as the bark by African blacks, was the virtuous and enlightened people of all times the worship of the laws and humans and general morality." Next, it was emphasized that "now the overwhelming opinion of all educated peoples requires unanimously.

Based on this, the plenipotentiary, gathered at Congress, proclaimed "on behalf of the sovereigns of their express a diligence desire, so that the end of the disaster source was put to the end of Africa, the usual shame for Europe and an offensive to humanity", and also committed the obligation to use everything Funds for cancellation of the slave trade in their territories and expressed the hope that other governments follow this example.

It should be noted that at the Vienna Congress Kastlry offered for the speedy termination of the slave trade to support the following measures:

1. introduce a ban on the import of goods, from countries indulging in the rigging;
2. establish controls near African coast and recognize the right to inspect the courts suspected of transportation of slaves;
3. establish a permanent committee for monitoring the implementation of measures to curb the slave trade.

Despite the fact that the interests of Russia were not directly affected, the emperor Alexander I could not agree with the proposals of England, believing impossible to recognize for the foreign government the right to inspect merchant vessels around the world. Such right, in fact, could only take advantage of England, which would receive supervisory power over international trade. Therefore, in the final edition of the slave, it was condemned only in principle - no specific steps or obligations of the State party did not agree.

Nevertheless, although the legal declaration of the Vienna Congress on the ban on the slave trade was no more than a statement of intent, but from the point of view of the official condemnation of slavery, she had truly historical importance.

Freedom of shipping on international rivers.

Another legal issue that has a common European importance considered at the Vienna Congress is a question regarding the navigation on international rivers.

As for the River Rhine, the article V of the first Paris civil contract has already been stated that "Rhine shipping from the place where the Sia River becomes shipping to the sea and back will be free so that it can not be on anyone, but The decision-making on the rights and obligations of states bordering the Rhine has been postponed to Congress in Vienna. Moreover, the first Paris Mirny Treaty in order to prevent future conflicts, so that Congress goes on: the article V also instructed the Congress "to facilitate the communication between nations, and in order to facilitate each other's report," to explore and decide how the principle of freedom of shipping provided for Rhine can be distributed to all other rivers.

The XCIV article of the final act of the Vienna Congress proclaimed freedom of shipping on the River of the PO; And in Appendix XVI to the final act of March 24, 1815 ("Resolution on Free Shipping on Rivers") provided for the freedom of shipping on all shipping rivers crossing or dividing the territory of the States parties to the Agreement.

The resolution also contained a number of principles that should be applied in the future, and contained a call for negotiations on a more detailed study of the rules of shipping (section A, signed by representatives of Austria, France, Great Britain and Prussia). The sections B and C said resolution, signed by several other other interested states, were negotiated by additional rules of shipping on the Rhine and his inflows.

Four Union and Politics of the European Concert.

Congress ended, however, between the eight largest powers, the agreement was not compiled on the principles of further maintaining peace in Europe. Only after the return of Napoleon from Elba, a slightly alarmed congress and prompted three continental monarchs to join the Holy Union (1815), four Allied powers and France on November 20, 1815 signed the second Paris Mirny Treaty.

Congress ended before the cake was cut. Caricature on Vienna Congress, 1815

This contract was accompanied by a number of bilateral allied agreements between the winning powers introduced to the Vienna System an important feature Organizational character called the "European Concert". The "European Concert" suggested a regular holding of high-level conferences to consider issues of general interest and coordination of measures most effective to maintain stability on the continent.

The first conference, held in 1818 in the ex-la-chapel, finally recognized the status of the Great Power status. However, in subsequent years, ideological disagreements between the United Kingdom and the monarchs of the Holy Union became more acute, especially with regard to interference in internal affairs to help monarchical regimes in the fight against national liberation and revolutionary movements.

Only three conferences are in the ex-la-chapel (1818), in Troppau (1820) and Lybakh (1821) led to some specific results. By the time of the last Congress in Verona in 1822, authorized by the French intervention in order to restore the absolutist regime in Spain, it became clear that five powers were increasingly difficult to find a common language.

In general, the "European concert" system was exclusively a successful tool for preventing major armed conflict in Europe over several decades. However, in the long run, it was not able to suppress the growing political and economic rivalry and the clash of interest between major powers abroad and could not smooth out the differences between its Western constitutional governments and the eastern autocratic monarchies.

Autumn 1814 -in Vienna, 216 representatives of all European states, excluding the Turkish Empire, came to the Congress. Main role - Russia, England and Austria.

The purpose of the participants is to satisfy their own concrete territorial claims by redistributed Europe and colonies.

Interests:

Russia - Accession to its empire most of the territory of the abolished "Duchy of Warsaw". Support for the feudal reaction and strengthening Russia's influence in Europe. Strengthening Austria and Prussia as opposed to each other.

England - It sought to provide for her a trade and industrial and colonial monopoly and supported the policies of feudal reactions. The weakening of France and Russia.

Austria -he defended the principles of the feudal-absolutist reaction and strengthen the Austrian national oppression over the Slavic peoples, Italians and Hungary. Weakening of the influence of Russia and Prussia.

Prussia -i wanted to capture saxony and get new important possessions on the Rhine. Completely supported the feudal reaction and required the most merciless policies against France.

France - He opposed the deprivation of the Saxon King of the throne and possessions in favor of Prussia.

January 3, 1815. - union of England, Austria and France against Russia and Prussia. By joint pressure forced the king and the Prussian king to make concessions.

Prussia - North part of Saxony (The southern part remained an independent kingdom). Attached Rhine Province and Westphalia. This gave Prussia subsequently to subjugate Germany. Attached swedish pomerania.

Royal Russia - part of the duke of Warsaw. Poznan and Gdansk remained in the hands of Prussia, and Galicia again was transferred to Austria. Preserved Finland and Bessarabia.

England - fastened about it. Malta and colonies captured at Holland and France.

Austria - dominion of NAD northeast Italy, Lombardy and Venice.

June 9, 1815 - the general act of the Vienna Congress was signed.The act provided for the creation of strong barriers from France's borders: Belgium and Holland were connected into a single independent Netherlands Kingdom. A strong barrier against France made up new Rhine provinces of Prussia.

Congress retained for Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden connections made by them during Napoleon to strengthen South German states against France. From 19 self-governing cantons formed Swiss confederation. In the northwest of Italy was restored and strengthened Sardinian kingdom. Many states restored legitimate monarchies. Creature German Union. Norway combined with Sweden.

"Holy Union" - Maintaining the Christian faith, the unquestioning obedience of subjects to their sovereigns, maintaining international order.

2. Vienna System: Problems of Periodization and Features of Formation

The results of the Wars of the Napoleonic era determined the configuration of the new Vienna model of the system of international relations. The lecture analyzes the peculiarities of its functioning, disputes relative to the effectiveness of this model and its periodization. The course of the Vienna Congress is considered, as well as the main ideas laid out in the foundation of the new model of the system of international relations. The winner's powers saw the meaning of their collective international activities in creating reliable barriers against the spread of revolutions. Hence the appeal to the ideas of legitimism. Evaluation of the principles of legitimism. It is shown that against the conservation of the prevailing after 1815 the status quo acts a lot of objective factors. In their list, an important place is occupied by the process of expanding the scope of the systemism, which has entered into a conflict with the ideas of legitimism, and this generated a whole series of new explosive problems.

The role of congresses in Aachen, the tropad and verone in the consolidation of the system of system, in the development of legal principles in the field of international relations. Further complication of the concept of "state interests". The Eastern question and the emergence of the first cracks in the relations of the former allies on the antifrangesz coalition. Disputes on the interpretation of the principles of legitimism in the 20s. XIX century Revolutionary events of 1830 and the Vienna system.

Vienna system: from stability to crisis

Despite certain frictions that existed in the relationship of the great powers until the middle of the XIX century. The Vienna system distinguished high stability. Its guarantors managed to avoid headquarters and find the junction of the main controversial problems. This is not surprising, because in the international arena, then there were no strength that could withstand the creators of the Vienna system. The most explosive problem was the Eastern Question, but also, right up to the Crimean War, the great powers kept conflict potential in the legitimate framework. The watershed separating the phase of the stable development of the Vienna system from its crisis was 1848, when under pressure of internal contradictions generated by the stormy, unregulated development of bourgeois relations, a powerful revolutionary wave rolled throughout the European continent. Its impact on the position in leading powers is analyzed, it is shown how these events affected the nature of their state interests and the total balance of power in the international arena. The starting movement has sharply narrowed the ability to search for compromises in interstate conflicts. As a result, without a serious modernization, the Viennese system could not effectively fulfill its functions.

Lecture 11. Attempt to upgrade the Vienna system

The Crimean War is the first open military clash of the Great Powers after the creation of the Vienna system in 1815, convincingly demonstrated that the entire system mechanism had given the most serious failure, and this was the issue of its further prospects. In our scheme 50-60s. XIX century - The time of the deepest crisis of the Vienna system. The next alternative rose to the agenda: either the formation of a fundamentally new model of international relations will begin on the wave of crisis, or a serious modernization of the former model of international relations will be used. The solution to this fateful problem depended on how events will unfold in two key issues of world politics of those years - the association of Germany and Italy.

The story made a fairly convincing choice in favor of the second version of the development of events. Shows how the progress of the acute political collisions, several times overgrown in local warsThe European continent gradually happened not to the layer, but to update the former model of international relations. What makes it possible to put forward the thesis? First, no one has canceled the basic solutions to the Congress in Vienna, nor de-Yura. Secondly, the conservative and security principles, which made the backbone of all its essential characteristics, although they gave the crack, but in the end remained in force. Thirdly, the balance of the forces that allowed the system to hold the system in a state of equilibrium, after a number of shocks was restored, and in its configuration, at first, there were no cardinal movements. Finally, all the great powers have retained traditional for the Vienna system commitment to the search for a compromise.

3. A kind of ideological and together with the military-political superstructure over the "Vienna system" of diplomatic agreements was the so-called holy alliance of European monarchs against the revolution.

The events of the "one hundred days", which produced on contemporaries, and especially the participants of the Vienna Congress, the exceptional impact: support for the army and a significant part of the population of the new seizure of Napoleon's power, the lightning collapse of the first restoration of Bourbon, - gave rise to thesis in European reaction circles of the existence in Paris "It is an all-European secret" revolutionary committee ", gave a new impetus to their desire to strangle everywhere" Revolutionary Spirit ", put the barrier to revolutionary-democratic and national liberation movements. In September 1815, the monarchs of Russia, Austria and Prussia signed and solemnly proclaimed the act of the creation of the "Holy Union of Monarchs and Peoples" in Paris. Religious and mystical ideas contained in this document were opposed to the ideas of the French Revolution, the Declaration of Human Rights and the citizen of 1789.

However, the Holy Union was created not only for ideological manifestation, it was a tool of action. The act announced by the unshakable status quo of 1815 and established that with any attempt to violate the monarchs "in any case, and at any place will be given to each other a manual, reinforcement and help." In order to give the sacred Union of the European Character, Austria, Prussia and especially Russia achieved in 1815-1817. Accommodation to it of all European states, except for Pope, England and Muslim Turkey. However, England actually participated in the first years in the activities of the Holy Union as a member of the Frain Union (Russia, Austria, Prussia and England), recreated during the negotiations on the second Paris world. It is the English Foreign Minister Lord Castlery (with the support of Metternich) gave the text of the Four Union Treaty with such a editorial board that allowed its participants to intervene in the affairs of other countries of the Union under the flag of the protection of "peace of mind and the prosperity of the peoples of the world of all of Europe."

In the implementation of the policy of legitimism and the struggle against the threat of revolution, various tactics were used. For the policy of the Holy Union until the beginning of the 20s, an attempt was characterized by opposing the recollectual ideas of pacifist phraseology, wide propaganda of religious and mystical ideas. In 1816-1820 British and Russian biblical societies in active government support distributed the Bible, Gospel and other religious texts published in thousands of copies. F. Engels emphasized that first the protection of the principle of legitimism was carried out "... under the cover of such sentimental phrases, as the" Holy Union "," Eternal World "," Public Fortune "," Mutual Trust between the Soviet and subjects ", etc. etc., and then without any cover, with the help of a bayonet and prison. "6.

In the first years after the creation of the "Vienna system" in the policies of European monarchies, along with a frankly reaction line, a certain tendency for adaptation to the veneres of time, to a compromise with the top layers of the European bourgeoisie was prevented. In this direction, in particular, adopted at the Vienna Congress in 1815 and was represented by the interests of commercial and industrial circles, a pan-European agreement on freedom and navigation procedure for Rhine and Vistula, which became a prototype for subsequent agreements of this kind (about the Danube, etc.) .

The use of certain monarchs (primarily Alexander I) for their own purposes of constitutional principles. In 1816-1820 With the support of Alexander I (and contrary to the resistance of Austria), a moderate constitution in South-German States - Württemberg, Baden, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt was introduced on the basis of decisions of the Vienna Congress in the German Union.

In Prussia, a long debate for the preparation of the Constitution was continued: the king promised to introduce it in the midst of wars with Napoleon in 1813 and 1815. Finally, on the eve of the Aachen Congress of 1818. Some figures of Russian diplomacy (first of all I. Kapodistria) assumed to include the question of giving the monarchs to the subjects of "intelligent constitutions" into a document prepared for discussion at this important international meeting. In March 1818, in the sensational speech in the Polish Sejm, Alexander I spoke out about the possibility of extending "legal and free institutions" to "all countries, providing the care of my entrusted." However, nothing came from these projects. Conservative-guard, openly the reactionary direction was increasingly taken over in the internal and foreign policy of the main European monarchies. The Aachen Congress of 1818, in which members of the Quartary Union and France participated, did not, therefore, it was therefore deciding to the constitutional problem, and focused on the fight against the "one hundred days" emigrants. Congress decided to take away early from France, which paid most of the contribution, occupying troops. France was made in the number of great powers and could now be on equal rights to participate in the meetings of the members of the Quartary Union (it was resumed at Congress). The union of these powers was called the pentarchy.

In general, the Holy Union at the first stage of its activities remained mainly a political and ideological superstructure over the "Vienna System". However, starting with the European revolutions of the 20s of the XIX century. He turned into a close union of the three main participants - Russia, Austria and Prussia, which the main task of the Union will only see in the armed suppression of revolutions and the national liberation movements of the 20-40s of the XIX century. in Europe and America. The "Viennese System" exists longer as a system of contractual obligations on the preservation of state borders in Europe. Her final decay will occur only after the Crimean War.

4. The efforts of Russian diplomacy were also aimed at solving the key and eastern issue for Russia. The need to protect the southern borders of the country, the creation of favorable conditions for the economic heyday of the Russian Black Sea region, the patronage of the Black Sea and Mediterranean trading of Russian merchants demanded the consolidation of the regimes of two straits - Bosphorus and Dardanelle who joined the Black and Aegean seas. Turkey should guarantee an unimpeded passage through the straits of Russian merchant ships and closing them for the military fleet of other states. The crisis of the Ottoman Empire, the growing national liberation movement of the Balkan and other people conquered by the peoples, pushed Nikolai I to the early solution of the Eastern Question.

However, here Russia had to face the resistance of other great powers. England and Austria themselves were not averse to rounded their possessions at the expense of Turkey and feared not only to strengthen the positions of Russia in the Balkans, but also its military presence in the Mediterranean. A well-known alertness in Vienna, London and Paris caused the ideas of panslavism in the advanced public circles of Russia and, in particular, plans to create a unified federation of Slavic peoples under the rule of the Russian king. And although Pancalavism has not become the official foreign Policy Nicholas I, Russia, nevertheless, stubbornly defended its right to the patronage of the Orthodox peoples of Muslim Turkey.

Accession at the beginning of the century of the Transcaucasus caused the aggravation of Russian-Iranian contradictions. Relations with Persion remained tense and in the second quarter of the XIX century. Russia was interested in strengthening his position in the Caucasus and in creating favorable foreign policy conditions for the reprimand of the rebellion of a number of mountain tribes of the North Caucasus.

5. In 1848-1949. In Europe, the wave of revolutions rolled. The reactionary governments tried to restore and maintain the system of MO, which existed in Europe until 1848. The ratio of class forces within individual states and the content of MO has changed. The Holy Union declared his right to interfere with the internal affairs of any country where

a revolutionary movement could threaten the monarchical polls of other states. The wave of European revolutions was repulsed, the "Viennese system" with its legitimate stamps was preserved, the shaded power of a number of monarchs was again restored.

6. Crimean War - the most important event In the history of MO and foreign policy of the XIX century. The war became the result of the exacerbation of political, ideological, economic contradictions in the Middle East and the Balkans, as well as on the European arena as a whole - mainly between England, France, Turkey and Russia. The war rose from the eastern crisis of the 50s, which began with

france and Russia's disagreements regarding the rights of the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine, which is the province of the Ottoman Empire. The defeat in the Crimean War demonstrated all weakness of the social and political system of the Russian Empire.

Bourgeois Europe won the serfdom of Russia. The international prestige of Russia was strongly shaken. The Paris Treatise, who completed the war, was a heavy and humiliating contract for it. The Black Sea was declared neutral: it was forbidden to keep on

it is Navy, build coastal fortifications and arsenals. The southern frontiers of Russia turned out to be unprotected. The deprivation of Russia of the long-standing right of preferential patronage of Christian peoples of the Balkan has weakened its influence on the peninsula. England, Austria and France entered into an agreement on the guarantee of independence and the preservation of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, in case of violation of which could be applied. To the Union of Three States in the north, the Sweden-Norwegian kingdom was adjacent, and in the south - Ottoman Empire. Conditioned new alignment of forces

received the name "Crimean System". Russia was in international isolation. The influence of France and England has increased. The Crimean War and the Paris Congress became the line of a whole era in the history of MO. Finally ceased to exist "Viennese System".

7. Japan conducted insulation policies from the outside world. Strengthening the expansion of European powers and the United States in the Far Eastern region, the development of shipping in the north-western part of the Pacific contributed to the "opening" of Japan. In the 50s, the struggle unfolded between the powers

for penetration into Japan and the predominance in it. According to the agreement from April 25, 1875 signed between Russia and Japan, the entire Sakhalin was recognized by Russia, and Russia was inferior to Japan 18 islands who made up the Kuril archipelago in its northern and

middle part. Japan's aggressive aspirations were quite clearly manifested in the 70s of the XIX century. The closest object of the Japanese expansion was Korea, which is in the formal dependence on China. The United States and Western powers have also taken a number of military expeditions for the violent discovery of Korean ports. Korea opened 3 ports for Japanese trading. For Russia, the most important remained the preservation of independent Korea. On July 25, 1894, Japan seized Seoul, and on September 1 declared War in China. At that time she was convinced. What Russia, like other powers, will save neutrality. The position of Russia was explained not only by its weakness in the Far East. In St. Petersburg, was afraid of the possible entry into the War of England on the side of China. At this time, the danger of Japanese aggression was still underestimated. On January 24, 1904, Japan breaks diplomatic relations with Russia and at the same time begins military actions against the Russian troops located in China, with a strategic task as soon as possible to break Russian troops to their complete concentration in the Far East. Japanese

the command of the main military goals set: complete domination at the sea. And on land, the Japanese primarily sought to master the port Arthur and then spread their military successes to Korea and Manchuria, proving from these areas of Russians. There have been a lot of bloody battles known in history: Battle of Port Arthur, Láoliangsky, Mukden,

Tsushim battles. Immediately after the Tsushim battle, Japan appealed to the United States asking for mediation to the world. Russian autocracy, intimidated by the impending revolution and general discontent in the country the results of the Far Eastern campaign, agreed to sit at the negotiating table. Negotiations took place in the American city of Portsmouth. On September 5, 1905, the Portsmouth Peace Treaty was signed between Russia and Japan. On this promotion, the Russian government gave way to Japan southern part of Sakhalin Island and refused to rent right

Kwantung Peninsula with Port Arthur and South Manchur railway. Also, the Russian government recognized the "special" interests of Japan in Korea. The signing of such a contract did not bring the Russian state of victorious laurels and did not raise his prestige in the world.

Vienna Congress - International Congress of 1814-1815, which took place after the victory of the Union of European States over Napoleonic France.

Vienna Congress convening

The fierce and long struggle of European states against Napoleon's empire ended with the defeat of France. Naturally, the winners saw the main goal in the destruction of all changes made by Napoleon on the world map, but did not forget about themselves, seeking to preserve their interests. It was planned that all the conquests of France will be eliminated and it will remain within the borders of the state that was before January 1, 1792.

The course of the Vienna Congress

The winning states were the initiators of this event (Russian Empire, Prussia, Austria and the United Kingdom), they headed the leadership of the Congress.

At the Vienna Congress the main acting persons The Russian Emperor Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz I and the Austrian Chancellor of Metterni, English Foreign Minister Lord Castlery, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Prussia Gardenberg. No less active participation in Congress, the French Foreign Minister de Talleran-Perigoret was accepted. All participants in the congress constantly argued, they traded, but determined the main decisions.

The unity of the participants was determined by the main goal: all changes and transformations appearing in Europe over the past twenty years should be eliminated. Congress participants achieved and restoring the rights of the former monarchs, which were injured as a result of the past revolutionary transformations and wars.

There was a challenge to form sustainable guarantees that would not allow the revival of Bonapartism in France, as well as further attempts to reshape Europe.

No less important was the provision of territorial requests for winners. And there was a change in the map of Europe and the cutting of the existing colonies.

The work of the Congress was not interrupted even during the short-term return of Napoleon to power. The famous "One hundred days" of Napoleon, the victorious entry of it in Paris did not stop the discussions passing in Vienna. But the victory of the Allied Troops at Waterloo practically led to the end of the Congress.

Decisions of the Vienna Congress

The winner's powers were able to achieve a certain compromise, and on June 9, 1815, the general act of the Vienna Congress was signed.

As a result, the following decisions were taken:

The kingdom of Polish was part of the Russian Empire.

Holland and Belgium united and formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands with the accession of Luxembourg.

In Northern Italy, Lombardy and Venice united in the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the management of which was carried out by Austria.

The British returned previously lost colonies and confirmed their right to hold Malta.

France remained within the borders of 1792, and occupying troops were placed on its territory, the bourbon dynasty was restored on the French throne.

Pope Roman rebended the power over the Vatican and the papal region.

The German Union was formed.

Denmark, which was an allied France, lost Norway, which was transferred to Sweden.

The meaning of the Vienna Congress

For the first time, the world powers sat down at the table negotiating on the settlement of controversial issues, which became a prerequisite for the creation of modern diplomacy.

All participants considered that they created a solid foundation for peace in Europe. But only 15 years old passed, and the so-called Belgian revolution occurred in the Netherlands, as a result of which the Belgian kingdom arose. In 1830, Poles raised the uprising against the Russian tsarism, which was brutally suppressed. In 1848, revolutionary fermentation passed throughout Europe. They were touched by Italy, France, Austria and Germany and caused a noticeable damage the basics of the monarchical system. But the main blow to the adopted agreements caused the Crimean War of 1853-1855.