What does the history of the Middle Ages study? To form an idea of ​​the essence of the issue, it is necessary to become familiar with the subject of its study, the periodization of the main events that occurred during this period of human history, and various points of view on the period under consideration.

The term "Middle Ages"

This term (or more precisely, “ Middle Ages") originated in Italy. It was invented by humanists at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. ad. Historians of the 17th-18th centuries finally consolidated and divided the history of mankind into ancient, middle and modern times. According to their deep conviction, and with their input, the opinion began to spread, which is sometimes supported by some modern scientists, that this was an era of cultural and spiritual decline, obscurantism, and humanity took a step back. Whether this statement is true, we will consider later in the article.

Now it is necessary to illuminate the question of why modern scientists introduced this term. Everything is very simple here. They praised Antiquity to the skies - the era, in their opinion, of the heyday of science, art and culture. Then the Great Roman Empire collapsed, and Europe plunged into chaos for centuries.

Wars, epidemics, religious intolerance and fanaticism have negatively affected humanity. But then the era of the New Time began, and then the successive eras of the Renaissance and Enlightenment gave humanity new hope for the reign of reasonable, humane and justified laws.

On the issue of periodization

Time frame of the Middle Ages by historians different countries are viewed differently. And this is not surprising, since in different corners globe had their own characteristics and specifics. However, the beginning of the Middle Ages does not cause controversy or disagreement.

It is believed that this era has entered its legal rights with the collapse of the Roman Empire and this happened on September 4, 476. The Senate of Rome, under pressure, announced that the Western Empire no longer needed an emperor and the diadem and scepter went to Constantinople. Symbols of imperial power and the greatness of Rome.

When it came to where to end this significant period in human history, opinions were divided. Each side offered its own version and gave reasonable arguments. This is (1455), and the beginning of the Reformation (1517) and many other no less significant and unique events.

History, unfortunately, is used as one of the most important tools of ideological influence. At the same time, its most important and main task is forgotten - the study and analysis of the experience of mankind in order to prevent offensive and terrible mistakes. Therefore, disagreements in chronology, and most importantly, the fact that the term “Middle Ages” is practically inapplicable to the history of all peoples of the world, consolidated its convention.

Periodization

However, despite the conventionality of periodization, it is still necessary to distinguish three main periods, which are followed in Russian historiography and in most Western countries:

Early Middle Ages

High, developed, or classical Middle Ages

This is the middle of the 11th century - the time of origin medieval cities and the beginning of the Crusades and this period of history ends with the era of developed European trade, the flourishing of crafts and art.

Late Middle Ages, or Early Modern Time

The end of the XIV-XVI centuries. - the very heyday of the era of great geographical discoveries.

A small disclaimer needs to be made. In the West, there is a different time frame of the Middle Ages. It ends successfully after famous discovery America by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

Middle Ages: subject of study

What does history study and what is the subject of its study? These are the features, patterns and conditions of development of society of that period. First of all, this is the origin, formation and development of feudal relations. They became the main factor that influenced social relations in society and its cultural development. Thanks to feudal relations, it was reshaped political map that time. National cultures and characters known in modern times were born.

Classification of sources

Answering the question “what does the history of the Middle Ages study”, it would be appropriate to characterize and classify the sources that are used in the study of this issue. These are five types of sources that differ in the way they record information. Let's list these sources:

• Natural-geographical (thanks to its study, you can obtain all the necessary data about environment: climate, soil, landscape, etc. This is necessary to understand the natural specifics of the region being studied.).
• Ethnographic (folklore, customs, traditions, national costumes, homes, etc. are studied).
• material (this includes objects of material culture. These are weapons, utensils, jewelry, etc. Everything that has come down to the present day from the past in the form of material objects.).
• Artistic and visual (paintings, architectural monuments, various sculptures, mosaics, etc.).
• Written (these are texts, and it does not matter how they are written - notes, letters, hieroglyphs, cuneiform or numbers.).

Writing classes for studying the history of the Middle Ages

Written sources, in turn, are divided into classes for convenience. It is necessary to briefly describe each of them. Here's what they look like:

• Narrative, or narrative (tell about events in any form, sometimes using fiction).
• Documentary (this class of source covers narrow and individual points in the socio-economic, legal or political spheres in a formalized language).
• Legislative (this class of source addresses issues on the history of the Middle Ages purely in the legal field. But there is one interesting feature- they very often reflect not only legislative practice. From them you can very clearly see how the legislator is trying to change it, sometimes for a specific situation.).

Middle Ages in Rus'

As already mentioned, the periodization of the Middle Ages is a convention, therefore, understanding this phenomenon creates the conditions when it is necessary to take into account historical specifics region. Not by chance medieval Rus' is considered by historians as a territory where feudal relations arose more slowly, based on the data available modern science. Therefore, the periodization here looks like this:

• IX-XII centuries - Kievan Rus, led by Kiev - “the mother of Russian cities.”
• XII-XIII centuries - the era of civil strife between individual principalities and the beginning of the establishment Tatar-Mongol yoke on some Russian lands.
• XIV-XVII centuries - unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow.

Why medieval Rus' developed societies much later than its European neighbors is a topic of additional research. And the final point on this issue has not yet been set.

Feudalism

The emerging feudalism and the establishment of the universal power of the Church entered into obvious antagonism with the existing at that time, but gradually dying out ancient slave system. A new socio-economic formation was changing. Which ultimately led to a huge surge of violence and cruelty.

This was expressed not only in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, but on its ruins new players arose in the form of barbarian kingdoms. And the Great Migration of Peoples, which lasted from the 4th to the 7th centuries, added to the confusion. Changes occurred, first of all, in the very environment of the barbarian tribes.

The emergence of barbarian kingdoms and the strengthening of the power of their kings inevitably led to stratification within their society. Feudal relations were the instrument that strengthened the power of the “suzerain.” For this, the vassals received not only land, but also the people cultivating it. Gradually, their descendants received this status, with the right of further transmission by inheritance.

Enslavement of the peasantry

It is necessary to briefly touch upon the main events in the history of mankind, which not only influenced lifestyle medieval society, but also created the preconditions for further development. A textbook on the history of the Middle Ages gives brief chronology those events that occurred over more than a thousand years of history.

At the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th centuries. (481-511) the tough and ambitious king Clovis rises among the Franks. He not only became the founder of the Merovingian dynasty. It was under him, perhaps on his direct orders, that the Salic Truth was formed. Thanks to it, it is possible to study and analyze the existing archaic orders. And the most important thing is the emerging property and social inequality. Clovis and his successors persistently conquered lands in the territory of modern France.

But the dynasty changed and Charles I created a huge empire, however, it did not last long. But under him, the dispossession and enslavement of the peasantry finally took shape.

The Christian religion contributed to this process. The Church received huge allotments and wealth and became so strong that it itself interfered in the affairs of European rulers and even sanctioned the predatory Crusades, hiding behind a plausible pretext. The most important events of the Middle Ages include many episodes that in one way or another influenced the course of modern history.

Cities and trade

If you dispassionately examine the history of mankind, you can come to the conclusion that the basis of any conflict is economic interests. It is then that the necessary ideology takes shape, sometimes pushing entire nations towards mutual extermination. Medieval wars, and modern ones too, illustrate this perfectly. But it is also true that economic benefit is the necessary engine that not only changes society, but also moves it towards progress. Trade and economic ties inevitably lead to cultural and technical borrowing.

Cities formed on major trade routes and around fortified fortresses (burgs) became centers of trade, crafts, science and culture. Sometimes people went to other countries to learn and excel in their field or to bring back exotic goods.

Finally

What does the history of the Middle Ages study? It is generally accepted to be in decline and decay. At first glance, we can partially agree with this. Medieval wars, unsanitary conditions, burning people and other “delights” do not inspire optimism. However, it should be understood that this was a necessary path for humanity when changing the socio-economic formation. The history of formation has passed a long and thorny path, but history cannot be abandoned: no matter what bitter and terrible lessons it may give.

V–VII centuries– The Great Migration of Peoples (the movement of Germans, Huns, Slavs and other tribes from the periphery of the Roman Empire to its territory). Creation of “barbarian kingdoms” by the Germans in the western part of the Roman Empire, and formation in the eastern part Byzantine Empire. The settlement of Germans and Slavs in the territory from Britain, Gaul and Spain to Gulf of Finland, Upper Volga and Don.

481–511- reign of the Frankish king Clovis from the Merovingian dynasty. The Franks adopted Christianity. Creation of the “Salic Truth” - a record of the customary law of the Salic Franks.

486- the battle of Soissons between the army of the leader of the Salic Franks Clovis and the troops of the former Roman governor Syagrius. The conquest of Gaul by the Franks is the initial stage of the formation of the Frankish state.

493–526- reign of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric the Great. Foundation of the Ostrogothic state in Italy.

527–565– reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. Codification of Roman law (Code of Justinian). Strengthening the central government, army, tax oppression. Persecution of heretics. Construction of military fortifications for defense against barbarian invasions, in Constantinople - the Church of Hagia Sophia. Return of the regions of the Western Roman Empire captured by the barbarians (North Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, the Apennine Peninsula, Sicily, the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula).

532- “Nika” uprising in Constantinople, the name comes from the cry-password of the rebels - “Nika!” (“Win!”). Caused by tax oppression and oppression by authorities, persecution of heretics and pagans. With the help of mercenary troops, the Goths and Heruls were suppressed.

560–796- Avar Khaganate. Located in Pannonia. He carried out raids on the Slavs, Franks, Lombards, Georgians and Byzantium. Destroyed by the Frankish king Charlemagne.

568- Conquest of Italy by the Lombards. Formation of the Lombard Kingdom in Northern and Central Italy.

622- Mohammed's migration from Mecca to Medina Hijra). Beginning of the Muslim calendar.

VII century- the emergence of Islam. Creation of a single Muslim state in Arabia - the Arab Caliphate.

VII–VIII centuries- a period of extensive Arab conquests. Accession to the Arab Caliphate of Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Libya, Iran, the western part of North Africa, Spain, the southern and southwestern regions of France.

681- emergence of the First Bulgarian Kingdom.

715–741- reign of the mayor of the Frankish state, Charles Martell (“hammer”). Restored the political unity of the Frankish state. He put an end to the previous procedure of kings donating land holdings as full ownership, and gave out lands for lifelong use on the terms of obligatory royal military service– benefits. The land fund for the distribution of benefices was created through the confiscation of the properties of rebellious magnates and the widespread secularization of church lands.

718- the battle of Christians with the Moors in the Covandoga Valley in Asturias (Spain). The beginning of the Reconquista (the reconquest of territories captured by the Arabs by the indigenous population of the Iberian Peninsula).

732- defeat of the Arabs by the Franks at Poitiers. Advancement of the Arabs in Western Europe stopped.

741–768- the reign of the Frankish mayor, and then of King Pepin the Short. Founded the Carolingian dynasty. He united the entire country under his rule - from the English Channel to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Defeated the Lombards.

756- the formation of a secular state of popes on the territory taken by the Frankish king Pepin the Short from the Lombards.

768–814- reign of Charlemagne. Expanded the borders of the kingdom. He strove to centralize power (he controlled the activities of the counts with the help of “state envoys”). Encouraged the forced Christianization of the population of the conquered lands. Domestic policy contributed to the process of feudalization of Frankish society - the establishment of feudal land dependence of the peasantry and the growth of large landownership.

800 g- formation of the empire of Charlemagne. Presentation of the imperial crown to Charlemagne in Rome.

843- Treaty of Verdun. Division of the empire of Charlemagne between the grandchildren of Charlemagne: Lothair received the territory of Italy and lands along the Rhine and Rhone - later Lorraine, Charles the Bald - lands west of the Rhine, Louis the German - lands east of the Rhine.

9th century– educational activities of Cyril and Methodius. Creation Slavic writing– Cyrillic.

955- defeat of the Hungarians by the German army of Otto I on the river. Lech. The Hungarians stop committing predatory raids, switch to a sedentary lifestyle and settle in Pannonia. At the end of the 10th century. accept Christianity.

962- the formation of the Holy Roman Empire led by the German Emperor Otto I. It included Germany, Northern and a significant part of Central Italy, some Slavic lands, as well as part of Southern and Southeastern France.

987–996- the reign of the French king Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian dynasty. Rules in France until 1792

1000 g- formation of the Kingdom of Hungary.

Around 1000- discovery of the northeastern coast of North America by the Icelandic Viking Leiv Eiriksson.

1054– separation christian church into Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Catholic (Orthodox).

1066 – Norman conquest England. The defeat of the troops of the Anglo-Saxon king Harold II by the Normans led by William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings. Establishment of direct vassalage of all feudal lords from the king and the king's ownership of the land. The final subordination of the peasants to the seigneurial authorities. Contributed to the completion of the process of feudalization.

1077- “walking to Canossa” by Emperor Henry IV. At the heart of the conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope is the struggle for the right to install bishops (investiture).

1096- the beginning of the Crusades. They took place under the slogan of liberating Christian shrines in Palestine from Muslim rule. Participants: knighthood, major lords, peasantry, merchants. The ideological inspirer and organizer of the campaigns was the Catholic Church.

1096–1099– First Crusade. Proclaimed by Pope Urban II in 1095. The first crusader states were formed: the County of Edessa and the Principality of Antioch.

1099- conquest of Jerusalem by the crusaders. The creation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the remaining crusader states in the East were vassals of it.

XII century- creation of a state and NKs in South America.

1192- seizure of power in Japan by shoguns from the samurai family of Minamoto (ruled until 1333).

1147–1149– Second Crusade. Reason: capture of Edessa by the Seljuks in 1144. The campaign was led by the French king Louis VII and the German king Conrad III, but failed.

1154–1189- the reign of the English king Henry II Plantagenet, Henry of Anjou), the first of the Plantagenet dynasty. Carrying out reforms to strengthen royalty and limiting the power of feudal lords.

1180–1223- reign of the French king Philip II Augustus. Carrying out a policy of centralization of the state, increasing the royal domain, limiting the independence of the feudal nobility). The return of Normandy and other areas in the north and south of the country that belonged to the English king.

1189–1192– The Third Crusade was caused by the conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 by the Egyptian Sultan Salah ad-din (Saladin). The campaign was led by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, the French king Philip II Augustus and the English king Richard I the Lionheart. Jerusalem remained in Muslim hands.

1202–1204– Fourth Crusade. Organized by Pope Innocent III. Conquest of the Christian cities of Zadar in Dalmatia and Constantinople. The creation of the largest crusader states on the territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Latin Empire).

1204- capture of Constantinople by the crusaders.

1206- election of Genghis Khan as Great Khan of all Mongolia.

1212-Children's Crusade.

1212- Battle of Las Navas de Tolos. The combined forces of Castile, Leon, Aragon and Navarre inflicted a crushing defeat on the Arab conquerors.

1215- signed by the English king John the Landless " Magna Carta" dedicated to the establishment of legality, law and order and guarantees of personal rights of the population). Subsequently one of the main constitutional acts of Great Britain.

1217–1221- Fifth Crusade. Undertaken against Egypt by a combined army of crusaders led by the Austrian Duke Leopold VI and the Hungarian King Andras II. Ended with the conclusion of a truce with the Egyptian Sultan.

1219–1221- the campaign of the Mongols led by Genghis Khan in Central Asia.

1226–1270- reign of Louis IX Saint. Conducted military, coin and judicial reform, established the rule of “40 days of the king” between the declaration of war and its beginning, concluded the Treaty of Paris (1259), according to which the English king renounced claims to Normandy, Maine and other French territories lost by England under John the Landless, but retained Guienne. He led the Seventh and Eighth Crusades, which suffered complete collapse.

1228–1229– Sixth Crusade.

It was headed by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Concluded an agreement with the Egyptian Sultan on the return of Jerusalem to Christians and the announcement of a 10-year truce. In 1244 the city was recaptured by the Muslims.

Around 1230- foundation of the Inquisition.

1235- Conquest of Northern China by the Mongols.

1241–1242- invasion of the Mongol-Tatars into the territory of a number of Eastern European states (Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Dalmatia, Wallachia, Transylvania).

1248–1254, 1270– The Seventh and Eighth Crusades in Egypt and Tunisia, led by the French king Louis IX the Saint.

1261– the fall of the Latin Empire and the revival of the Byzantine Empire under the rule of Emperor Michael VIII, founder of the Palaiologan dynasty.

1265- convocation of parliament in England, establishment of an estate-representative monarchy.

1279- Mongol conquest of southern China.

1285–1314- reign of the French king Philip IV the Fair. Expanded the territory of the royal domain. Captured Flanders in 1300, lost in 1302 as a result of the uprising of Flemish cities. Made the papacy dependent on the French kings. Convened the first Estates General. He obtained from the pope the abolition of the Order of the Templars in 1312.

1289-1 326 – reign of the Turkish Sultan Osman I. Founder of the Ottoman dynasty, which ruled Turkey until 1922.

1291– loss of the last possessions in the East by Europeans.

1302– convocation of the Estates General in France, establishment of an estate-representative monarchy.

1309–1377– “The Captivity of Avignon” – the forced stay of the popes (under pressure from the French kings) in the city of Avignon (Southern France), where (with a break in 1367–1370) the papal residence was located.

1337–1453- The Hundred Years' War between England and France. Causes of the war: England’s desire to eliminate Guienne’s vassal dependence on France and return Normandy, Anjou and other French territories lost under John the Landless, the struggle of both states for dominance over Flanders, the claims of English kings related by ties of kinship to the French Capetian dynasty to the French throne; France sought to oust the British from Guienne. England was defeated in the war and ceded all its possessions in France except the port of Calais.

1356– signing of the “Golden Bull” by Charles IV (election of the emperor by the college of electors, securing other privileges for them). Gain political fragmentation Germany. Operated until 1806

1356- Battle of Poitiers between the French and British. The defeat of the French knights and the capture of the French king John II the Good.

1358- "Jacquerie" in France. Peasant revolt caused by defeat French troops, economic devastation, increased fees and taxes. Suppressed by troops.

1368- expulsion of the Mongols from China. Beginning of the Ming Dynasty.

1378- Ciompi uprising in Florence. Hired workers and poor artisans (“chompi”) demanded that they be given the right to participate in the management of the city. After the suppression of the uprising, tyranny was established in Florence - the sole dictatorship of individual wealthy families. From 1434 to 1737 (with interruptions), the Medici family became the ruler of Florence.

1381- Wat Tyler's rebellion in England. Contributed to the elimination of serfdom and the corvee system.

1385- conclusion of the Krevo Union - a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland (Lithuanian Grand Duke Jagiello, by marrying the Polish queen Jadwiga, became the Polish king). For the Polish nobility, the union meant the possibility of expanding their possessions east of the Western Bug and eliminating the danger of Poland being included in Hungary. Lithuania was given the opportunity to concentrate its efforts on the fight against the Mongol-Tatars and push the borders of the state further to the east. Jagiello and his subjects pledged to convert to Catholicism, annex the lands of the principality to Poland and contribute to the return of possessions lost by the Polish kingdom.

1389- the battle on Kosovo between the combined forces of Serbs and Bosnians under the command of the Serbian prince Lazar and the Turkish army of Sultan Murad I. Defeat of Serbia and becoming a vassal Ottoman Empire.

1396- a crusade led by the Hungarian king Sigismund I against the Ottoman Turks. The defeat of the Crusaders in the Battle of Nikopol from the Turkish army of Sultan Bayazid I the Lightning. Establishment of Turkish dominance on the Balkan Peninsula.

XIV-XV centuries– Early Renaissance in Italy.

1402- defeat of the Ottoman Turks led by Sultan Bayazid I the Lightning by Timur's army.

1410, July 15- victory over the Teutonic Order in the Battle of Grunwald by the united army of Russians, Lithuanians, Czechs and Poles. The Teutonic aggression to the east was stopped.

1415– condemnation and burning at the stake as a heretic of the leader of the movement for a national Czech Church independent from Rome, professor of theology at the University of Prague Jan Hus.

1415–1460- organization by the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator of sea expeditions to the northwestern shores of Africa, which marked the beginning of Portuguese expansion on this continent.

1419–1437– The Hussite wars against the German nobility and the supreme power of the German emperor, which had a religious overtones. Crusades against the Hussites, organized by Pope Martin V and Emperor Sigismund.

1439- decision of the Florence Council on the unification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches.

1445- invention of printing - Johannes Gutenberg published the first printed book).

1453- capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror. Death of the Byzantine Empire. Renaming Constantinople to Istanbul.

1455–1485- War of the Scarlet and White Roses: an internecine war of feudal families in England, which took the form of a struggle for the throne between two branches of the Plantagenet dynasty - the Lancasters in the coat of arms of a scarlet rose) and the Minks (in the coat of arms of a white rose). The death in the war of the main representatives of both dynasties and a significant part of the feudal nobility facilitated the establishment of Tudor absolutism.

1461–1483- reign of the French king Louis XI. He pursued a policy of centralizing power and suppressed feudal revolts. He annexed Anjou, Picardy and other territories to the royal domain.

1479- the formation of a single Spanish state under the rule of Fernando and Isabella through the unification of Aragon and Castile.

Section 2. HISTORY OF RUSSIA

Stone Age.

About 1.5 million years ago - The first archanthropes appeared in Europe

600-150 thousand years ago – Lower Paleolithic era

150-40 thousand years ago – Middle Paleolithic era

40-35 thousand years ago – The first Cro-Magnons are modern people

40-10 thousand years ago – Late Paleolithic era

10-5 thousand years BC – Warming since the last ice age

6-3 thousand years BC – Neolithic era. People are switching to productive farming (livestock raising and farming)

Bronze Age.

XIX-XVIII centuries BC. – The origin of the first kingdoms on the island of Crete.

XVII-XV centuries BC. – Cretan civilization.

XVII-XIII centuries BC. – Archean ancient Greek kingdoms.

XV-XIII centuries BC. – The origin and development of the Mycenaean civilization.

OK. 1470 BC – The decline of the Mycenaean civilization began.

1240-1230 BC. - War for Troy.

The end of the XIII-XII centuries. BC. – The end of the Mycenaean civilization.

Iron Age.

Beginning of the 1st millennium BC – The Iron Age began in Europe.

Ser. VIII-late VI centuries. BC. – Greek Archaic. The era of Greek colonization.

776 BC – The birth of the Olympic Games.

753 BC - Founding of Rome.

VII-II centuries BC. – Settlement of the Eastern European steppes by the Scythians

616 BC - Capture of Rome by Etruscans from Lydia.

594-593 BC. - Athenian reign of Solon.

451-450 BC. – The basic laws of the Roman Republic were adopted.

447-432 BC. – Construction of the Parthenon in Athens.

443-429 BC. - The years of Pericles' reign in Athens.

431-404 BC. – War of Athens and Sparta (Peloponnesian).

405-367 BC. – The reign of the Greek tyrant Dionysius the Elder.

359-336 BC. - The reign of Philip of Macedon.

343-290 BC. - Samnite Wars.

340-338 BC. - Second Latin War. Victory of Rome and abolition of the Latin Union.

338-337 BC. - Corinthian Congress. Establishment of Macedonian hegemony in Greece. Formation of the Panhellenic Union.

336-323 BC. – The reign of Alexander the Great.

334-324 BC. – Eastern campaign of Alexander the Great.

323-322 BC. – Lamian War between Greece and Macedonia.

323 BC – Division of the power of Alexander the Great.

306-305 BC. – Agreement between Rome and Carthage on the division of spheres of influence.

301 BC - Battle of Ipsus. The second division of the power of Alexander the Great.

Turn of the IV-III centuries. BC. – Tribal formations of the Celts in Western Ireland.

280-275 BC. - The war of the Romans with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.

OK. 280-146 BC. – Achaean League

279 BC – “Pyrrhic victory” over the Romans at Ausculum.

267-262 BC. - Chremonides War. Siege of Athens by Antigonus Gonatas.

265 BC - Roman conquest of Italy.

264-241 BC. – First Punic War Rome and Carthage. Establishment of Rome in Sicily.

238 BC - Conquest of Sardinia and Corsica by Rome.

225-222 BC. - The war between Rome and the Gauls. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul.

219 BC – Second Illyrian War. Capture of Saguntum by Hannibal.

218-201 BC. - Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage.

218 BC - Hannibal's victories over the Romans at Ticinus and Trebia.

216 BC - Defeat of the Romans at Cannae.

215-205 BC. – The First Macedonian War, the struggle of Greek cities for independence.

200-197 BC. – Second Macedonian War.

II century BC–II century AD – Zarubintsy culture in Eastern Europe.

192-188 BC. – Syrian war Rome with Antiochus III the Great.

171-167 BC. – Third Macedonian War.

149-146 BC. – Third Punic War. Siege and destruction of Carthage.

148 BC - Transformation of Macedonia into a Roman province.

146 BC – Achaean War of Greece against Rome. Capture and burning of Corinth. The end of Greek independence.

133 BC - Tribunal of Tiberius Gracchus in Rome. Agrarian law of Gracchus and his murder.

133 BC - Annexation of the Kingdom of Pergamon by the Romans.

123-122 BC. - Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus.

111-63 BC. – The reign of the Pontic king Mithridates IV Eupator. His conquest of the Bosporan kingdom.

100-44 BC. - Gaius Julius Caesar.

89-84 BC. – The First Mithridatic War of Rome with the Pontic Kingdom.

88-82 BC. - Civil war between the Martians and the Sullans.

83-81 BC. – Second Mithridatic War.

82-79 BC. – Dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, proscription, restoration of the authority of the Senate.

74-63 BC. – Third Mithradite War.

73-71 BC. – Rise of Spartacus

69 BC – Conquest of the capital of Armenia, Tigranocerta, by Lucullus.

65 BC – Pompey's victory over Mithridates IV and Tigranes II.

64 BC - Establishment of Roman power over all of Asia Minor. Formation of the provinces of Bithynia, Pontus and Syria.

63 BC – Consulate of Marcus Tullius Cicero.

63-62 BC. - Catiline's conspiracy, his defeat and death.

60 BC – First triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, Caesar.

59 BC - Consulate of Caesar.

58-51 BC - Caesar's conquest of Gaul.

55-54 BC - Caesar's campaigns in Britain.

53 BC - The defeat and death of Crassus in the battle with the Parthians at Carae.

49-45 BC - Civil war between Caesar and Pompey.

44 BC - Lifelong dictatorship of Caesar. Assassination of Caesar.

44-31 BC. - Civil wars.

34 BC – Annexation of the Armenian kingdom to Rome.

32 BC - Octavian's war against Egypt.

30 BC - Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra.

End of the 1st century BC. – beginning of the 1st century AD – The unification of the Germanic tribes under the rule of Marobod.

The Roman Empire.

27 BC-14 AD – Principate of Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian)

19 BC – Completion of the conquest of Spain by Rome.

12-9 years BC. – Drusus’s campaigns in Germany, the formation of the Roman province of Germany. Conquest of Pannonia.

OK. 4 BC-65 AD – Lucius Anyaeus Seneca, Roman Stoic philosopher.

0 – Nativity of Jesus Christ. The beginning of a new era.

6 AD – Transformation of Judea into a Roman province.

10g. – A law on the execution of all slaves if one of them kills his master.

14-68 - Board Yuliev - Claudiev.

33 – Crucifixion of Jesus Christ on Golgotha ​​on the outskirts of Jerusalem. The beginning of the preaching of Christianity by the apostles.

43 - Claudius's campaign in Britain and the Roman conquest of its southern part.

77-83 – Yuri Agricola’s campaigns in Britain, the conquest of Northern Britain.

79 – eruption of Vesuvius. The death of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabius.

OK. 90 - approx. 160 – Claudius Ptolemy – ancient Greek astronomer and geographer.

96-122 - Board of the Antonines.

II century – Displacement of the Sarmatians from the Northern Black Sea region by the Alans.

II-V centuries – Widespread heresies in Christianity (Manichaeism, Arianism, Nestorianism, etc.)

101-106 - Wars of Trajan and Decebalus. Conquest of Dacia.

106 – Roman conquest of the Nabatean kingdom, formation of the provinces of Arabia, Adiabene, Ctesiphon.

115 – Formation of the provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria.

167-180 – Marcomanni wars of the Romans with the barbarian tribes of the Marcomanni, Dacians, Sarmatians, etc.

185-187 – Unrest in Northern Italy, Gaul, Spain, Danube regions, Africa, Egypt.

193-235 - Dynasty of the Severas.

213 – Wars of the Romans with the Germans and Danube tribes.

250, 257 - Edicts against Christians. Persecution of Christians.

251 - Defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths, death of Emperor Decius.

OK. 260 – Conquest of the ancient cities of the Northern Black Sea region by the Goths; the formation of the alliances of the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths.

260s - Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire.

284-305 - Reign of Diocletian. Military, monetary, tax and administrative reforms.

293 – Establishment of the tetrarchy of the rule of four.

III-IV centuries – Settlement of the Goths in the Northern Black Sea region.

III-IV centuries – Chernyakhov culture in Eastern Europe.

306-337 – The reign of Constantine the Great.

313 – Edict of Milan on the freedom to practice Christianity.

325 – First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea

330 – Founding of Constantinople.

337 – Renewed onslaught of Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. Death of Constantine the Great. Division of the empire into Eastern and Western.

350-375 – Kingdom of Germanarich in the Northern Black Sea region.

354-430 – Aurelius Augustine theologian, philosopher, Father of the Church.

361 - Edict of Emperor Julian the Apostate on the restoration of paganism.

364-375 - Division of the empire.

The Great Migration of Peoples.

375 – The defeat of the Goths by the Huns in the Northern Black Sea region. Flight ready to the Danube

378 - Defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths at Adrianople.

381 – Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople.

395 - The final division of the empire into Western and Eastern.

IV-VIII centuries – Tushemlinskaya archaeological culture on the Upper Dnieper (Balts)

V-VIII centuries – Monuments of Prague culture (Slavs) in Eastern Europe.

410 – Capture of Rome by Alaric.

418 - Formation of the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul with its capital in Toulouse.

431 – Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus. Condemnation of the heresy of Nestorius.

434-453 - Attila's reign over the Huns.

449 – The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain begins.

451 – Battle of the Catalaunian Fields. Defeat of the Huns.

452 - Attila's campaign against Northern Italy.

453 - Collapse of Attila's power.

463 – Penetration of the Proto-Bulgarians and Savirs into the Northern Black Sea region.

470-80s – Movement of the Ostrogoths from Pannonia to Italy, creation of the Ostrogothic kingdom.

476 - Deposition of Romulus Augustulus by the barbarian leader Odoacer. Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

481-511 - Clovis is the king of the Franks.

486 – The emergence of the Frankish state in Northern Gaul.

493-526 – The rise of the Ostrogothic kingdom (capital in Ravenna) under Theodoric the Great.

Early Middle Ages.

Beginning of the 6th century – Recording of “Salich Pravda”

VI-VIII centuries – Culture of Pskov long mounds (Balts)

VI-VII centuries – Prague-Penkov monuments ( Slavic tribe ants) on the Dniester and Dnieper.

529 - The emergence of the first monastic order - the Benedictine Order.

534 – Subjugation of the Kingdom of Burgundy by the Franks.

535-555 – The war of Byzantium with the Ostrogoths, the annexation of Italy with Rome and Ravenna to Byzantium.

550s – Campaigns of the Slavs and Bulgarians to the northern provinces of the Byzantine Empire.

557 - Defeat of the Antes by the Turkic tribes of the Avars.

561 – Avars invade Germany.

560-796 - Avar Khaganate.

568 - Beginning of the Lombard invasion of Italy.

597 - Beginning of the Christianization of England.

End of 6th century - 7th century – Slavic settlement of the Balkan Peninsula.

End of the 6th century - Collapse of the Frankish Kingdom.

623-662 – The first Slavic state Samo.

711-714 – Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs.

715-741 - Charles Martell - Major of the Frankish state.

732 – Victory of Charles Martel over the Arabs at Poust.

740 – The victory of the Byzantine emperor Leo I the Isaurian over the Arabs began to oust the Arabs from Asia Minor.

756 – formation of the secular state of the popes.

768-814 - Reign of Charlemagne.

772-804 - Wars of Charlemagne with the Saxons.

774 – Conquest of the Lombard kingdom by Charlemagne.

793 - Norman expansion into Europe begins.

800 - Coronation of Charlemagne with the imperial title.

812 – Charlemagne’s campaign to subjugate the Lutich Slavs in the area between the Elbe and Oder rivers.

812-813 - Charlemagne's campaigns against the Arabs in Corsica.

829 – Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms into the Kingdom of England.

843 – Treaty of Verdun. Division of the empire of Charlemagne.

845 – Capture of Paris by the Normans.

855 – Collapse of the state of Lothair. Formation of the kingdoms of Italy, Provence, Lorraine.

863 – Creation Slavic alphabet enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

End of the 9th century – Settlement of Hungarians in Pannonia.

End of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. – Formation of the Czech state.

911 – Formation of the Duchy of Normandy

919-1024 – Saxon dynasty in Germany.

936-973 – Reign of Otto I in Germany. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

987-1328 – Capetian dynasty in France.

988 – Adoption of Christianity in Rus'.

990s-1022 – The reign of Olof Skötkonung in Sweden.

End of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries. – Formation of united kingdoms in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.

OK. 1000 – Formation of the Kingdom of Hungary.

1016-1035 - The reign of Cnut the Great - King of England, Denmark and Norway.

1024-1125 - Franconian dynasty in Germany.

1032-1034 – Annexation of Burgundy to the Holy Roman Empire.

1054 – Division of the Christian Church into Western (Catholicism) and Eastern (Orthodoxy)

1066 – Battle of Hastings, conquest of England by the Normans.

1066-1087 – The reign of William I the Conqueror in England.

1071 – Norman conquest of southern Italy.

1075-1122 – The struggle for investiture between the popes and the German kings.

1076-1077 – Defeat of the German Emperor Henry IV in the fight against Gregory VII

1085 – Reconquest of Toledo during the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula.

1095 - Pope Urban II calls for the conquest of Palestine.

1096-1099 - The 1st Crusade, accompanied by the robberies of the crusaders of Constantinople and other cities of the Empire. Formation of the Crusader states in the Middle East.

Advanced Middle Ages.

1100 – “Charter of Liberty” in England.

1130 – The unification of the southern Italian Norman states into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

1137 – Unification of Catalonia and Aragon into the Kingdom of Aragon.

1138-1254 – Hohenstaufen dynasty in Germany.

1143-1155 - Antipapal revolt in Rome.

1147 – Recapture of Lisbon from the Arabs.

1152-1190 – The reign of the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa.

1154-1399 - Plantagenet dynasty in England.

1169-1171 - Beginning of the English conquest of Ireland.

1176 - The defeat of Manuel I Komnenos by the Seljuk Turks at Myriokephalos, stopping the Byzantine advance in Asia Minor.

1180-1223 – The reign of Philip II Augustus in France.

1189-1192 – 3rd Crusade, in which the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, the French King Philip I Augustus and the English King Richard I the Lionheart took part.

1199-1204 – 4th Crusade called by Pope Innocent III

End of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. - The emergence of the Inquisition.

OK. 1200 – Foundation of the University of Paris.

1202 – Formation of the Order of the Sword in the Baltic States

1202-1294 – 4th Crusade. Capture and destruction of Constantinople by the crusaders.

1212 - Children's Crusade, which ended with the death and capture of most of its participants by Muslims.

1215 – Establishment of the monastic order of the Dominicans.

1215 - Magna Carta in England.

1217-1221 – 5th Crusade led by Andrew II of Hungary, Austrian and Bavarian knights.

1228-1229 – 6th Crusade led by Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen.

1229 - Agreement between Frederick II and Sultan Al-Kamil on the return of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem and other holy places to Christians.

1230-1263 – The reign of Mindaugas in Lithuania. Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

1241-1242 – Mongol invasion of Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic.

1248-1254 – 7th Crusade of the French king Louis IX, capture of Damietta, then defeat and capture of the king.

1249 – Completion of the Reconquista in Portugal.

1250-1364 – Folkung Dynasty in Sweden.

1251 – Peasant uprising of the “shepherds” in France.

1254 – Formation of the Rhine League of Cities in Germany.

1261 – Restoration of the Byzantine Empire by the Nicaean Emperor Michael VIII.

1261-1453 – Palaiologos dynasty in Byzantium.

1265 - The emergence of the English Parliament.

1272-1307 - Reign of Edward I in England.

1274 – Union of Lyons between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.

1282 - “Sicilian Vespers” - a popular uprising in Sicily against French oppression.

1285-1314 – The reign of Philip IV the Fair in France.

1291 – Formation of the Confederation of Swiss Cantons (Swiss Union)

1293 - “Establishment of justice” in Florence - deprivation of the political rights of feudal lords.

1296-1314 - Scotland's struggle for independence.

Beginning of the 14th century – Formation of the Principality of Wallachia.

1302 - Beginning of the Estates General in France.

1304-1307 – The Dolcino Revolt in Northern Italy.

1309-1378 - “The Captivity of Avignon” by the popes.

1315 - Swiss victory over the Habsburg troops at Morgarten. The beginning of Swiss independence.

1319-1363 – Reign of Magnus Eriksson – King of Sweden, Norway and Finland. "Magna Carta of Sweden".

1323 - The English recognize Robert the Bruce as King of Scotland.

1327-1377 - Reign of Edward III in England.

1328-1589 – Valois dynasty in France.

1331-1355 - The reign of King Stefan Dusan in Serbia, who conquered Macedonia, Thessaly and Albania from Byzantium.

1337-1453 - The Hundred Years' War between England and France.

1347-1378 – The reign of the German Emperor and King of the Czech Republic Charles IV.

1348-1353 – Plague epidemic (“Black Death”) in Western, Central and Eastern Europe. Death of 25 million inhabitants.

1348 – Foundation of the University of Prague.

1356 – “Golden Bull” of Emperor Charles IV, which secured the independence of the electors.

1356 – Defeat of the French by the British led by Prince Edward of Wales (Black Prince), capture of King John the Good.

1359 – Formation of the Principality of Moldavia.

1367-1370 – War of the Germanic peoples (Hansa) with Denmark.

1382-1387 – Revolt of the Tukins in Northern Italy.

1385 – Krevo Union of Lithuania and Poland.

1385 – Battle of Aljubarrota. Victory of the Portuguese over the Castilians and their supporters.

1389 – Battle of Kosovo. The defeat of the Serbian army by the Turks.

1393 – Conquest of the Bulgarian Tarnovo kingdom by the Turks.

1396 - The defeat of European knighthood by the Turks near Nikopol on the Danube.

1397 – Kalmar Union of Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

1410 – Battle of Grunwald. The defeat of the Teutonic Order by the combined forces of Lithuanians, Poles, Czechs and Russians.

1411-1435 - Civil War in France, Armagnac and Bourguignon.

1414-1418 – Constance Cathedral.

1415 – Burning of Jan Hus.

1415-1701 – Hohenzollern dynasty in Brandenburg.

1419-1434 - Hussite wars.

1428-1429 - Siege of Orleans by the British.

1431 – Burning of Joan of Arc in Rouen.

1434 - Establishment of the Medici tyranny in Florence.

1435 – Beginning of the Riksdag in Sweden.

1438 – Securing the throne of the Holy Roman Empire to the Habsburgs.

OK. 1445 - Invention of printing by Johannes Gutenberg.

1450 – “Eternal Union” of Norway and Denmark.

1453 – Capture Turkish Sultan Mehmed II Fatih of Constantinople. Fall of the Byzantine Empire.

1453 – End of the Hundred Years' War.

1455-1485 – The War of the Scarlet and White Roses in England.

1459 – Capture of Serbia by the Turks.

1461-1485 - York dynasty in England.

1463 – Capture of Bosnia by the Turks.

1466 – Peace of Torun, recognition of vassal dependence on Poland by the Teutonic Order.

1468 – Beginning of class representation in Denmark.

1474-1477 – Burgundian War in France.

1475 – Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over the Crimean Khanate.

1476 - Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over Wallachia.

1478 – Fall of Novgorod’s independence.

1478-1479 – Conquest of Albania by the Turks.

1479 – The unification of Aragon and Castile, the emergence of a single Spanish state.

1485 – Beginning of the Tudor dynasty in England.

1491 – Brittany joins France.

1492 – Conquest of the Emirate of Granada by Spain, end of the Reconquista.

1492 – Discovery of America by H. Columbus.

1494-1498 – Republic of D. Savanarola in Florence.

1494-1559 - Italian wars.

1497-1498 – Vasco Da Gama's expedition around Africa to India.

1499 – The Swiss Confederation is separated from the Holy Roman Empire.

Late Middle Ages.

1501-1504 - Conquest of the Kingdom of Naples by Spain.

1514 – Győri Doži uprising in Hungary.

1514 – Russian troops recapture Smolensk from Lithuania.

1516-1700 – Habsburg dynasty in Spain.

1517 – Martin Luther’s speech with 95 theses against indulgences. Beginning of the Reformation.

1523 – Dissolution of the Castilian Union between Denmark and Sweden.

1523-1560 – Reign of Gustav I Vasa in Sweden.

1524-1525 – Peasant revolt in Germany.

1525 – Secularization of the Teutonic Order.

1526 – The defeat of the Hungarian troops by the Turks in the Battle of Mohács, the formation of the monarchy Austrian Habsburgs in Central Europe.

1527-1539 – Reformation in Sweden.

1530 – “Augsburg Confession”

1532 – The final annexation of Brittany to France. Completion of the country's unification.

1533-1584 – The reign of Ivan IV the Terrible in Russia (from 1547 - Tsar)

1534 - “Act of Supremacy” in England - recognition of the king as the head of the English church.

1534 – Founding of the Jesuit Order.

1534-1535 – Anabaptist Commune in Münstrei (Germany)

1536-1542 - The annexation of Wales to England.

1537-1574 – Reign of Duke Cosimo I de' Medici in Florence.

1541 – Partition of Hungary between the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Habsburgs.

1545-1563 - Council of Trent.

1555 – Religious Peace of Augsburg.

1556-1598 – The reign of King Philip II in Spain.

1557-1559 - The war of England in alliance with Spain against France.

1558-1583 – Livonian War between Russia and the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden.

1558-1603 – The reign of Elizabeth I Tudor in England.

1559 – First “index of prohibited books” in Rome.

1560-1598 – Religious wars in France.

1562 - The English slave trade begins in America.

1566-1609 – Dutch bourgeois revolution, struggle against Spanish rule.

1569 – Union of Lublin between Lithuania and Poland. Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

1572 – “Bartholomew’s Night” in France.

1572-1584 – The reign of the first Stadthauter of the Netherlands, William I of Orange.

1572-1573 – Expeditions of the English corsair Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies.

1575 – State bankruptcy of Spain.

1579 – Union of Arras for the southern provinces of the Netherlands and Union of Utrecht for the northern provinces of the Netherlands.

1581 – Portugal joins Spain.

1585 – Capture of Antwerp by Spanish troops.

1587 – Execution of the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart in England.

1588 – Campaign of the Spanish fleet (“ Invincible Armada") against England and his death.

1588 – “Lithuanian Statute”

1588-1648 - Reign of King Christian IV in Denmark.

1589-1792, 1814-1815, 1815-1830 – Bourbon dynasty in France.

1592-1598 – The revolt of the “crocans” in France.

1596 – Union of Brest between the Orthodox Church in Ukraine and the Catholic Church.

1600 – Burning of Giordano Bruno in Italy.

1600 - Founding of the English East India Company.

1601 – Conflict between Parliament and Queen Elizabeth I in England over the distribution of privileges and monopolies. Statute “On Charity for the Poor.” Mutiny in Essex.

1603 – Accession to the English throne of King James I of Scotland. Union between England and Scotland.

1603-1649, 1660-1714 - Stuart dynasty in England.

1604 - The first East India Company is founded in France. The beginning of French colonization of the Atlantic coast of North America.

1606-1609 – Rokosh (rebellion) of Zebrzydowski in Poland.

1608 – Founding of the Evangelical Union by Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire.

1609 – Expulsion of the Moriscos (Moorish Christians of Aquitaine and Granada) from Spain.

1609 – Formation of the Catholic League in the Holy Roman Empire by Maximilian of Bavaria. The struggle for dominance in the duchies of Cleve and Jülich, which remained after the death of Duke Johann Wilhelm.

1610 – Assassination of the French king Henry IV.

1610-1617 – Russo-Swedish War.

1611 – Beginning of colonization of Wexford, Longford and other counties of Ireland.

1611-1613 – The Squid War between Sweden and Denmark.

1611-1617 – Regency of Marie de Medici in France during the childhood of Louis XIII.

1611-1632 - reign of King Gustav II Adolf in Sweden.

1617-1629 – The Swedish-Polish war for dominance in the Baltic states, which ended with the establishment of Swedish dominance in the Baltic states.

1618 – Incorporation of the Duchy of Prussia into Brandenburg.

1618-1648 - Thirty Years' War.

1619 – Treaty of Alliance between Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and the Catholic League.

1620 - Opposition against King Louis XIII Marie de' Medici and the rebellious princes. Victory of the king at the Pont de Se.

1621 – Resumption of the Spanish-Dutch War.

1624-1642 - Reign of Cardinal de Richelieu in France.

1625 – Anglo-Spanish War.

1628 – Presentation of the “Petition of Rights” by the English Parliament to King Charles I

1628-1631 – Franco-Austrian War of the Mantuan Succession.

1629 – Louis XIII issued the “Edict of Grace,” which deprived the Huguenots of political rights, but preserved their freedom of religion.

1629 – Deprivation of secularized lands and properties from the Protestant cities and principalities of the Holy Roman Empire.

1629-1640 – The parliamentless reign of Charles I.

1632 – Defeat of the Austrian commander A. Wallenstein from the Swedes at Lützen. Death of the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf in the battle of Lützen.

1634 - Defeat of the Swedish troops at Nördlingen.

1635 – Separate peace between the Saxon Elector Johann Georg and the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II.

1635-1659 - Franco-Spanish War.

1640 – “Short Parliament” in England and its dissolution by the king. The Long Parliament and the beginning of the English Revolution.

1640 – Secession of Portugal from Spain.

1640-1652 - Uprising in Catalonia.

1640-1668 – Portuguese War of Independence.

1642 – Capture of Leipzig by the Swedish army.

1642-1646 - Civil War in England.

1643-1661 (with interruptions) - The reign of Cardinal Giulio Mazarin in France.

1646-1648 – Uprising in Naples and Sicily against Spanish rule.

1648 – Peace of Westphalia.

1648 – Civil War in England.

New Time.

1649 – Execution of the English king Charles I, abolition of the royal title and the House of Lords in England.

1649-1650 – O. Cromwell’s campaign against Ireland.

1649-1653 - Republican government in England.

1650-1651 – O. Cromwell’s campaign in Scotland, annexation of Scotland.

1651-1653 - "Fronde of Princes" in France.

1652-1653 – Peasant uprisings in Sweden.

1653 – Defeat of the Long Parliament by O. Cromwell

1653-1658 – Protectorate of O. Cromwell in England.

1654-1656, 1658-1667 – Russian-Polish War.

1655-1659 – The Anglo-Franco-Spanish War, which ended with the Peace of the Pyrenees, which gave large territorial gains to France at the expense of Spain.

1657 – End of vassalage East Prussia from Poland.

1658 – Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden) against the Habsburgs.

1659 – Formal restoration of the republic in England.

1660 - Sweden's war against Denmark and Brandenburg.

1660 – Stuart Restoration (Charles II) in England.

1662 – Sale of Dunkirk by England to France, West Indies Campaign.

1665 – “Great Plague” in England.

1665-1667 – Anglo-Dutch War.

1667 – Secret treaty between the English king Charles II and the French king Louis XIV.

1667-1668 – Devolutionary war between France and Spain, the transfer of Flemish cities to France.

1672-1679 – The war of France and Sweden against the coalition of Holland, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Brandenburg and Denmark.

1674 – Revolt against Spanish rule in Sicily.

1675 – Peasant revolt of the “red caps” in Brittany (France)

1675-1682 – Activities of the “Green Ribbon Club” in England – the center of future Whigs.

1679 – Adoption of the Personal Immunity Act by the English Parliament.

1683 – Siege of Vienna by the Turkish army, lifting of the siege and defeat of the Turks by the Polish king John III Sobieski.

1683-1684 - Franco-Spanish War.

1684 – Treaty of Regensburg, recognition of the territorial acquisitions of France by the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.

1685 – Rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth in England.

1685 - Adoption of the “Potsdam Ezhikt”, allowing Huguenots to settle in Brandenburg and Prussia and providing them with benefits.

1685-1688 – Accession to the throne of the English king James II and his measures aimed at restoring Catholicism and the unlimited power of the king.

1686 – The League of Augsburg is created between the Holy Roman Empire and Spain to stop French expansion.

1688 - “Glorious Revolution” in England. The flight of James II Stuart and the proclamation of the Stadgaller of the Netherlands, William III of Orange, as king. Founding Parliament - Convention, "Bill of Rights"

1688-1697 – War of France with the League of Augsburg (Holy Roman Empire, Spain, England, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony)

1689-1690 – Landing of James II Stuart and French troops in Ireland, their defeat.

1697 – Peace of Ryswick between France and the League of Augsburg. Return by France of territories captured during the war. Louis XIV's recognition of William III as King of England.

1700-1721 – Northern Russia versus Sweden.

1701 – Proclamation of Prussia as a kingdom.

1701-1714 – The War of the Spanish Succession between France, Austria and England.

1702-1705 - Peasant war of the Camisards in France.

1702-1714 - Governing body Queen of England Anna Stewart.

1704 – England captures the Strait of Gibraltar.

1705 – Establishment of the Vienna Academy of Arts.

1705-1706 - Peasant revolt in Bavaria.

1705-1711 - Bashkir uprising.

1706 – Capture of Madrid by Austrian troops.

1707 – Act of Union of England and Scotland, formation of Great Britain.

1708 – British victory over the French at Oudenaarde, English capture of the island of Minorca.

1709 – Foundation of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

1709 – Defeat of the Swedish army near Poltava.

1710 – Opening of the first porcelain manufactory in Europe in Meissen (Germany)

1711-1740 – Reign of Charles VI of Habsburg in Austria. Secret negotiations between England and France, weakening of the anti-French coalition.

1712-1715 – Cossack-peasant uprisings in Poland.

1713 - Peace of Utrecht in the war for spanish inheritance between England, Holland, Prussia and France. Philip V of Anjou is recognized as King of Spain with the renunciation of rights to the French crown; England received Gibraltar, possessions in North America and on the island of Minorca and the right of the slave trade in the Spanish colonies.

1714 – Victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Gangut.

1714 – Peace of Rastad, ending the War of the Spanish Succession; Austria renounces its rights to the Spanish crown, but receives Belgium, the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples.

1715-1716 – Jacobite uprising in Scotland.

1715-1774 – The reign of Louis XV in France.

1716 – Campaign of the Swedish king Charles XII to Norway.

1718-1772 – “Era of freedoms” in Sweden (rule of the Riksdag)

1718 – Treaty of Pozarevac between Austria and Turkey, transfer to Austria of Lesser Wallachia and part of Serbia with Belgrade.

1718-1720 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1720 - Victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Grengam.

1720 – Treaty of Stockholm between Prussia and Sweden, according to which Stettin and Vorpommern were ceded to Prussia.

1721 – Peace of Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, which consolidated Russian acquisitions in the Baltic states; Finland returned to Sweden; Sweden's loss of great power status.

1725 – Franco-Prussian Union Treaty.

1727 – Deprivation of the Irish right to elect parliament.

1727-1732 – Peasant revolt in the Black Forest (Germany)

1731 - Regulations on the guilds in Austria, subordinating the guilds to the authorities and prohibiting strikes of artisans and unions of apprentices.

1733-1735 – War of the Polish Succession.

1736-1739 – Russo-Turkish War (in alliance with Austria)

1737 – Establishment of the University of Göttingen in Germany.

1738-1765 The “hat party” stays in power in Sweden

1739 – Creation of the Swedish Academy of Sciences.

1739-1748 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1740 – Russian-Prussian Union Treaty.

1740-1780 - Reign of Empress Maria Theresa in Austria.

1740-1742 – The Silesian War between Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia, which ended with the transfer of Silesia to Prussia.

1740-1786 – The reign of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great.

1740-1748 – War of the Austrian Succession.

1741-1743 – The Russian-Swedish war, which ended with the Peace of Abov, according to which part of Finland went to Russia.

1742 - Swedish astronomer and physicist A. Celsius proposed a new temperature scale, named after him.

1744-1745 – Second Silesian War between Austria and Prussia on Polish territory.

1746 – Defensive Russian-Austrian and Russian-Danish alliances.

1747 - Anglo-Russian subsidy treaty, according to which Russia received 100,000 pounds sterling annually for the army.

1756-1763 - Seven Years' War.

1759 – Opening of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in Munich.

1761 – Family pact between the French and Spanish Bourbons.

1765 - Foundation of the Berlin Royal - Girobank and Loan Bank.

1767 – Expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain.

1768 – France purchased the island of Corsica from Genoa.

1768-1772 – Bar Confederation against Stanislaw Poniatowski in Poland.

1772 - Gustav III's coup d'etat in Sweden, adoption of a new constitution limiting the power of the Riksdag.

1772 – First partition of Poland between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

1773 – The abolition of the Jesuit order by the pope.

1774-1792 – The reign of King Louis XVI in France.

1775-1783 - England's war with the North American colonies.

1779-1783 – Anglo-Spanish War, return of Florida and Minorca to Spain.

1780-1784 – Anglo-Dutch war for the redistribution of colonial possessions.

1783 – Treaty of Versailles. England's recognition of US independence.

1788 – Abolition of the military registration system in Denmark.

1788-1792 – Four-year Sejm in Poland.

1788-1789 – Russian-Swedish war.

1789-1794 - The French Revolution.

1789 – Peasant unrest in Germany.

1791 – Proclamation of a new constitution by the Poles, preparation for war with Russia.

1791 - Creation of the patriotic society "United Irish" in Belfast.

1792-1797 – War of France with the First Coalition.

1792 – Targowica Confederation in Poland; repeal of the new constitution and stop of military preparations.

1793 – Execution of Louis XVI

1793 – Russian-English Convention on General Action against Revolutionary France.

1793 – Second partition of Poland between Russia and Prussia.

1794 – Founding of the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris, the first technical higher education institution.

1794-1795 – Polish uprising of T. Kosciuszko, suppressed by Russian troops led by A.V. Suvorov.

1795-1799 - Directory in France.

1795 – Stanisław Poniatowski’s abdication from the throne and the third partition of Poland between Prussia. Russia and Austria, ending the existence of Poland as an independent state.

1796-1797 - Italian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte.

1798-1801 – War of France with the Second Coalition (England, Turkey, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Russia, Austria, Portugal)

1799 – Capture of the islands of Corfu, Naples and Rome by F.F. Ushakov. Swiss and Italian campaigns of A. V. Suvorov

1799 – Coup of the 18th Brumaire carried out by General Napoleon Bonaparte. Transfer of power in France to the first consul Bonaparte

1799-1804 – Consulate in France.

1800 – Defeat of the Austrian troops by Napoleon Bonaparte at Marengo.

1803-1805 – War of France with the III Coalition (England, Austria, Russia)

1804 – Execution of Louis Antoine Duke of Enghien. "Civil Code of the French" (Napoleonic Code). Napoleon Bonaparte's acceptance of the title of Emperor.

1805 - Victory of the English fleet over the Franco-Spanish at Trafalgar. Death of Vice Admiral G. Nelson.

1806-1807 – War of France with the IV Coalition (England, Prussia, Russia)

1806 - Formation of the Rhine Confederation of 16 German states under the protectorate of Napoleon.

1806 – Francis II renounces the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and ends its existence.

1807 – Prohibition of the slave trade in England.

1808-1813 - French occupation of Spain. Guerrilla warfare in Spain.

1809 – War of France with the V Coalition. Schönbrunn world. Austria's loss of Illyria, part of the Tyrol and Western Galicia. Revolt against French rule in Germany.

1812 – Napoleon’s campaign in Russia. Patriotic War in Russia.

1812-1814 – War of France with the VI Coalition (England, Russia, Prussia, Austria)

1814 - Treason of the French minister C. M. Talleyrand, entry of the Allies into Paris.

1814 – Restoration of the Jesuit Order by Pope Pius VII.

1814-1815 – Congress of Vienna. Restoration in France.

1815 - “One Hundred Days” by Napoleon.

1815 – War of France with the VII coalition. Battle of Waterloo.

1815-1830 – Restoration in France.

1821 – Austrian military intervention in the Kingdom of Naples and Piedmont.

1821-1829 – Greek national liberation revolution.

1827 – Battle of Navarino of the united Russian-English-French fleet against the Turkish fleet.

1830 – July Revolution in France.

1830-1831 - Belgian Revolution. Formation of the Kingdom of Belgium.

1830-1831 – Polish uprising in the Russian Empire.

1830-1848 – July Monarchy in France.

1832 – Parliamentary reform in England.

1834 – Vienna Conference on the fight against revolutionary movements.

1837-1901 – Reign of Queen Victoria I in England.

1848 – February Revolution in France. Fall of the July Monarchy.

1848 – Publication of the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” in London.

1848-1849 – Revolution in Austrian Empire. Suppression of the Hungarian Revolution Russian troops, and the Italian revolution by the Austrian ones.

1848-1849 – Bourgeois-democratic revolution in Germany.

1851 – Coup in France by Louis Napoleon, restoration of the monarchy (since 1852)

1852-1871 – Second Empire in France.

1853-1856 – Crimean War: Türkiye, England, France, Sardinia against Russia.

1858 – Liquidation of the East India Campaign, declaration of India as a possession of the crown.

1859 – Austro-Franco-Sardinian War.

1861 – Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy.

1861 – Foundation of the First International in London.

1861 – Abolition of serfdom in Russia.

1864 – War of Austria and Prussia against Denmark for Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg.

1866 – Austro-Prussian (“Thirty Days”) War for hegemony in Germany. Victory for Prussia.

1867 – Invasion of D. Garibaldi at the head of the “red shirts” into the Papal States.

1867-1868 - England's war against Ethiopia.

1870-1871 - Franco-Prussian War. Fall of the Second Empire.

1870-1940 – Third Republic in France.

Recent history.

1871 - Communes in Lyon, Marseille, Paris. May "Bloody Week" in Paris.

1871 – Formation of a unified German Empire.

1871-1890 – Otto Bismarck – Reich Chancellor of the German Empire.

1871-1878 – “Kulturkampf” in Germany.

1873 – “Union of the Three Emperors” (Austria, Germany, Russia)

1877-1878 – Russian-Turkish war.

1879 – Austro-German Alliance.

1880 – Dissolution of the Jesuit Order in France.

1881 – Resumption of the “Union of the Three Emperors”

1881 – Conquest of Tunisia by the French. The beginning of France's colonial advance in Africa.

1882 – Triple Alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy.

1882 – Occupation of Egypt by England.

1884 – Legalization of trade unions in France.

1884 – Beginning of Germany’s colonial conquests in Africa.

1885 – Construction of cars with internal combustion engines in Germany.

1887 – Collapse of the “Union of Three Emperors”

1890 – Anglo-French treaty on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Africa.

1891-1921 – Erfurt program of the German Social Democrats.

1893 – First Congress of Free Trade Unions in Austria-Hungary.

1894-1906 – The Dreyfus spy case in France, which had a great public resonance.

1895 – Invention of the motion picture camera by the Lumière brothers.

1895 – Anglo-Russian delimitation treaty in Central Asia.

1896 – Creation of the Irish Socialist Republican Party.

1898 – Anglo-French colonial conflict in Africa.

1899 – Anglo-French convention on the division of colonial possessions in Africa.

1899 – The Hague International Conference on the Limitation of Arms, convened at the initiative of Russia.

1899-1902 - Anglo-Boer War.

1903 - The first flight of the brothers W. and O. Wright in an airplane they designed with an internal combustion engine.

1904 – Anglo-French agreement. The beginning of the formation of the Entente.

1907 – Anglo-Russian agreement on Asian policy. Formation of the Entente alliance (England, France, Russia)

1908 – Revolution of the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire.

1908 – Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary.

1909 – Attempted counter-revolutionary coup in Turkey.

1911 – General strike of workers in Great Britain.

1911-1912 – Italo-Turkish War. Italian capture of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica.

1912-1913 – Balkan crisis.

1912-1913 – War of Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece against Turkey. Rubbing Turkey into Macedonia, Thrace, Albania and Elephant.

1913 – War of Serbia, Greece, Romania and Turkey against Bulgaria.

1913-1920 – Presidency of R. Poincaré (“Poincaré’s War”) in France.

The world between two world wars.

1914-1918 – First World War. Death of 9.5 million people.

1914 – Battle of the Marne.

1914 – Encirclement of Russian armies in East Prussia. The offensive of Russian troops in Galicia.

1915 – Warsaw-Ivangorod operation. The advance of German troops into the depths of the Russian Empire.

1915 – Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente countries, and Bulgaria on the side of Germany and Austria.

1915 – Zimmerwald Conference of Left Socialists against War.

1916 – Franco-German battle for Verdun. Anglo-German Battle of the Somme.

1916 – Galician operation (Brusilovsky breakthrough) of Russian troops.

1916 - Romania entered the war, its defeat by the Germans and the formation of the Romanian Front.

1916-1922 – Lloyd George David – Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1917 – February bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia. Overthrow of the monarchy. Transfer of power to the Provisional Government.

1917 - The United States entered the war on the side of the Entente countries.

1917 – October Revolution in Russia.

1918 – Brest-Litovsk separate peace between Soviet Russia and Germany.

1918 – “The Second Marne”. Retreat of German troops from positions on the Marne.

1918 – Berlin Revolution. Fall of the German Empire.

1918-1919 - Bavarian Republic.

1918-1923 – National liberation revolution in the Ottoman Empire.

1919 – Hungarian Republic.

1919 – Slovak Republic.

1919 – Formation of the Comintern.

1919 – Signing of the Treaty of Versailles and adoption of the Weimar Constitution in Germany.

1919 – Peace Treaty in Saint-Germain. Collapse of Austria-Hungary.

1919-1946 - The League of nations.

1920 – Treaty of Sèvres between Turkey and the Entente countries. The transition of a large part of the former Ottoman Empire to England, France, Italy and Greece.

1922 – Genoa Conference on Economic and Financial Issues.

1922 – Establishment of the fascist regime in Italy.

1922 – Lausanne Peace Conference. Signing a peace treaty with Turkey.

1923 – Formation of the Workers' Socialist International.

1925 – Locarno Conference. Conclusion by Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy of the Rhine Guarantee Pact on the inviolability of the German-French and Belgian-German borders and the preservation of the demilitarized Rhine Zone.

1926 – Coup d'etat in Poland. Establishment of the regime of J. Pilsudski.

1928 – Signing in Paris by 15 states (France, USA, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, etc.) of the Kellogg-Briand Pact on the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy.

1931 – Adoption by the English Parliament of the Statute of Westminster, which granted the dominions sovereign rights in the field of foreign and domestic policy. Transformation of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth of Nations.

1931 – Spain is declared a republic.

1933 - Victory of the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany in the elections to the Reichstag, the leader of the party is Adolf Hitler - Reich Chancellor. The establishment of the fascist regime in Germany.

1934 – “Night of the Long Knives” in Germany. Hitler proclaims himself Führer (leader) of the German nation.

1934 – Defeat of the anti-fascist uprising in Vienna and victory of anti-fascists in Paris.

1935 – Creation of the Popular Front in France.

1936 – Cooperation Treaty between Germany and Italy (creation of the Berlin-Rome axis)

1936 – German occupation of the Rhineland demilitarized zone.

1936 – Victory of the Popular Front in the elections in Spain.

1936 – English King Edward VIII abdicates the throne because of his love for Wallis Simpson.

1936-1939 - The Spanish Civil War.

1938 – Kristallnacht (Jewish pogrom) in Germany.

1938 – Munich Agreement between England, France, Germany and Italy on the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia.

1938 – Creation of the IV International in Paris.

1939 – German capture of Czechoslovakia and Klaipeda.

1939 – Italian occupation of Albania.

1939 – Establishment of the fascist regime led by Francisco Franco in Spain.

1939 – Signing of the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact (“Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact”). Annexation of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus by the USSR.

1939-1940 – Soviet-Finnish war.

1940 – German troops invade Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. Surrender of Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Norway and France.

1940-1945, 1951-1955 – Winston Churchill – Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1940 – USSR annexation of Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.

1940 - Italy enters the war on the side of Germany.

1940 – Establishment of the fascist regime in Romania.

1940 – Signing of the Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan in Berlin. Creation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis.

1941 – German invasion of Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Greece. Division of Yugoslavia between Italy, Bulgaria and Hungary. Education of Serbia and Croatia.

1941 – German attack on the USSR along the entire western border.

1941 – Counter-offensive Soviet troops near Moscow. The failure of the myth of the invincibility of German troops.

1942 – Washington Conference. Signing by representatives of 26 countries of the United Nations Declaration. Legal registration of the anti-Hitler coalition.

1942 - The Holocaust begins - the mass extermination of Jews in Europe.

1943 – The beginning of the general offensive of Soviet troops. A turning point in the course of the war.

1943 – Collapse of the fascist regime in Italy. The surrender of Italy and its declaration of war on Germany. Formation of the fascist Republic of Salo led by Mussolini in Northern Italy.

1943 – Tehran Conference of the Big Three.

1944 – Restoration of the state border of the USSR. Entry of Soviet troops into Poland, Romania and Bulgaria.

1944 – Allied landings in France. Opening of a second front.

1944 – dissolution of the Comintern.

1944 – Liberation of Florence, Paris, Brussels, Antwerp, Belgrade, Warsaw.

1944 – Armistice agreement between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition and Romania, Bulgaria, Finland and Poland.

1945 – Yalta conference of the heads of state of the “Big Three”, which determined the foundations of the post-war world order.

1945 – Berlin operation. Meeting on the Elbe in the Torgau region of Soviet and allied troops.

1945 – UN Conference in San Francisco. Development and adoption of the UN Charter.

1945 – Formation of the provisional government of Austria, which restored the state independence of the country.

1945 – Mussolini’s execution and Hitler’s suicide.

1945 – Signing of the act of complete and unconditional surrender of Germany. The end of the Great Patriotic War THE USSR.

1945 – Berlin (Potsdam) conference.

1945 - The Americans test a nuclear bomb for the first time during an attack on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

1945 – Japanese surrender. The end of World War II.

Europe after the Second World War.

1945 – Proclamation of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia.

1945-1946 – International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, which condemned the crimes of fascism.

1946 – Proclamation of the People's Republic of Bulgaria.

1946 - Winston Churchill's speech in Fulton. The beginning of the Cold War.

1946 – Formation of the People's Republic of Albania.

1946 - Proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (since 1949 - the Hungarian People's Republic)

1947 – Proclamation of the Romanian People's Republic.

1948 – Adoption by 17 European countries of a program to restore Europe's development after World War II by providing it with US economic assistance.

1949 – Creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): USA, Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, France and Canada for the purpose of joint defense against the enemy within the framework of the UN Charter.

1949 – Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA): USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia.

1949 – Adoption of the Constitution Federal Republic Germany (FRG) and the proclamation of the German Democratic Republic(GDR)

1949 – Creation of the Council of Europe (CoE), an interparliamentary body of European countries in order to defend “Western principles and ideals.”

1951-1964 – The Conservatives are in power in the UK, maintaining most of Labour’s changes, but reducing the size of the public sector and reducing social spending in order to strengthen the financial system.

1952 – Greece and Turkey join NATO.

1953 – Anti-communist unrest among workers of the GDR.

1953-1958 - Algerian War.

1953-1980 – Josip Broz Tito – President of Yugoslavia.

1955 – Germany joins NATO.

1955 – Conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia (Warsaw Pact Organization)

1956 – Anti-communist unrest in Poland and Hungary. Entry of Soviet troops into Hungary.

1957 – Creation of the European Economic Community (EEC), or “Common Market”, under the Treaty of Rome (France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg)

198 – Adoption of the constitution of the V Republic in France.

1958 – Creation of the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), whose main task was to coordinate the development of nuclear energy in Western Europe.

1958-1968 – Charles de Gaulle – President of France.

1960 – World Conference in Moscow, in which representatives of 81 communist parties participate.

1961 – Soviet-American conflict. The threat of a third world war.

1961 – Construction of the Berlin Wall.

1963 – Treaty banning nuclear tests in the atmosphere and under water.

1966 – Visit of Charles de Gaulle to Moscow.

1968 – “Prague Spring”. The invasion of Czechoslovakia by five countries participating in the Warsaw Pact.

1968 – Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

1968 – The EEC countries concluded an agreement on the creation of a customs union, which provided for the free movement of goods, capital, services and labor.

1972 – Opening of preliminary meetings in Helsinki for the preparation of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)

1973 – Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland joined the EEC.

1975 – signing by 33 European states, the USA and Canada of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), which established the principles of interstate relations between countries with different social systems.

1977 – Belgrade Conference on Monitoring the Implementation of the Helsinki Agreements.

1979 - The EEC countries entered into an agreement on the creation of the European Monetary System and on the formation of an advisory body of the European Parliament.

1979-1990 – Margaret Thatcher – Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1982 – Spain joins NATO.

1986 – Adoption by the countries of the EEC (since 1986 the European Community [EC]) of the Single European Act - a program for the further development of integration. Accession of Spain and Portugal to the EU.

1986-1991 – “Perestroika” in the USSR.

1988 – Resignation of the head communist regime Hungary J. Kadar.

1989 – Holding of free democratic elections in Poland.

1989 - “Velvet Revolution” in Czechoslovakia. The fall of the communist regime in the country.

1989 – Resignation of the head of the communist regime in Bulgaria T. Zhivkov.

1989 – Resignation of the head of the communist regime in the GDR, E. Honecker.

1989 – Reduction of Soviet nuclear weapons in Central and Eastern Europe. 1989 – Revolution in Romania. Arrest of the head of the communist regime N. Ceausescu, trial of him and execution.

1990 – Victory in the presidential elections in Poland by Lech Walesa, leader of the Solidarity movement.

1990 – German reunification.

1990 – Paris Conference of OSCE Leaders. Adoption of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, the Joint Declaration and the Charter for a New Europe, which established new principles of European security, taking into account the changes that took place in Eastern European countries after 1989.

1990 – Collapse of the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia (UCY). Creation of the Socialist Party of Yugoslavia (SPYU), successor to the SKYU. SPYU leader Slobodan Milosevic is the head of Yugoslavia.

1991 – First free democratic elections in Albania.

1991 – Formation of the European Union.

1991 – Declaration of state independence of Macedonia.

1991 – Proclamation of state independence of Slovenia and Croatia. Invasion Yugoslav army to Croatia. Start civil war in Yugoslavia.

1991 – The collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which included 11 of the 15 republics of the former Soviet Union.

1991 – Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and CMEA.

1992 – Formation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) as part of Serbia and Montenegro. Ethnic cleansing. The adoption of international sanctions against Yugoslavia and its exclusion from the CSCE.

1992 – Proclamation of state independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The beginning of the military confrontation between Muslim Bosnians, Catholic Croats and Orthodox Serbs

1993 Disintegration of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

1994 Creation of a political, economic, monetary union “Europe without borders”. Agreements on accession to the EU were signed for Austria, Norway, Finland, and Sweden

1995 Signing in Paris by the delegations of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina of the Dayton Agreement on the Bosnian issue. Proclamation of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a single state and the dispatch of UN troops to it.

1995 NATO bombing of Serbian positions in Bosnia.

1996 Russia's accession to the Council of Europe

1996 Creation of the Union of Russia and Belarus

1997 Signing of the Schengen agreement on visa-free travel by Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Holland and Portugal

1998 The creation of the Kosovo Liberation Army (OAK), which launched a partisan struggle in Kosovo (the region of Serbia inhabited by Albanians) to separate the region from Yugoslavia. Ethnic cleansing in Kosovo

1999 Bombing of Serbia by NATO countries. Deployment of UN peacekeeping forces into Kosovo. Yugoslavia breaks off diplomatic relations with NATO countries

1999 Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic join NATO

1999 The transition of 12 EU member countries to a single non-cash currency - the euro.

2000 "Velvet Revolution" in Yugoslavia. Fall of the Milosevic regime

2000 Signing of an agreement between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Ubekistan and Tajikistan on the creation of the Eurasian Economic Union and a collective security system for joint: repelling external aggression and conducting counter-terrorism operations

2001-2002 Participation of European NATO countries in the US counter-terrorism operation against the Taliban in Afghanistan. Support

counter-terrorist operation by all European countries, including CIS countries.

2002. Abolition of national currencies of EU countries. Introduction of cash euro.

A brief history of the Middle Ages: Era, states, battles, people Khlevov Alexander Alekseevich

Chronology of major events in Europe I–XVI centuries

5 – The troops of Emperor Tiberius reach the Elbe.

9 – The uprising of the Germans led by Arminius and the defeat of Roman troops in the Teutoburg Forest.

14–16 – The campaigns of the commander Germanicus across the Rhine. Victory over Arminius. Victory over the Mars and Hutt tribes.

43 – The transformation of Britain into a Roman province as a result of the campaigns of Aulus Plautus and Claudius.

73–74 – Wars of the Romans in Upper Germany.

77–85 – Conquest of Northern Britain.

85–89 – Dacian wars of the Romans.

98 – "Germany" by Tacitus.

101–106 – Conquest of Dacia and its transformation into a Roman province.

167–180 – Marcomannic Wars. Germanic invasions of Northern Italy.

212 – Edict of Caracalla granting the rights of Roman citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire.

238 – Invasion of the Goths across the Danube.

253 – The beginning of sea voyages of the Readies to Asia Minor.

258–274 – Usurpation of power in the provinces by Postumus, secession from the empire of Gaul, Britain and Spain (the so-called Gallic Empire).

284 – The beginning of the period of dominance.

286–287 – Revolt of Carausius.

293 – Establishment of the tetrarchy.

301 – Edict of Diocletian on maximum prices for food and handicrafts.

303 – Edict against Christians.

313 – Rescript of Milan on the free practice of Christianity. Official recognition of Christians by Constantine.

316–332 – Edicts of Constantine on the attachment of columns to the land, artisans to colleges, curials to cities.

324 – The emergence of Constantinople.

325 – The first ecumenical (Ecumenical) Council in Nicaea.

350–360 – The first invasions of the Franks, Alemanni and Saxons into Gaul.

361 – Edict of Julian the Apostate on the restoration of paganism. Return to a policy of religious tolerance.

374–375 – The defeat of the Gothic tribal union (the Power of Germanaric) by the Huns.

376 – The Goths flee across the Danube from the Huns to the Roman Empire. Uprising of the Goths on the Danube.

378 – The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths at Adrianople, the death of Emperor Valens.

382 – Settlement of the Goths in Moesia as federates.

392 – Theodosius prohibited the practice of pagan cults.

395 – The final division of the empire after the death of Theodosius. Rise of Alaric and the Visigoths.

401–402 – Alaric's Visigoth invasion of Italy and their defeat at Pollentia.

406 – Barbarian invasion of Gaul.

407 – The departure of the Romans from Britain.

409 – Invasion of Vandals, Alans and Sueves into Spain.

418 – The emergence of the first barbarian kingdom of the Visigoths in Aquitaine.

429–439 – Formation of the Vandal kingdom in the province of Africa.

449 – The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain begins.

451 – Battle of the Catalaunian Fields.

452 – Attila's campaign in Italy.

453 – Death of Attila. Collapse of the Huns.

454 – The murder of Aetius and the settlement of the Ostrogoths in Pannonia.

455 – The Vandals, having landed troops in Italy, captured Rome.

476 – Odoacer's overthrow of Emperor Romulus Augustulus and the disappearance of the empire in the West.

477 – Migration of the Britons to Armorica.

481–511 – Clovis is the king of the Salic Franks.

486 – The Franks captured the last Roman possession in Gaul - the state of Syagria.

493 – The complete capture of Italy by the Ostrogoths and the murder of Odoacer by Theodoric. The rise of the Ostrogothic kingdom.

529 – Founding of the first monastery at Monte Cassino by Benedict of Nursia.

535–555 – The war between Byzantium and the Goths for Italy.

554 – Conquest of South-Eastern Spain by Byzantium.

560–570 – Foundation of the Avar Khaganate in Pannonia.

568 – Invasion of Italy by the Lombard tribes.

597 – The beginning of the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons (the baptism of King Ethelbert I of Kent).

602 – Ethelbert's Truth of Kent is the first record of the legal customs and laws of England.

616–620 – The Goths conquer Spain from Byzantium.

622 – The flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina (“hijra”). Beginning of the Muslim calendar.

632 – Muhammad died. The emergence of the Islamic Caliphate.

680 – The Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV convened the VI Ecumenical Council, which restored peace between the Eastern and Western churches.

687 – Majordomo of Austrasia Pepin of Geristhal became mayordomo of the entire Frankish state.

711–714 – The Arab Caliphate conquers Visigothic Spain.

714 – The beginning of the reign of the mayor of the Frankish state, Charles Martel.

718 – In the Cavadonga Valley in Spain, a militia led by Pelayo defeated a detachment of Arabs. The beginning of the Reconquista and the formation of the Kingdom of Asturias.

720 – The Arabs began the conquest of Southern Gaul.

726 – The Byzantine Emperor Leo III initiated iconoclasm.

732 – Charles Martell defeated the Arabs at Poitiers.

751 – Mayor Pepin the Short was officially proclaimed King of the Franks. Beginning of the Carolingian (Pipinid) dynasty.

754–756 – Pepin's campaign in Italy. Victory over the Lombards.

756 – Formation of the secular state of the popes.

757 – Offa becomes King of Mercia. Mercian hegemony among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

768 – Beginning of the reign of Charlemagne.

773–774 – Charlemagne conquered the Lombard kingdom in Italy.

782 – Charlemagne defeated the Saxons on the Weser.

788 – Charlemagne abolished the ducal power in Bavaria and divided this region into counties.

788–803 – Wars of the Franks with the Avar Khaganate.

793 – The beginning of the Viking campaigns to the West.

796 – Liquidation of the Avar Kaganate.

800 – Pope Leo III in Rome crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.

801 – The Franks recaptured Barcelona from the Arabs.

817 – Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious divided control Frankish state between his sons, retaining supreme power.

825 – The beginning of Wessex's hegemony in Britain. King Egbert.

833 – The beginning of regular Danish raids on the Anglo-Saxons.

840–842 – The internecine war of the sons of Louis the Pious: Lothair I, Louis the German and Charles the Bald.

843 – The Treaty of Verdun on the final division of Charlemagne's empire between his grandchildren - Lothar, Charles the Bald and Louis the German.

847 – The Arabs' march on Rome.

855 – Collapse of Lothair's state. Formation of the kingdoms of Italy, Provence and Lorraine.

865–876 – Massive Danish invasion of England.

871–896 – The war of King Alfred the Great of Wessex with the Danes. Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

888 – Guthrum's agreement with the Danes on the division of England into two parts - Anglo-Saxon and Danish.

890 – The beginning of the reign of the Norwegian king Harald Fairhair. The first unification of the country.

899 – The beginning of the Hungarian aggression.

911 – The French king Charles III the Simple ceded the territory of Normandy to the Normans.

921–924 – Invasion of Italy by the Hungarians.

933 – The Hungarians invaded the lands of the Eastern Franks, Gaul, and Italy. Victory of the German king Henry I over the Hungarians.

955 – Otto I defeated the Hungarians at Lech, after which their raids ceased.

951 – The first campaign of Otto I in Northern Italy.

961–962 – Otto I's second campaign in Italy, his coronation with the imperial crown. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

967–971 – Third campaign of Otto I in Italy.

982 – Otto II tried to conquer southern Italy, but was defeated by the Arabs.

987 – Beginning of Capetian rule.

997–1038 – The beginning of the reign of the Hungarian prince (from 1000 - the first king of Hungary) Stephen (Stephen) I Saint. Baptism of Hungary.

1000 – Battle of Svolda (“Battle of the Three Kings”).

1000 -1004 – Icelander Leif Eiriksson's voyages to North America.

1014 – The victory of the Irish king Boru Brian over the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf.

1016 – Treaty for the division of the kingdom of England between Edmund Ironside and Cnut the Great.

1016 -1042 – Dominion in England of the Danish dynasty.

1017 -1029 – The beginning of the Norman conquests in Italy.

1022 – Pope Benedict VIII and Emperor Henry II at the Council of Pavia spoke in favor of excluding violators of celibacy from the clergy.

1031 -1039 – Wars of King Henry of France with the rebel feudal lords.

1037 – The emergence of the Kingdom of Castile.

1042 – Return to power in England of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty.

1044 – Marriage of King Henry I of France to Anna, daughter of Yaroslav the Wise.

1045 – Recognition by the Hungarians of fief dependence on the emperor.

1046–1047 – Emperor Henry III's campaign in Italy (1046–1047). The period of maximum dominance of emperors over popes.

1046 – Robert Guiscard conquered Calabria and Apulia.

1054 – Division of the Christian Church into Western and Eastern.

1060–1091 – Conquest of Sicily by the Normans.

1066 – The defeat of the Norwegians at Stamfordbridge, the death of King Harald the Severe of Norway (September 25).

1066 – The landing of William the Conqueror's Normans in Britain, the beginning of the Norman Conquest. The defeat of the Anglo-Saxons at Hastings (October 14).

1071 – In the Battle of Manzikert (Asia Minor), the Seljuk Turks defeated the army of the Byzantine emperor Roman IV Diogenes. The loss of Armenia and almost all of Asia Minor by Byzantium.

1071 – Fall of Bari; The Normans conquered Byzantine possessions in Italy.

1076 – The first "Communal Charter".

1076–1077 – “Walking to Canossa” (December-January).

1085 – The Spaniards occupied Toledo.

1086 – The “Salisbury Oath” is a direct vassalage of all land holders to the king. "The Book of the Last Judgment."

1095 – Pope Urban II at a church council in Clermont (France) called on Christians to liberate the Holy Land (November).

1096–1099 – First Crusade.

1097 – The Crusaders occupied the capital of the Seljuk Turks, Nicaea.

1097 – Battle of Dorylaeum.

1098 – The Crusaders captured Edessa and Antioch, forming the first crusader states: the County of Edessa and the Principality of Antioch.

1099 – Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders. Creation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

1100 – The first "Charter of Liberty" in England, guaranteeing the king's observance of the rights and privileges of large property owners (Henry I).

1108 – Beginning of the reign of the French king Louis VI. Strengthening central power, fighting feudal lords in the royal domain.

1122 – The “Concordat of Worms” between the pope and the emperor is the end of the struggle for investiture.

1128 – Marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, and Geoffrey V Plantagenet, Count of Anjou.

1135 – The beginning of feudal strife after the death of Henry I. The struggle for power between King Stephen of Blois and Matilda, daughter of Henry I, heir to the throne.

1135–1154 – The reign of the English king Stephen of Blois.

1137 – Byzantine Emperor John II Komnenos established Byzantine sovereignty over Antioch.

1137 – Catalonia and Aragon united to form the Kingdom of Aragon.

1137 – Marriage of Louis VII with Alienora, heir to the Duchy of Aquitaine.

1144–1155 – As a result of the anti-papal uprising of the Romans under the leadership of Arnold of Brescia, the Roman Republic arises, liquidated with the help of Frederick I Barbarossa.

1144 – The Seljuk Turks captured Edessa.

1147–1149 – Second Crusade.

1152 – Divorce of Louis VII from Alienor. Alienor's marriage to Henry II Plantagenet.

1152 -1190 – The reign of the German king Frederick I Barbarossa, from 1155 - Holy Roman Emperor.

1153 – "Wallingford Agreement" - Matilda recognized Stephen as king, Stephen recognized Matilda's son Henry II Plantagenet as heir.

1154 – Accession to the English throne of Henry II Plantagenet. Annexation of the possessions of the House of Angevin to England.

1154 – The beginning of the campaigns of Frederick I Barbarossa in Italy (1154–1186).

1158 – The "Convention of Roncala", which prescribes the transfer of supreme power over Italian cities to the emperor.

1159–1299 – Franco-Angevin War.

1162 – Destruction of Milan by Frederick I Barbarossa.

1164 – The Clarendon Constitutions limit the competence of ecclesiastical courts in England.

1166–1179 – Judicial reform of Henry II.

1167 – The emergence of the Lombard League - a union of Italian cities to fight the Germans.

1169 – The beginning of the conquest of Ireland.

1170 – The murder of Thomas Becket on the orders of Henry II.

1170 – Founding of the Principality of Mecklenburg.

1175–1193 – The reign of the Egyptian Sultan Salah ad-Din (Saladin).

1176 – Battle of Legnano.

1180–1223 – The reign of the French king Philip II Augustus.

1181 – Confiscation of Henry the Lion's possessions in the empire.

1183 – The Peace of Constance between Frederick I and the Lombard League, Frederick's refusal of the Roncal Agreement and the restoration of self-government rights for northern Italian cities.

1186 – Marriage of Frederick I's son Henry VI and Constance, heir to the Kingdom of Sicily.

1187 – Defeat of the Crusaders at Hattin. Saladin occupied Jerusalem.

1189–1199 – The reign of the English king Richard I the Lionheart.

1189–1192 – Third Crusade.

1195 – The Livonian bishopric was established.

1195 – King Alfonso VIII of Castile is defeated by the Arabs.

1196 – Henry IV's attempt to make the German crown hereditary.

1196 – The beginning of active expansion of the Danes in the Eastern Baltic.

1198 – Founding of the Teutonic Order.

1200 – Founding of the University of Paris.

1201 – Founding of the Riga fortress by the crusaders.

1202 – Creation of the Order of the Swordsmen.

1202–1204 – Fourth Crusade.

1202 – Capture of Zadar by the Crusaders (November).

1203 – The first assault on Constantinople by the crusaders. Restoration of Isaac II Angelus to the throne (July).

1204 – Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders (April). The actual collapse of the Byzantine Empire.

1209–1229 – Persecution of the Albigensians and Cathars - Albigensian Wars.

1212 – Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa; decisive victory over the Moors.

1212 – Children's Crusade.

1212–1250 – The reign of the German king Frederick II of Hohenstaufen.

1214 – The French king Philip II Augustus defeated the British and their allies at the battles of Bouvines and Laroche-aux-Moines.

1215 – "Magna Carta".

1217–1221 – Fifth Crusade.

1226 – The Teutonic Order begins the conquest of the lands of the Prussian tribe.

1226–1270 – The reign of the French king Louis IX Saint.

1228–1229 – Sixth Crusade. Temporary return of Jerusalem to Christians.

1233 – The Roman Curia established the Inquisition.

1237 – Merger of the Teutonic Order with the Order of the Sword.

1240 – The Swedes were defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Alexander Yaroslavich (Nevsky) in the Battle of the Neva River.

1242 – “Battle of the Ice” – Alexander Nevsky’s victory over the German knights on Lake Peipsi.

1242 – The troops of Khan Batu defeated the army of King Belo IV of Hungary, captured Hungary and invaded Slovenia.

1244 – Muslim capture of Jerusalem. Pope Innocent IV blesses the new crusade.

1245 – The Council of Lyon excommunicated Emperor Frederick II from the church.

1248–1254 – Seventh Crusade.

1250 – Louis IX was taken prisoner by the Muslims.

1259 – Treaty of Saint Louis IX (Treaty of Paris), according to which the English king renounced claims to Normandy, Maine and other French territories lost by England under John the Landless, but retained Guienne (Aquitaine).

1270 – Eighth Crusade.

1282 – "Sicilian Vespers" - the expulsion of the French from Sicily. Transfer of power to the House of Aragon.

1291 – Fall of Acre. Final of the Crusader states in Palestine.

1300 – The core of the Ottoman state was formed in the northwestern part of Asia Minor.

1302 – Convening of the first Estates General in France. "Matins of Bruges" - the beating of the French garrison. Defeat of the French knights at the Battle of Courtrai.

1370–1377 – The Avignon Captivity of the Popes is the forced stay of the Popes in the city of Avignon (Southern France).

1315 – Battle of Mount Morgarten.

1337–1453 – The Hundred Years' War between England and France.

1340 – Battle of Sluys. British naval victory.

1346 – Battle of Crecy.

1356 – The Battle of Poitiers, the defeat of the French army by Edward (“the Black Prince”), the capture of King John the Good.

1381 – Wat Tyler's Peasant Revolt in England.

1406 – Florence captured Pisa.

1410 – The Battle of Grunwald combined forces of Poles, Lithuanians, Czechs, Russians and Tatars with the Teutonic Order; defeat of the order.

1411 – Peace of Torun with the Teutonic Order.

1414 – Prague University professor Jan Hus was burned at the stake in the city of Konstanz.

1429 – The beginning of hostilities under the leadership of Joan of Arc.

1431 – Joan of Arc burned in Rouen (May).

1434 – Medici rule was established in Florence.

1439 – Florentine Union of the Eastern and Western Churches: the Patriarch of Constantinople recognized the authority of Rome over himself.

1445 – Johannes Gutenberg produced the first European printed book.

1453 – The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

1469 – Ferdinand II, heir to the throne of Aragon, married Isabella, sister of the King of Castile. The beginning of the unification of Spain into a single state.

1474–1477 – The Burgundian Wars are wars of the French king against the Duke of Burgundy for the territorial unification of France.

1477 – The defeat of the Burgundians at Nancy, the death of the Duke of Burgundy Charles the Bold. Annexation of Picardy, Nivernais and the Duchy of Burgundy to France.

1483 – The Balkan Peninsula was completely conquered by the Turks.

1492 – The fall of Granada in Spain, the end of the Reconquista.

1492 – Christopher Columbus is appointed admiral, viceroy and governor general of all the islands and lands that he manages to discover in the Western Ocean.

1494–1559 – Italian wars of France.

1498 – A Portuguese naval expedition led by Vasco da Gama reached India.

1500 – Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral discovers Brazil.

1500 – Colonization of the Congo by the Portuguese.

1501 – The Portuguese establish the Cochin trading post in India. The beginning of European colonization of Western Hindustan.

1501 – Amerigo Vespucci's voyage along the coast ends South America. Vespucci made the final conclusion that the open lands were a new continent.

1502 – The marriage of King James IV of Scotland and the daughter of Henry VII, Margaret Tudor, determined the rights of the Stuarts to the English throne.

1511–1514 – Anglo-French war.

1512 – The Battle of Ravenna during the Italian Wars.

1513 – Final unification of Spain.

1513 – The Spaniard Vasco Nunez de Balboa crosses the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean.

1516 – The Netherlands is annexed to Spain.

1517 – Martin Luther's speech in Wittenberg with 95 theses against indulgences. Beginning of the Reformation.

1519 – Election of Charles V of Spain as Holy Roman Emperor.

1519–1521 – Ferdinand Magellan's first circumnavigation of the world.

1520 – Luther's excommunication from the church.

1521 – Treaty of Worms on the division of the Habsburg Empire.

1525 – Secularization of the Teutonic Order. Taking the vassal oath to the Polish king.

1525 – Battle of Pavia. The defeat of the French and the capture of Francis I.

1531–1535 – Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.

1534 – Founding of the Jesuit Order.

1557–1559 – The war of England and Spain against France. Expulsion of the British from the port of Calais. Peace in Cateau Cambresis.

The events of the Middle Ages, a period that lasted from the second half of the 5th century to the end of the 15th century, are rich in variety. The beginning of this belief was marked by the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. under the blows of the barbarians. Ten years later, the state of the Franks arose, which eventually occupied the territory of almost the entire Western and Central Europe. At the same time, the eastern Roman Empire was transformed into the Byzantine Empire. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by the Pope. Frankish Empire, which was supposed to inherit the rights of the departed Roman Empire. However, the state fell into pieces already in 843, and modern France and Germany were formed from its fragments.

While the formation of “barbarian” kingdoms was taking place in Europe, Islam was born in the east. The states professing it quickly began active aggressive activities, as a result of which the Khorezm state fell. In Central Asia, China's expansion was stopped by Turkic tribes, after which chinese emperors They went on the defensive, but already in the 13th century their state was captured by the Mongols of Genghis Khan. The emergence of the Golden Horde is one of the most serious events of the Middle Ages. This state captured a huge territory, conquered Khorezm, China and most of the Russian principalities. Their active aggressive activity occurred in the years 1223 - 1242. For Eastern Europe, the events of the Middle Ages ended with liberation from the rule of the Golden Horde in 1480.

In the 10th century, events in the Middle Ages in European countries began to heat up. In the 10th century, the Holy Roman Empire was founded, whose emperors entered into an active struggle against the Papal Throne. In 1080, the Norman conquest of England took place, which predetermined the entire future history of the development of Great Britain. Also, the Western and Eastern worlds entered into active confrontation on religious grounds. The apogee of these conflicts was the massive Crusades to the Holy Land, which lasted from 1096 to 1270. Moreover, one of these campaigns was carried out against the Principality of Lithuania, which managed to fight back only with the help of Novgorod.

One of the most difficult centuries in the Middle Ages was the 14th. England unleashed against France hundred years war, which ended from 1337 to 1453. In the same century, from 1347 to 1350, one of the most terrible epidemics in European history took place - the bubonic plague, which was popularly called the Black Death. Scientists have not identified a specific date for the end of the Middle Ages, since each region developed according to its own laws. For Europe, this event was the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1492. It is interesting that in the same year the Zaporozhye Cossacks were founded on the territory of modern Ukraine (Ataman Baida Vishnevetsky), the Reconquista in Spain was completed and the New Land was discovered.