The history of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium: the history of emergence and fall

One of the greatest states of antiquity, in the first centuries of our era, decline. Numerous tribes standing at the lower stages of civilization destroyed a lot of the heritage of the ancient world. But the eternal city was not destined to die: he was revived on the shores of the Bosphorus and many years hit the contemporaries with his magnificence.

Second Rome

The history of the occurrence of Byzantium refers to the middle of the III century, when the Roman emperor became Flavius \u200b\u200bValery Aureliy Konstantin, Konstantin I (Great). In those days, the Roman state times the internal cross-visits and deposited external enemies. The state of the eastern provinces was more prosperous, and Konstantin decided to transfer the capital to one of them. In 324, Constantinople began on the shore of Bosphor, and already in 330 he was declared a new Rome.

So began its existence of Byzantium, whose history numbers eleven centuries.

Of course, no stable state boundaries in those days did not go. Throughout his long life, the power of Constantinople was weaker, he again gained power.

Justinian and Feodora

In many ways, the state of affairs in the country depended on the personal qualities of its ruler, which is generally characteristic of states with the absolute monarchy, to which the Byzantium belonged. The history of its formation is inextricably linked with the name of the emperor of Justinian I (527-565) and his wife, the Empress of the Feodora - women are very extraordinary and, apparently, extremely gifted.

By the beginning of the 5th century, the empire turned into a small state of the Mediterranean, and the new emperor was obsessed with the idea to revive former glory: he dismissed the extensive territories in the West, achieved the relative peace with the Persion in the East.

The story is inextricably linked with the era of the Board of Justinian. It is thanks to his concerns today there are such monuments of ancient architecture as a mosque in Istanbul or Church of San Vitaly in Ravenna. One of the most notable achievements of the emperor historians consider the codification of Roman law, which was the basis of the legal system of many European states.

Medieval morals

Construction and endless wars demanded huge spending. The emperor raised the wrong taxes. There were discontent in society. In January 532, during the appearance of the emperor on the racetrack (a peculiar analogue of the Colosseum, which was accompanied by 100 thousand people), riots began, grew into a large-scale riot. Suppress the uprising was able to be unheard of cruelty: the rebels convinced to gather in the hippodrome, as if for negotiations, after which the gate was locked and interpret everyone to one.

Prokoki Kesarian reports about the death of 30 thousand people. It is noteworthy that the Crown Emperor retained his wife Feodor, it was she who convinced the ready-to-escape Justinian to continue the struggle, saying that he had preferred death to escape: "Tsarist Power is a wonderful Savan."

In 565, the empire included part of Syria, Balkans, Italy, Greece, Palestine, Maly Asia and the Northern Coast of Africa. But endless wars affected the country's state adversely. After the death of Justinian, the borders began to shrink again.

"Macedonian revival"

In 867, Vasily I came to power, the founder of the Macedonian dynasty that existed until 1054. This era of historians are called "Macedonian revival" and consider the maximum flourishing of the global medieval state, which at this time there was Byzantium.

The history of the successful cultural and religious expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire is well known to all Eastern European countries: one of the most characteristic features of the Foreign Policy of Constantinople was missionary. It is thanks to the influence of Byzantium that the branch of Christianity spread to the east, which after 1054 became Orthodoxy.

Cultural capital of the European world

The art of the Eastern Roman Empire was closely connected with religion. Unfortunately, for several centuries, political and religious elites could not agree, whether the worship of the sacred images of idolatry (the movement was the name of the iconocrust). In the process, a huge number of statues, frescoes and mosaics were destroyed.

Extremely obliged empire history throughout its existence was a kind of keeper of ancient culture and contributed to the spread of ancient Greek literature in Italy. Some historians are convinced that in many respects, thanks to the existence of the new Rome, the Renaissance was possible.

In the era of the Board of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, it was possible to neutralize the two main enemies of the state: Arabs in the East and Bulgarians in the north. The history of victory over the latter is very impressive. As a result of a sudden attack on the enemy, Emperor Vasily II managed to capture 14 thousand prisoners. He ordered them to blind them, leaving one eye only every hundredth, after which he let go of the crippled people home. Seeing his blind army, the Bulgarian king Samuel suffered a blow from which he never recovered. Medieval morals really were very severe.

After the death of Vasily II, the last representative of the Macedonian dynasty, the history of the fall of Byzantium began.

Rehearsal of the end

In 1204, Constantinople first surrendered to the Natius of the enemy: a promised failed campaign in Earth, Crusaders broke into the city, announced the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French Barons.

It existed a new education for a short time: July 5, 1261, Constantinople without a fight took Mikhail VIII Paleologist, who announced the revival of the Eastern Roman Empire. Founded by the Dynasty of the rules of Byzantium to the very fall, but the Board was rather pitiful. At the end, the emperors lived on the handoff of the Genoese and Venetian merchants, and even naturally robbed church and private possessions.

Drop Constantinople

Only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small disparate enclaves in southern Greece remained to the beginning of the past territories. Desperate attempts by the last emperor Byzantium Manuel II enlisted military support did not have success. May 29, Constantinople was conquered the second and last time.

Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II renamed the city to Istanbul, and the chief Christian Temple of the city, the Cathedral of St. Sofia, turned into a mosque. With the disappearance of the capital disappeared and Byzantium: the history of the most powerful state of the Middle Ages ceased forever.

Byzantium, Constantinople and New Rome

It is a very curious fact that the name "Byzantine Empire" appeared after her collapse: for the first time it meets in the study of Jerome Wolf already in 1557. The reason was the name of the city of Byzantium, in the place of which Constantinople was built. The residents themselves called it not otherwise as the Roman Empire, but themselves - the Romans (Romains).

The cultural influence of Byzantium on the countries of Eastern Europe is difficult to overestimate. However, the first Russian scientists who began to study this medieval state, was Yu. A. Kulakovsky. The "History of Byzantium" in three volumes was published only at the beginning of the twentieth century and covered the events from 359 to 717. In the past few years of life, the scientist prepared the fourth work on the publication, but after his death in 1919, the manuscript did not succeed.

Accepted in East. Science Name of the State-Wa, which emerged in the east. Parts of Rome. Empire in 4 c. and existing to gray. 15nd; Adm., Economic And the cultural center of V. was Constantinople. Officer name On Wednesday. century - Basileia Ton Romaion - Roman Empire (in Grech. Romeev). The emergence of B. How to independently. The state was prepared in the depths of Rome. Empire, where economically more powerful and less affected by the crisis of slave owner. ON-VA Helled East. P-we (M. Asia, Syria, Egypt, etc.) already in 3 V. They tried to politically alternate from Lat. West. Creating a beginning. 4 in. new politics. The center in the East was actually a division of the empire for 2 states and led to the emergence of V. in the continuation of 4 c. Both states sometimes were connected under the rule of one emperor, let's finish. The gap occurred in the con. 4 in. The emergence of V. promoted the economy. Stabilization and delayed the fall of slave owner. Building to east. parts of the Mediterranean. 4 - beginning. 7 centuries. For V., the economies were characterized. Lifting, transformation of a number of AGR. settlements in Crafts and Trade Centers in M. Asia, Syria, Vost. parts of the Balkan P-Ova; the development of trading with Arabia, Black Sea, Iran, India, China; Sealing the population in Syria, M. Asia. In Marxist historiography, the periodization of the history of early V. is associated with the problem of existence in V. Rabivowel. Building, with the stages of transition to feudalism and its development. Most scientists consider V. slave-owned to gray. 7th century (M. Ya. Suzumumov, Z. V. Udaltsova, A. P. Korotan, A. R. Korshunsky), although some believe that V. passes to feudalism already in 4-5 centners., Believing that already in 4 c. The feud began to form. Property, land. Colunt became a form of operation in the village, the work of free craftsmen was used in the city, slavery was maintained only as a dying line (most consistently this t. Pros. defended E. E. Lipschits) (see Discussion on page journals. "Lady", NO 2 and 3 for 1953, NO 2 and 3 for 1954, no 1, 3 and 4 for 1955, NO 1 for 1956 and on page journals. "V", no 10 for 1958, no 3 for 1959, no 2 for 1960, Nono 6, 8 for 1961). B. In the last period of the existence of a slave-building (4 - beginning. 7th century). The owners of the Earth V. of this period were the state, to know, church, townspeople, free peasant communities. Members of the Peasant Community (MetroMia) had sections of arable land in private ownership; The sale of land "strangers" was limited (Code of Justinian, XI, 56). The peasants were associated with a circular place; Community relations were regulated by the usual right; Garden and garden crops, viticulture obtained widespread; Main economy. The trend was reduced to the growth of small x-wa. Slavery still retained the prevailing place in society both in the village and in the city. Although the number of slaves entering the military. production, decreased, but the influx of slaves in state-in continued, since neighboring with V. Barbarian tribes, fighting with each other, sold in B. Many slaves (almost unity. Equivalent in trade with V.). Prices for slaves were resistant to continued long time. The slave was still considered a thing, the use of the F-regulation was regulated; The slave was not subject to family law, did not have guaranteed personal property law. However, the influence of new relations affected; The legislation facilitated the leave of slaves to the will, which adopted in 4-6 centuries. Wide scope. The estates of large landowners were processed not only by slaves, but also dependent peasants - enappographs, freedmen, or leased. The slave owners sought to use the benefits of small x-wa. Contrary to the main economy. The tendencies of the era, they tried to rip and attach small landowners to the Earth, the dependence of the rod in the conditions of the domination of slave owner. The relationship was often approaching the slave state (especially in enappographs). Slave owner. Character of society in 4-6 centuries. It was determined not only by the predominance of slave labor in the society, but also to the preservation of slave owner. The superstructure that joined the progressive trends in development. State The device was in the hands of those sucks for nobility that were interested in the conservation of slave ownership property relations. From the wiser. Cities Only part was Crafts and Trade Centers (eg, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Lodicia, Seleucia, Skitopol, Bible, Caesarea, Beirut, Fessonalki, Trapezount, Ephesus, Smyrna). Most cities are united in municipalities of the settlement of small owners, slave owners. Province. Cities were operated by Konstantinople; Local self-government (curia) has become a recruiting tax system. Most cities in 4-6 centuries. lost his societies. land; A number of settlements that were published before in the district, subordinate to the city, received the rights of Metroomy. Large seams of the province. NORTICs also out of submission to the city, moreover, the election of officials and bishop (which had great importance in self-government) was solved by the surrounding major landowners (Justinian Code 1, 4, 17 and 19). Production in cities was small, artisans hired premises from nobility, church, state. Trade and craft. The associations were associated with the Liturgy system, therefore in the collegium were forcibly included rich citizens and landowners. Taxes and fees for the premises are absorbed means. Part of the surplus product of artisans. Luxury and weapons manufactured in the state. workshops where slave labor prevailed (Code of Justiniana, XI, 8, 6); Legally free also were usually fixed for such workshops and in the case of flights were forcibly returned. In major cities, there was a numerous. Lumpen-proletarian layer, who lived at the expense of either the state (the policy "bread and spectacle"), or mountains. Lighturg. With 4 in. charity. Functions began to be naked on the church and specials. "Bogogenic institutions." The bulk of bread for the capital went from Egypt. Local markets were equipped with ch. arr. suburban x-you: mountains. To know was sought to have "prosainties" (suburban estate) with vineyards, olive groves, gardens, gardens. Despite the devastation caused by barbaric invasions, the severity of taxes, forced the citizens sometimes escape from the city, to 7 century. There were no signs of agricultural cities. The inscriptions, papyrus testify rather about the consolidation of the old and the founding of new cities. The development of the city was based, however, on the development of the soil of degrading slave owner. H-Wa and interrupted in the beginning. 7th century (This t. S., however, is challenged by some scientists). Cities were cultural centers (see Art. Byzantine culture). Those types of antih. Property, which were already actually ceased to exist, were canceled by the Code of Justinian, where a single "full property" was proclaimed. Justinian Law, imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe assurance essence of the state, theoretical. The substantiation of K-Roy was the provision on the deities, the origin of the imperial power, was aimed at the guarantee of the property. Relationship slave owl. about The social database of the monarchy in B. 4-6 centuries. There were mountains. Slave owners: Owners of suburban estates ("Prosastiyev"), homeowners, usurists, traders, from the environment by the purchase of posts was created sinnow. The material base of the monarchy was heavy taxes that absorb it means. Part of the surplus product of slaves and colons. Claus. Fighting in B. 4-6 centuries. It was a protest against a military-fiscal dictatorship, against attempts to artificially delay societies. Development within the framework of slave owner. relationship. With 4 in. She took mostly the shape of Hehetich. movements. In Constantine, Christianity became the dominant religion, which caused an aggravation of the internal. contradictions in the church. Christianity genetically connected with the protest of the oppressed masses, in the 4th century. Saved another democratic. phraseology. Church. Hierarchs and exploitative layers sought to eliminate into Christ. Teaching Democratic. trends; nar. Mass sought to save them. The origin of any "heresy" of that time lies in this contradiction. Departure Hierarchs, based on the mood of the masses, dogmatically made out disagreeable from the dominance. Teaching Church (see Donatists, Arianism, Nesterianism, etc.); In the future, having done "Church", heresy lost his democratic. character. Repressions, restrictions on rights and religation applied against heretics. "Anahedhem" (church. Hierarchy fiercely defended slave owl. relationship). In Egypt and Syria church. Unrest, taking a relig. The shell was also due to separatist moods. Dr. The form of class struggle was the movement of Dimov - the organizations of the mountains. population in circus parties (see Venets and Prasins). Both parties sought to attract nar. Mass, k-rye sometimes opposed the Gneta Rablowel. Gos-Va as a whole, in addition to the will of its leaders (for example, in the "Nika" uprising in 532). B. Ethnically represented the combination of various peoples involved in Hellen-Rome. Statehood and culture. Greek. The population prevailed in Greece, to the east. The coast of the Mediterranean M.; Romanizer lived in the Balkans. The tribes, on Wednesday, the GEM was poured into Wednesday., Alansky and Slav. settlers. In East V. subjugated Armenians, Syrians, Isaver, Arabs, in Egypt - the local Coptic population. Officer Yaz. Latin, who was gradually replaced by Greek from Kon. 5 and 6 centuries. Language of chase The acts were b. h. Greek. Protest against nat. The oppression took the relig. Form (rebellion of Samaritans 529-530). Serious danger to slave owner. B. There were attacks of the barbarians. The rural population of V. Sometimes supported barbarians, hoping to get rid of the fiscal oppression and oppression of landowner. Nobility. But the mountains. Patricate and bargaining. Craft. Layers, fearing barbaric robberies and violations bargaining. connections, desperately defended the city. Among the visant. landowner. Nature existed a layer, ready to get close to the barbaric leaders. In an effort to merge with the military. V. vestment, the leaders of Varvarov went to the service for the visant. PR-WU, which used barbarians as punishers in the fight against nar. movements (especially in cities). V. V. Westges adopted in 376 rebelled, which led to a revolution. Movement among the population of the Balkan P-ov. In the battle of Adrianopol (378), the visant. The army was crushed. However, with the support of the mountains. The population and due to the betrayal of the barbarian leaders, this movement was suppressed in 380 imp. Feodosius I. To con. 4 in. The barbaric element began to prevail in the wiser. The army and hung a real threat to the united speech of barbar slaves with barbarians-soldiers. In the face of this danger, the patrician of Constantinople in 400 made a massacre of Varvarov-mercenaries and supported their slaves, eliminating the threat of barbarian conquest. Overcoming in 5 c. The danger on the side of the sharp and the Huns, the Empire in order to stabilize the slave owner. Relations in the whole Mediterranean switched to Justinian on the offensive against the barbaric states-in the West (Vandalsky, Osthots and Westgot). However, the success of V. turned out to be fragile. In Africa, resistance to the broad masses (rising stump), in Italy - the uprising of the sharpening is under hand. Tothyls with the support of slaves and colons. V. suppressed these movements with difficulty. The difficulties in the East increased, where the Persians, using separatist sentiments, were war against V., seeking to break through the marine bargaining. paths on the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Heavy struggle V. Vela with various tribes, which occurred from the side of the north. Black Sea, chopping their attacks by force of weapons, then bribers of the leaders. With Justinian V., presented the highest degree of its power; However, the aggressive policy of Justinian undermined the power V. and already in the last quarter of the 6th century. V. began to lose its conquests in Italy and Spain. The indigenous changes in the position of the Empire are associated with the onset of the Balkan Pershes of Slavs. Failures in wars with Slavs, the general discontent of the population caused an uprising in the army. Restored in 602 with the support of the mountains. The bottoms were traded by Constantinople and, proclaiming the Emperor Centurion Foku, began to carry out terror in respect of nobility. Regardless of the subjective goals of Foki, its objectively performed progressive functions. After 8 years, the uprising was suppressed, but the dominance. The class as a whole was a crushing blow. Power slave owner. The superstructure was abandoned by the forces striving for social reorganization, given a space. In the 1st floor. 7th century Most of the Balkan P-Oov was settled by the Slavs, and Syria, Palestine and Egypt were lost by V. as a result of Arab conquests. Rannefodal V. In the period of domination of the free peasant community (Ser. 7 - Ser. 9 centuries). As a result of glory. and Arab. conquests of terr. V. decreased. B. This period-country with strong glory. Ethnic. Element. At S. and Z. Balkan, P-Oov, Slavs created their state-based (from 681 - Bulgaria) and assimilated the local population, on Yu. P-Oov and M. Asia, on the contrary, they joined Greek. Nativity. Slavs did not create new social forms in B., but they brought to the vistent. The community is strong lifelines of the generic building that the vistent has strengthened. The community, the character of K-Roy is the subject of discussion. The usual community right was issued by agricultural law (approximately arr. 8th century). Large land tenure is extremely reduced; Sources talk about abandoned, overgrown deposits, the sections of the lands between the peasants ("Merismos"). Apparently, gradual violence occurred. The destruction of the form of the earth. Property, K-paradium based on the work of slaves, enappographs, etc. categories of dependent population. The institute attached to the land of peasants disappeared: neither in the ecologic - legislation. The compilation of the 8th century, who replaced the code of Justinian, nor in a later applied charter did not provide for the attachment to the Earth. Loose cross. The community has become dominant. The community owned by intake, forest, unrequited land, but arable land, obviously, were privately owned. The changes in general were favorable for the peasants - and if in 4-6 centuries. The peasants fled from V. to Varvaram, then with the con. 7 and 8 centuries. from Arab. Caliphate and from Bulgaria There is a flight of the population in B. This allowed the vistent. Prospe to go to the military service villages. Population, Kraya with Ser. 7th century spread throughout the empire; The structure of the army acquired terr. character. New military formed.-Adm. Areas - Fammers, with stratigu at the chapter (Femny device). The command composition of the FEM was formed from consisting. Landowners, the province was made from the renewing environment. Military. - Landowner. Know that becoming feudal. The feudalization process was facilitated by the fact that the freedom of the peasant was relative - although the peasant did not depend on the major landowner, he was in the vice of the state. taxes and debts to Rostovists; Differentiation of the village progressed. Inside the community, various forms of lease and hired work were distributed; Slavery has been preserved. GL The enemy is a cross. The communities at that time were state-in with his tax system and dominance. church. At the end of the 7th century The peasant-Plebean Yerez Pavlikian originated in Armenia. Social shifts of 7-8 centuries. They also affected the city. Some cities remained the centers of the commercial production (Constantinople, thesaloniki, Ephesus). With the loss of Syria conquered by the largest cities, Palestine and Egypt, the role of Constantinople in the history of V. has increased. At the end of 7-8 centuries. Economy. Power of Constantinople Nobles falls, the position of the free craft is strengthened. Commodity circulation decreased. In archaeological Finds of the coin 7-8 centuries. Almost not found. Remote cities, without losing a nominal connection with V., actually achieved independence and turned into an aristocratic., Managed by Patriciath, Republic (Venice, Amalfi, Chersonese). Internal Politics V. of this period was characterized by the struggle of the mountains. and the province. Know, both of the group sought to keep centralized. State-in. End 7 V. marked by the confiscations of the property of ancient mountains. Fames (Terror of Justinian II) in favor of the military. settlements and emerging military. Province. Nobility. In the future, the struggle for the path of feudalization took the form of iconococration, which was born as a Nar. Movement against the oppression of the state and church (Bourges. Historians are considering an iconocobalism from a confessional point of view, seeing in it exclusively an ideological. Fight and tearing it from social and economic. Conditions) Province. Hierarchs, demagogically leading the movement of the masses, was distinguished by his social sense, concentrating the attention of the masses on the issue of the cult of icons. Folding military. - Landowner. The estate used the movement to strengthen its political. and economy. provisions. Pr-in supported iconobocretion, seeking to strengthen the power over the church and master her treasures. The mountains spoke on the side of the icon. Knowing Constantinople associated with her monasticism, bargaining. Centers Eldla and islands. Emperators-iconoclands of Isavi (Syrian) dynasty, confiscative property of mountains. Nobility and recalcitrant monasteries, significantly strengthened the femnoe know and supported the free cross. Community and mountains. Craftsmen. However, the femnoe knows began to use their privileges for the attack on the peasants, which caused the dissatisfaction of the peasants and narrowed the social base of the iconoborets. This led to a big nar. uprising under the hands. Fomas of Slavyanina (820-823) - the first antipode. Movement. In the early period of feudalization in V., Ethnic is strengthened. Pestrot population. Of particular importance acquires the fiction in the ranks of the Byzantine. and arm. Know: A number of emperors and large politicians come from Armenians. and cultural figures. Foreign policy V. was aimed at combating independence. Losing Syria, Palestine, Egypt, huge terr. On the Balkan P-Oves, V. Bang off the onslaught of Arabs and Bulgarians and in Ser. 8 in. Moved to the offensive. Feodalization V. During the rule of the urban sanitary nobility (Ser. 9 - Con. 11th century). Two centuries of the predominance of a free cross. Communities have a positive effect on the development produces. Force: the empty lands were settled, water mills spread wider, yielded yield with. xy. In the 9th century Loose cross. The community became the object of the offensive from the landowner. Nobility, especially after the defeat of the uprising of the Foma Slavyanin. Social struggle aggravated; Part of the peasantry joined Pavlikians, founded at the borders of the Caliphate Military. Center Tamph. Loins. The war ended in 872 by the defeat of Pavlikian, which were partially exterminated, partially relocated to the Balkan ps. Violent. The resettlement was intended to weaken the resistance of the masses in the east and create a military. Clamps from alien population to counter Bulgarians on Z. Mass cross. The lands were captured by the military. Note. Further attack on the cross. The community was carried out by buying land of impoverished peasants, with the subsequent provision of areas of the acquired land to crops on the "Pyrić Law" (see wigs). The feud spread is widely. The dependence of the peasants: a wig, rarely encountered in monuments of 9th century, ch. Figure in the village in the con. 11 V. Slavery to con. 11 V. Almost disappeared, although his individual cases were observed, for example. Sale of children in the years of Nar. disasters. In the process of feudalization changed military. Organization of the population. Nar. The militia has lost importance. Consist. The part of the peasants was included in the stratiti lists (see Pads) with the ad default. Parts of the land is inappropriate. The dimensions of these sections to the gray. 10 V. They were increased due to the introduction of severe cavalry and reached the sizes of the estate (cost 12 liter, approx. 4 kg of gold). Among the stratiov, differentiation was observed: economically weakened lost areas and fell into a dependent state, becoming at the same time a politically unreliable element; More wealthy stratifies had a tendency to join the preferred military-landowner nobility. Hasive territories confiscated during Pavlikian wars served as the basis of the power of the low-immigising nobility, which is 10-11 centuries. Makes attempts to master the state power. With gray 9th century There is a rapid development of cities, especially large seaside ("Emporia"). Concentration of wealth as a result of the formation of the feud. Province property, rapid growth external. trade with countries Vost. Europe, the restoration of marine power on the Aegean m. And in the Adriatic - all this contributed to the development of the craft. Commodity relations strengthened. Grees was restored. Justinian's right (see Prokhron, Epanagoga, Vasiliki). Were codified (t. n. Epara book) Decree on trade and craft. Corporations, in the reached, along with the free owners of Ergasterei, there could be slaves (like Faces Lord). Corporations were granted benefits - advantages. The right to production and trade, the purchase of goods from foreigners. Ergasteriers worked hired workers, little related to the corporation, as well as slaves and disciples. Both the types of products and the profit rate were regulated by the Grador (Epau). Build. Workers were outside the corporations and worked under the hands. Contractors. Life level of the OSN. The masses of artisans were extremely low. The policy of the pr-va was to promote associations in order to facilitate the state. Control and regulation. Despite the remnants of slave owner. Relations, which prevented the development of technology, the craft mostly wore a CP.-century. Character: Small production, associations by profession, regulation. In order to avoid nar. Volatos pr-in sought to ensure the supply of the capital and major cities with the necessary goods; To lesser extent, the state was interested in exporting abroad. Rogue merchants and artisans by buying posts and ranks went to the composition of the surname, refusing direct participation in trade and craft. Activities that weakened the position of the vistent. merchants in his competition with Italian. Internal Politics V. in 9-10 centuries. was carried out in the OSN. In the interests of the mountains. Sanovna, cohesy around the synclite of the nobility seeking to preserve the leading position in state-ve and through taxes, ADM. And the judiciary to exploit the population. Turning the rural population of the province. The landowners (dinates) and the development of private authorities were damaged to the influence of the metropolitan nobility, in the interests of Ki-Roy Macedonian dynasty began to maintain a free cross. The community against dinatov, forbidding them to buy a cross. Earth, and the poor was given benefits to reverse redemption sold land. Peasants-rhodes, the neighbors were given the right to preference when buying a cross. plots. This policy was persistently carried out in a continuation of 10 V. However, the preference rules have created such advantages to a rustic wealthy tip that, from the medium, the peasants themselves began to highlight the markers who were suspended later with the feud. Note. From the 2nd four. 11 V. Visant. Pr-in strengthened the tax oppression, translating natur. Contributions for cash. The significance of the synclith, local court increased. institutions increased the influence of crafts.-bargaining. Corporations, the intervention of nar. MASS (especially in the capital) in politics. a life. At the same time, typical forms of peasantry through the feud were embroidered in the province. Rent. Submission center. State Institutions Mountains. Knight did not fit the underlying power of the province. Feed. land tenure, in connection with this, the struggle between the metropolitan and provinces aggravated. Interlayers for nobility, and the procya lavished between them. After the impact of the iconoclapperity and restoration of iconotability (843), the importance of monasticism and politics increased. The role of the patriarch. Patriarch Fotius spoke with the theory of strong (equal imperial) Patriarch authorities (Epanagoga). The church actively interfered in the struggle of various assholes for power, from here a number of conflicts with imp. Lvom Vi, Nikifor II Fokhu, Isaac Comnin. But the visant. (Orthodox) Church failed to create a strong centralization. Organization, like papacy in the West: and state. The system, and legislation, and the formation in V. were in less dependence on the church than in the West. Differences between the wiser. Feudalism and feudalism in the West led to disagreements between the Vost. and zap. churches. In 9-10 centuries. Disagreements between churches intensified in the struggle for influence in Slav. countries and south. Italy. The convulsions of the hierarchs were warmed by the hatred of trade and craft. Circles of Constantinople to Ital. Competitors. In 1054 followed the "division of churches". In 10-11 centuries. Created large monasters. Feed. Ownership, which received special privileges in the field of taxation and rights on the dependent population. Foreign policy V. of this period was characterized by feud. expansion. At 10 c. A number of victories over the Arabs were obsessed. In Balkans V. in 1018, Bulgaria took possession, strengthened influence in Serbia; It was struggled for preserving positions to the south. Italy and for domination over the Adriatic and Aegean m. In 9th century. B. established a connection with Kievan Rus. In 860, after the reflection of the first campaign of the Russians, Konstantinople V. was able to achieve the baptism of the population of Russia. In 907 as a result of a successful campaign. Oleg V. had to conclude on the basis of equality of the parties mutually favorable bargaining. Treaty, OSN. The provisions of the C-pogo were fixed as a result of hikes 941, 944 and visiting the princes of Olga Konstantinople in 957. In 967 Between V. and Russia began the struggle for Bulgaria, which ended, despite the original. Success KN. Svyatoslav Igorevich, Victory V. in 987 V. entered into an alliance with the CN. Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who helped Vasily II to deal with rebellious feudals. With adoption (approx. 988) KN. Vladimir Christianity by the visant. The rite of intercourse V. With Russia has become even closer. However, V. could not use Christianization for politics. Subordination of Russia. In vet Parts M. Asia V. continued expansion, conducting policies to oppress the Transcaucasian nationalities. In 1045, Armenia was conquered with the center of Ani. The resistance of oppressed ethnicities did the position of V. in the East fragile. All R. 11 V. In the east there was a danger from the Seljuk. Conquered by V. The population was not prone to support the vistent. domination. The result was the defeat of the visant. Army with Manazkert (Manzikert) 1071 and the loss of most M. Asia, conquered by Seljuk. At the same time, V. loses its possessions in Italy as a result of the onset of Yuzhnoytalian Normanov. Along with this, the resistance of the masses in the conquered Bulgaria is enhanced. B. During the period of the domination of the military-feudal (provincial) nobility (con. 11 - Nach. 13 centuries). In 1081, using severe international. Position V., the throne seized the representative of the province. Knight Alexey I Comnin, which managed to reflect the dangerous offensive of Normanov, Pechenegov, Seljuk, and from 1096 I used crusades for the rest of the part M. Asia. By the end of the 11th century. Large provinces. Landowners (comnines, Duki, Angels, Paleologists, Cantakuzins, Vrats, etc.) Steel Osn. dominance. politics. force in state-ve. For 12 V. Institutes of the vistent are issued. Feudalism: Charistic, Proki, Excusion. The progressive ruin of the peasantry led (from 11 c.) To the formation of a special category of "poor" - Actimonov. Monastic centers (especially Athos) became semi-dependent chur. Gos-you. On the contrary, politics. The effect of the white clergy fell. Despite decay political. The influence of the urban surname, V. remained a bureaucrat. Monarchy: Multimitus persisted. staff of financial and judicial officials; chase The right (Vasiliki) has spread to the entire terr. Empire. Still survived the polynomial. Interlayers of an independent peasantry, to the composition of a friend, you can rank and settlements around the military. fortifications (Kastra). Cross. The community struggled against a push from the side of the feudal: sometimes she enjoyed legal forms, referring to the court complaints or to the emperor, and sometimes rose on the path of the arsonists of the Lord's estates. In contrast to the preceding. Period, Osn. By challenging the peasants during this period, it is no longer buying the earth feudal, but state events. authorities. Usually K.L. The person in the form of award was granted the right to collect taxes with the definite. settlements. When manuile, the cross. The lands were widely distributed in the management of inrogenous knights and a small miserable. Feudals. These actions that caused indignation in contemporaries were actually an expropriation of a cross. Property, K-paradium, having made the object of award, passed into the conditional possession of the feudal. We raised in the 12th century. Visant. Feed. Institutions organically rose on local ground, however, since the comnin dynasty relied in part and on Zap.-Europe. Mercenaries-knights, in the vistent. Feed. The right began to appear Zap. Concepts and terms. Transfer power in the hands of the province. No more confirmed privilege. The position of Constantinople, which generally had a positive effect on the economy of the provinces, where crafts and trade took place, den. Appeal. Many agraded 7-8 centuries. Centers have again become cities in economy. sense. In the cities of Eldlaces developed silk proms. However, the komnin dynasty did not take into account the values \u200b\u200bof the mountains. Economy and often at the conclusion of international. Agreements sacrificed the interests of citizens. Privileges Ial. The merchants were adversely affected the cities: in the economy V. received the predominance of bargaining. Capital Latinan. T. about., Was stopped favorably folded for V. The process of creating an internal process. Market and determined the beginning of the economy. Failure V. unsuccessful external. Politics at Manuel I undermined the military. Power V. (in 1176 after the battle of Miriochefalon V. Forever lost most of M. Asia). After the death of Manuil in Constantinople broke out by Nar. Movement against his "western" policy. Latinan's pogrom was confirmed. This took advantage of Andronik Komnin, to-ry, capturing power, tried by terror to revive Centraliz. State The device and thereby prevent the decay of the Empire. However, Andronik failed to create supports for his own and influenced by the time, failures in the war against Normanov was overthrown from the throne. The collapse of V. Depth began. Feudals and cities sought to get full independence. Restored versatant. The domination of Bulgarians and Serbs revived their state. The weakening empire was not able to confront the Natik of Franz. Knights and crown. The fleet - Constantinople in 1204 as a result of the 4th crusade hit the hands of the crusaders, which were created by Terr. The Latin Empire conquered by the regions. B. In the period of feudal fragmentation, the heyday of feudalism (beginning 13 - Ser. 15 centuries). V. P was asked to a number of independent feudal regions, of which part at different times was under the rule of French knights, Venetians, Genoesers, Catalan, part fell into the hands of Bulgarians, Serbs, Turks, and the part remained under the rule of the feudal police of Greece (see card); However, the uniformity of economic and social life, the language and cultural community, the preserved East. Traditions allow you to interpret V. as a single state-in in the stage of the feud. fragmentation. Feed. The estate was the OSN. Hose unit. In 13-15 centuries. It was drawn into market ties, sending products through the buyers. x-wa on an externalist market. Barskar, especially on monastery lands, pastures for the Lord's Stud also occupied. Part of the Earth and were serviced by dependent wigs, elephrases (free, not included in the submitted lists), part of the remedy, merging with dependent. The deposits and Tselin were given to the naughters from the "unknown executions of persons", which were also poured into the dependent population (prospecting). The screening books reflected a strong fluidity of the dependent population of the feud. estate. Cross. The community that fell under the authority of the feudal, preserved (eg, is source. testify to the acute struggle of the cross. Communities against monasteries, who strive at the expense of the cross. Earth expand its X-W). Social bundle even more deepened in the village: the low-power worked as rumbers (powered). Cross. Plots, so on. Stati, were inherited. Holding a cross. families. State The peasants had their land, could sell it, give. However, in 13-15 centuries. State The peasants were the object of sucks and easily turned into dependent. Procya in 13-15 centuries. turned into inheritance. Conditional ownership with duties of military. character. Secular feudal feudalists usually lived in cities where they had homes leased workshops. Purgoi - Pyrgi, Castles-Strengths were built in rural areas, - supporting points of the feudal. Mountain riches, saltwalls, alum development was usually state. Property, but surrendered to the spill or gave way to individual nobles, monasteries, ingenians. Littleizant. The city was the centers of S.-H. The territory drawn into external. Trade S.-H. Products (grain, olive, wine, in some areas of silk-raw). Economically stood out ch. arr. Seaside cities. Leading role in external. Trade belonged to bargaining. Capital Ial. cities. V. from the country that made in 4-11 centuries. Luxury items, turned into a country that departs products with products abroad. H-Wa and raw materials. Each area participating in external. trade, was economically torn off from other areas of the country. This prevented the creation of a single internal. Market. Economy. Disobedience prevented nat. Reunion of the country. Constantinople, although no economy was no longer., ADM, the cultural center of the whole country, retained an important place in the international. trade. Sources are distinguished in the cities of Archonts (landowner. Know), Burgesiyev, or Mesoi (wealthy trade and craft. Strike), Plebeian masses. Inside the city of Torg.-Craft. Circles and plebeian masses were struggled against patrician, to-ry sought using feud. Dischaus, strengthen the independence of the city. At the same time, the population in the form of support of Orthodoxy opposed the ITal Zasil. merchants and zap. feudal. Cultural, linguistic and relig. Unity, East. The traditions caused the existence of tendencies to unite V. The leading role in the fight against the LAT. The Empire played the Nicene Empire, one of the strongest Greek. State-c found in the beginning. 13 V. on terr. B., not captured by the Crusaders. Her rulers, leaning on small and medium-sized landowners and cities, managed to drive out Latinan from Constantinople in 1261. However, this victory did not lead to the reunification of V. Foreign Polit. The furnishings and centrifugal forces, weakness and lack of unity in the mountains. The estate made it difficult to unite attempts. Dynasty of Paleologists, fearing the activity of Nar. The masses did not enter the path decide. Fight against large feudalists, preferring dynasty. Marriages, intrigues and feud. Wars using foreign. mercenaries. Foreign policy. The position of V. turned out to be extremely difficult: attempted to recreate the lat from the West. Empire and spread on V. Power Rome. dad; Increased economy. and military. Pressure from Venice and Genoa; Surbs offensive with S.-Z. And the Turks from the East became more successful. Exaggerating the influence of Rome. Pope, visant. The emperors have repeatedly sought to get a military. Assistance by subordination to Greek. Pape Churches (Lyon Union, Florentine Sania), however, Ial's dominance. bargain. Capital and Zap. The feudalists were so hateful to the population that I could not force the people to recognize the Ulya. Like a relig. Reset and internecine wars were an expression internal. contradictions in the country: produces. Forces evolved, some economies appeared. Conditions for the introduction of capitalist. relationship. However, with eliminated. The weaknesses of citizens and the complete domination of the feud. orders of all strengthening external. Trade in Dep. Centers (Mistra, Monemvasia, etc.) only strengthened (economically) feudal. Overcome feud. The fragmentation was impossible without a revolution. Speeches of the masses and the following. Fighting Center. Governments against feud. fragmentation. The decisive period was the 40s. 14th century, when the cross broke out during the struggle of two clicks. traffic. Running on the side of the "legitimate" dynasty, the peasantry has become louded by the estate of rebellious feudalists, headed by John Cantakuzine. Pr-in the apocaution and Patriarch John began to conduct progressive politics, sharply opposing the feud. Aristocracy (confiscation of impositions of nobility) and against the reaction. Mystich. ideology of Isicasts. The townspeople of the Fesalonik, organizing the plebeian masses, supported the apocaution. The movement headed the batch of Zilotov, the program of K-Roy soon accepted the anti-beode. character. Constantinople pr-in was frightened by the activity of the masses and did not use the Nar. traffic. The apochante in 1345 was killed, the struggle against rebellious faeodals actually ceased. In theses, the situation aggravated as a result of the transition of the mountains. Nobility (archons) on the side of Cantakuzine. Pleasured Plebs destroyed most of the mountains. Nobility. However, movement, losing communication with the center. Pros-B, acquired a local character and was suppressed. The collapse of the centralization policy and the defeat of the Nar. The movements in theses marked the final victory of the reaction. Forces. Explaced V. could not oppose the onslaught of the Turks,

An end came. But at the beginning of the IV century. The center of Power moved to more relaxed and rich oriental, Balkan and low-depth, provinces. Soon, Constantinople became the capital, founded by Emperor Konstantin on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. True, and in the West left their emperors - the management of the empire was divided. But the seniors were considered to be the state trucks of Constantinople. In V c. Eastern, or Byzantine, as they spoke in the West, the empire resulted under the strike of the barbarians. Moreover, in the VI century. Her rules won many lands busy by Germanians and held their two centuries. Then they were the Roman emperors not only on the title, but also in essence. Having lost to the IX century. significant part of Western possessions, Byzantine Empire Nevertheless, continued to live and develop. She existed up to 1453., When the last stronghold of her power is Konstantinople fell under the head of the Turks. All this time, the empire remained in the eyes of subjects by the legal successor. Her residents called themselves romaineThat in Greater means "Romans", although the main part of the population was the Greeks.

The geographical location of Byzantium, spreading his possessions on two continents - in Europe and Asia, and sometimes I stretched the power and on the field of Africa, made this empire as if the link between East and the West. A constant split between the Eastern and Western world became the historical diet of the Byzantine Empire. The mixture of Greco-Roman and Eastern traditions imposed a print on social life, statehood, religious philosophical ideas, culture and art of the Byzantine society. However, Byzantium went his own historical path, in many ways other than the fate of the countries of both the east and the West, which determined the features of its culture.

Map of the Byzantine Empire

History of the Byzantine Empire

The culture of the Byzantine Empire was created by many nations. In the first centuries, the existence of Romary Power under the authority of its emperors was all the eastern provinces of Rome: Balkan Peninsula, Small Asia, South Crimea, Western Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Northeast Libya. The creators of the new cultural unity were, the Romans, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptian Copds and settlers in the borders of the Varvara Empire.

The most powerful cultural reservoir in this cultural diversity was an antique heritage. Long before the advent of the Byzantine Empire, thanks to Alexander Macedon's campaigns, all the peoples of the Middle East were subjected to a powerful unifying effects of ancient Greek, Hellenic, culture. This process was called Hellenization. Greek traditions and migrants from the West adopted. So the culture of the updated empire developed as a continuation of the main culture of ancient Greek. Greek language already in the VII century. Really dominated in the written and oral speech Romeyev (Romans).

The East, unlike the West, did not happen to experience the rules of barbaric raids. Therefore, there was no terrible cultural decline. Most of the ancient Greco-Roman cities continued to exist in the Byzantine world. In the first centuries of the new era, they maintained the former appearance and the device. As in Eldead, the heart of the city-remained Agora is an extensive area where popular assets were held. Now, however, the people became increasingly going on the racetrack - the place of representations and races, declaring decrees and public executions. The city was decorated with fountains and statues, magnificent houses of local knowledge. Public buildings. In the capital - Constantinople - monumental palaces of emperors were erected by the best masters. The most famous of the early - the Big Imperial Palace of Justinian I, the famous Winner of the Germans, which was ruled in 527-565, was erected over the Marmara's Sea. The appearance and decoration of the metropolitan palaces reminded the times of the ancient Greek-Macedonian Vladyk of the Middle East. But the Byzantines used the Roman city-planning experience, in particular the water supply system and the baths (terms).

Most of the major cities of antiquity remained the centers of trade, crafts, science, literature and art. Such were Athens and Corinth in the Balkans, Ephesus and Nikeya in Malaya Asia, Antioch, Jerusalem and Berit (Beirut) in Siro-Palestines, Alexandria in ancient Egypt.

Wheel of many cities of the West He led to the displacement of trade routes to the East. At the same time, the invasions and captures of the barbarians made the land roads unsafe. The law and order remained only in the possessions of Constantinople emperors. Therefore, "dark", filled with centuries (V- VIII centuries) became sometimes the heyday of Byzantine ports. They served and transshipment points for military units sent to numerous wars and parking lots of the strongest in Europe of the Byzantine Fleet. But the main sense and the source of their existence was maritime trade. Romeev's trade ties extended from India to Britain.

Antique crafts continued to develop in the cities. Many products of the Earnevianizan masters are real works of art. Masterpieces of Romary Jewelers are made of precious metals and stones, from stained glass and ivory - caused admiration in the countries of the Middle East and barbaric Europe. Germans, Slavs, Gunns adopted the skill of Romeev, imitated them in their own creations.

Coins in the Byzantine Empire

In the whole of Europe, for a long time only a romary coin appeared. Constantinople's emperors continued to be chased Roman money, bringing only minor changes to their appearance. The right of Roman emperors to the authorities was not subject to even the lute enemies, and the only mint in Europe was confirmed. The first in the West dared to start the frank king's own coin in the second half of the VI century. However, and then the barbarians only imitated a Romainy pattern.

Heritage of the Roman Empire

Anotherly noticeable Roman heritage of Byzantium is traced in the state management system. Political figures and philosophers of Byzantium were not tired of repeating that Constantinople was a new Rome that they themselves - Roma, and their powers - the only Empire stored by God. The branched apparatus of the central government, the tax system, the legal doctrine of the inviolability of the imperial uniformly preserved in it without fundamental changes.

The everyday life of the emperor, a worship of him been inherited from the traditions of the Roman Empire. In the Late Rime period, even before the Byzantine era, the palace rituals included many elements of the eastern despoty. Vasilev, the emperor, appeared before the people only, accompanied by a brilliant suite and impressive armed guard, following in a strictly defined order. In front of Vasilevs, NIC extended, during the throne speech it was closed with special curtains, the right of the right to sit in his presence. Only the highest ranks of the empire were allowed to his meal. The reception of foreign ambassadors, whom the Byzantines tried to hit the magnitude of the emperor's power.

Central administration was concentrated in several departments-secrets: the head of the logo (ruler) of the Genicon - the main tax institution, the department of the military office, the office of mail and external relations, the Department of Property Management of the Imperial Family, etc. In addition to the staff of officials in the capital, each agency had officials sent with temporary orders in the province. There were also palace secrets that manage directly serviced the royal courtyard institutions: food, wardrobe, stable, repair.

Byzantium preserved the Roman law and the foundations of Roman proceedings. The development of the Roman law theory of law was completed in the Byzantine era, such the theoretical concepts of jurisprudence, as the right, law, custom, were clarified by the difference between private and public law, the basics of regulating international relations, the norms of criminal law and the process were identified.

The heritage of the Roman Empire was a clear tax system. A free citizen or a peasant paid taxes and duties from all kinds of their property and from any kind of employment. He paid for the possession of the land, and for the garden in the city, and for Moula or sheep in Khlev, and for the room, surrendered by V., and for the workshop, and for the shop, and for the ship, and for the boat. Almost no goods on the market moved from hand to hand, bypassing the alert Oko officials.

Warfare

Preserved Byzantium and the Roman art of the reference war. In the empire, it was carefully kept, rewriting and studied ancient strategic - treatises about military art.

Periodically, the authorities reformed the army, partly due to the emergence of new enemies, partly for its compliance with the possibilities and needs of the state itself. The basis of the Byzantine troops became cavalry. Its amount in the composition of the army hesitated from 20% in the late clock time to more than one third in the x century. A minor part, but very combatable steel of kataphractia - heavy cavalry.

Military fleet Byzantium was also direct inheritance of Rome. The following facts speak his strength. In the middle of the VII century. Emperor Konstantin V was able to send in the mouth of the Danube for conducting hostilities against Bulgarian 500 vessels, and in 766 - even over 2 thousand. The largest ships (Dromons) with three rows of fun were taken aboard to 100-150 soldiers and about the same Rowers.

Innovation on the fleet became "Greek fire" - a mixture of oil, combustible oils, asphalt of sulfur, - invented in VII century. And inspired horror on enemies. It was thrown out of the siphones arranged in the form of bronze monsters with loose pastes. Siphons could be rotated in different directions. The ejected fluid is self-replicated and burned even on the water. It is with the help of "Greek fire" the Byzantines beat two Arab invasions - in 673 and 718.

A military construction was perfectly developed in the Byzantine Empire, based on a rich engineering tradition. Byzantine engineers - the builders of fortresses were famous far outside the country, even in distant Khazaria, where the fortress was erected by their plans

Seaside major cities besides the walls were protected by underwater moles and massive chains, blocking the entrance of the enemy fleet to the bay. Such chains were closed by the Golden Horn in Constantinople and the Bay of the Dessaloniki.

For the defense and siege of the fortresses, the Byzantines used various engineering facilities (pivans and frequencies, subpopters and mounds) and all sorts of guns. The Byzantine documents mentions the tarana, moving towers with overheaded bedtops, chanetable ballists, hooks for the capture and destruction of siege devices of the enemy, boilers from which boiling resin and melted lead poured on the heads of the precipitated.

Byzantium, the Byzantine Empire - the name of this glorified state is traditionally associated with Greek culture, although it originated as the eastern part of the Roman Empire And initially, its official language was Latin, and the ethnic composition was more than diverse - Greeks, Italians, Copds, Syrians, Persians, Jews, Armenians, Multiaziary nations. They all called their state Romaish, that is, Roman, and themselves - Romanes, Romans.

Although the founder of Byzantium is the emperor Konstantin Great, the state is beginning to form 60 years after his death. Emperor Konstantin, who stopped the persecution of Christians, laid the foundation of the Christian Empire, and the period of her formation stretched almost two centuries.

It was Konstantin that suffered the capital of the empire from Rome to the ancient city of Byzantine, by the name of which many centuries later, the empire began to be called Byzantine. Actually, for more than a thousand years of its existence, she wore the name of the Eastern Roman Empire, and in the XV century historians renamed it to Byzantine to distinguish from the first Roman Empire, which ceased to exist in 480. So the name "Byzantium" originated and firmly fixed, as a term denoting the great christian state existed from 395 to 1453.

Byzantium was huge fundamental impact on the formation of European culture, for the enlightenment of Slavic peoples. It is impossible to forget that Orthodox traditions, what we know them now, with the beauty of worship services, the magnificence of temples, harmony of chants - all this is the gift of Byzantium. But by religious worldview, the Byzantine culture is not limited, although everything is impregnated by the Christian Spirit. One of its bright features was the refraction of the whole wealth of knowledge accumulated by humanity into ancient times, through the prism of Christianity.

In addition to the theological school in Constantinople, two universities were operating and a legal school. From the walls of these educational institutions, prominent philosophers, writers, scientists, doctors, astronomers, geographers were published. Significant discoveries and inventions of Byzantines in different applied spheres. For example, Leo Philosopher created an optical telegraph, with which it was possible to exchange information and warn about the dangers.

From Byzantium, the holy equivalent brothers Kirill and Methodius came out, thanks to the educational activities of which Slavic peoples have found their alphabet and writing, received transfers of the Holy Scriptures and liturgical books to the native language. That is, all Slavic, including Russian, culture with its world-famous literature and art, has the Byzantine roots.

Attempts to solve domestic problems through the adoption of new laws and legal norms developed by the Byzantine jurisprudence, which was based on Roman law. This one code of Laws is still basic in most European states.

Having enriching the whole world by its cultural heritage, reaching an unprecedented heyday, the Byzantium fell, disappearing, as a state, but remaining in history as a unique and unforgettable civilization.

Golden age of Byzantium

The formation of the Eastern Roman Empire began at the board of Emperor Konstantin the Great, which suffered capital in the small town of ByzantineBy calling his "New Rome". Constantinople The city called the common people, and officially he did not wear this name.

Emperor Konstantin, tired of the constant dynasty wars for the throne, which was conducted in Rome, decided to make the capital, contemplated only to him. He chose Byzantium, standing at the crossroads of important trading tracks, held from black to the Mediterranean SeaWhich as a whole port city was rich, developed and independent. Konstantin Great announced the Christianity of one of the permitted state religions than he entered the story as the Christian emperor. But it is interesting that during life, in fact, he was not Christian. Emperor Konstantin, founded by the Church to the face of saints, took the baptism only on the mortal apparent shortly before the death.

After the death of Konstantin the Great, in 337, for two hundred years, the young state was torn by wars, turmoys, hairs and split. A strong hand was required to bring order and strengthen Byzantium. Such a strong ruler was JustinianI, who joined the throne in 527, but also a decade before that, he actually stood in power, being a key figure with his uncle Emperor Justin.

Holding a number of victorious wars, Emperor Justinian increased the country's territory almost twiceHe distributed the Christian faith, skillfully led the external and domestic politics, taking measures to combat the economic crisis that arose as a result of total corruption.

The Byzantine historian of Prokopii Kaesarian testifies that Justinian "By adopting power over the state, stunning and brought to shameful weakness, increased its size and led to a brilliant state." It is noteworthy that spouse of Emperor Justinian FeodorThe historians call the "wonderful woman of the Byzantine era," was a true friend, assistant and the advisor, often took the difficult state affairs.

Theodore came from the family of the poor circus caretaker and in his youth, distinguishing with bright beauty, was a curtain. Reward in his sinful life, she experienced spiritual rebirth and began to carry out strict amateur life. Then the young Justinian met with Feodoroi and, having loved, joined her marriage. This happy Union had a great influence on the Byzantine Empire, starting her golden age.

Under Justinian and Theodore, Byzantium becomes the center of culture, the Palladium of Science and Arts. Imperial Chet builds monasteries and temples, including Konstantinople St. Sophia Cathedral of God of God.

The Church of St. Sophia still remains one of the most majestic works of architecture on Earth. Affect its sizes: 77 meters long and almost 72 - in width, the height of the temple is a little less than 56 meters, and the dome diameter is about 33 meters. Under the dome across the circumference there are forty windows, penetrating through which sunlight as it may separate the dome, and the feeling that he stands on the sun's rays is created. In this regard, there was a belief that the Dome of St. Sophia on Golden Chains is descended from the sky.

Even turned into a mosque, the church of St. Sophia amazes with its grand power and beauty. " Here everything is given in such a wonderful harmony, solemn, simple, magnificent"I wrote a Russian artist Mikhail Nesterov, who visited Constantinople, or as he was called in Russia - Tsargrad - in 1893.

The construction of such a building, not to mention the inner decoration, in the design of which marble, ivory, gold and precious stones were used, had a very high cost. All incomes of the Byzantine Empire for five years of construction did not cover the cost of holy Sofia.

At the same time, the role of the church as such was considered by Justinian more as a tool for strengthening the empire, he intervened in church affairs, appointed and displaced the bishops. Thus, the role of the church was reduced to servicing public interest, she lost its spiritual authority among people, which instead of strengthening led to the weakening of the state.

On the one hand, holiness flourished in Byzantium. It is enough to call the three saints of Vasily the Great, Grigory Theologian, John Zlatoust, and Gregory Nikomidia, Mark Ephesian, John the Postnik, Filaret, Filaret, from the host of the famous and not so famous saints of Byzantium, to argue - the spiritual life of Byzantium did not fade and gave birth to holiness. But holiness, as in all times, in the Byzantine Empire, was also an exceptional phenomenon.

Poverty, spiritual and cultural mortgage of the majority of the population, which buried in rude debauchery and vulgarity, held time at idle - in the kabaks and circuses, the excessive wealth of the power of those who have buried in luxury and in the same debauchery, all this resembled rude paganism. At the same time, those and others called themselves Christians, went to church and were a crowded. As Russian philosopher Vladimir Soloviev said, " in Byzantium there were more theologians than Christians" Double-deceased, lies and sacrolling, naturally, could not bring anything good. Byzantium was supposed to comprehend God's Kara.

Falls and ups

The successors of Emperor of Justinian I, who died in 565, had to lead permanent wars in the West and EastTo preserve the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire. Hermann, Persians, Slavs, Arabs are a far part of the list of those who have come to the Byzantine lands.

By the end of the VII century, Byzantium took about a third of his lands compared to the Empire of Justinian. However, Constantinople was not entitled, the people during the tests became more cohesive and ethnically defined. Now the majority of the population of the Byzantine Empire constituted the Greeks, Greek has become state. It continued to develop the right, the science and art continued to bloom.

Lev Isavre, founder of the Isairny dynastywhich ruled under the name of Lev III, made the state rich and powerful. But, with it, it has developed a height of iconococrationSupported by the emperor himself. Many saints, sacrificially defending the holy icons, beamed in Byzantium at this time. The famous gymnographer, philosopher and theologian John Damaskin for defense of icons was punished with a cut-off hand. But the Virgin Mary appeared to him and returned the cut-off brush. Thus, in the Orthodox tradition, the icon of the Virgin Troochitsa appeared, on which the hand returned to John Damascus was depicted.

Iconlement was briefly restored at the end of the 7th century at Irina, the first woman-Empress. But subsequently, the persecution of the holy icons continued began until 843, when the dogmate icon was finally approved With the Empress Feodore. The Empress of Theodore, whose power now reveal on the Greek island of Kerkira (Corfu), was the wife of the Emperor-iconoborce of the Foofila, but the secretly honored holy icons. Having taught the throne after the death of her husband, she patronized the convocation of the VII Ecumenical Cathedral, restored the reverence of icons. For the first time at the farodore in the church of Sofia in Constantinople on the first Sunday of the Great Post was perfect chin celebration Orthodoxywhich is now performed annually in all Orthodox churches.

At the beginning of the IX century, in the continued iconocampment, crushing wars began again - with Arabs and Bulgarians who deprived the empire of many lands and almost won Constantinople. But then the trouble passed, the Byzantines defended their capital.

In 867, he came to power in Byzantium macedonian dynasty, in which the Golden Age of the Empire lasted even more than one and a half century. Emperors Vasily I, Roman, Nikifor Foka, John Tsimischius, Vasily II returned lost lands and expanded the boundaries of the empire to Tiger and Euphrates.

It was during the reign of the Macedonians to Konstantinople Ambassadors of Prince Vladimir, about what the story says this time: "We came to Greek land, and introduced us to where they serve our God, and we didn't know - in the sky or on Earth we: For there is no such spectacle and beauty on Earth, and do not know how to tell about it, we know only that God is with people there, and their service is better than in all other countries. " They said the boyar Vladimir Prince: "If the Greek law was bad, then his grandmother your Olga would not accept, and she was the wisest of all people." And asked Vladimir: "Where do we take the baptism?" They said: "Where are you any". " Thus began the history of the new powerful Christian state - Russia, which will later be called by the reception of Byzantium or the Third Rome.

In 1019, the Byzantine emperor BasilII conquered Bulgaria. At the same time, he strengthened the economy and gave a new impetus to the development of science and culture. During his rule, the Byzantine Empire reached a big heyday. It is known that Vasily, who received the nickname of Bulgarian to victory over Bulgarians, led a ascetic life. He was not married, the story did not save information about any of his love adventures. He did not leave offspring, and after his death began a fierce struggle for the throne. The rulers who alone replaced each other, could not adequately manage a huge empire, began feudal fragmentation, the central government was rapidly weakened.

In 1057, overthrowing the Macedonian dynasty, isaac Komnnn rose on the throneBut he did not last long ago at the head of state. The rulers continued to replace each other, not neglecting subords, betrayals, murders. Anarchy increased, the state was weaker.

The Byzantine Empire was critical when in 1081, Alexey Komnet came to power. The young commander by force captured Constantinople and the imperial throne. He successfully led foreign and domestic politics. He appointed either relatives or friends to all key state posts. In this way, power has become more centralized, which contributed to the strengthening of the empire.

The Board of the Comnin Dynasty, which historians called the Comninovsky revival, was to capture Rome and the lowland of the Western Empire, the existence of which vulled by the pride of the Byzantine emperors. With the son of Alexia, Comnotine John and, especially, with the grandson of Manuile Constantinople became the center of European politicsWith which all other states were forced to be considered.

But after the death of Manuila, it turned out that besides hatred for Byzantium, none of their neighbors who are ready at any time to attack it does not feed any feelings. The deep internal crisis caused by the big poverty of the population, social injustice, the politics of infringement of his own people, in favor of foreign merchants, broke out uprising and main.

Less than a year after the death of Manuil Comnin, a rebellion broke out in the capital, the city of blood. In 1087, Bulgaria was separated from Byzantium, and in 1090 Serbia. The empire weakened more than ever, and in 1204, Constantinople captured the CrusadersThe city was looted, many monuments of Byzantine culture were permanently killed. Under the control of the Byzantines, there were only a few areas - Nikeya, Trapezund and Epirus. At all other territories, Catholicism was rude and greek culture was extended.

Niche Emperor Mikhail Paleologist, I conclude several political friendly unions, managed to collect strength and return Constantinople. On August 15, 1261, for the feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin, he solemnly entered the capital and announced the revival of the Byzantine Empire. Two decades of the Board of Mikhail became for the state for the years of relative prosperity, and the most of the emperor historians are called the last significant ruler of Byzantium.

The foreign policy situation remained restless, and in the face of constant danger, it was necessary to strengthen the empire from the inside, but the era of the board of the dynasty of Paleologists, on the contrary, was abounded by the troubles, internal conflicts and uprisings.

Sunset and death of the Empire

The constant struggle for the throne, and the main thing is the spiritual crisis of society, who named the Christian and who spent the lives far from Christian ideals, finally weakened the Byzantine Empire.

Muslims-Ottomans in just twelve years have won Bursa, Nikia, Nicacion and reached the Bosphorus. The fall of Gallipoli under Natius Ottomans in 1354 laid the beginning of their conquests throughout Europe.

Byzantine emperors had to look for support in Rome, their crushing in front of the West came to the fact that they rejected Orthodoxy by signing Ulya with CatholicsThat not only did not serve in the good state, but only weakened it, and spiritually, and morally. Most of the population did not adopt Catholicism, and the internal crisis reached the limit.

Over the next hundred years, Ottomans seized almost the entire territory of the Empire, and Byzantium is now a tiny province on the outskirts of Europe.

In 1453, on April 5, the Turks approached Constantinople and began his siege, and on May 30, Sultan Mehmed II was winning the city. So the existence of the first Christian, once mighty, Byzantine Empire has ended.

Surprisingly, that not only flourishing, but also fall Great Byzantium, once again proved that earth and all things on it burned (2 Message of the Apostle Peter, 3, 10), continues to learn humanity a lot. Attempt to build society "Society" unity in freedom under the law of love", As the Russian philosopher said, Alexey Homyakov, still remains one of the noblest undertakings that inspired many great people - politicians, philosophers, poets, writers, artists. Do this ideal in the fall of the world? Most probably not. But he continues to live in the minds like high idea like the top of the spiritual aspirations of mankind.

In many ways, this tone was asked by the English historian of the XVIII century Edward Gibbon, who dedicated at least three quarters of his six-hundred "history of decline and destruction of the Roman Empire" to the period that we would call the Byzantine without any oscillations. . And although this look is not a trunk for a long time, we still have to start talking about Byzantium as if not from the beginning, but from the middle. After all, by Byzantium, there is no reason for the founding, nor Father Father, as at the same Rome with Romulom and Rem. Byzantium imperceptibly sprouted from the inside of ancient Rome, but never broke away from him. After all, the Byzantines themselves did not think of themselves with something separate: the words "Byzantium" and "Byzantine Empire", they did not know and called themselves or "Romainee" (that is, the "Romans" in Greek), appropriating the history of ancient Rome, or " Corrected Christians, "assigning the whole history of the Christian religion.

We do not know Byzantium in the Earlyzantine history with its prefers, prefectors, patricians and provinces, but this recognition will become more and more as the emperors will acquire beards, the Consuls turn into Ipatov, and the senators - in the synclinists.

Prehistory

The birth of Byzantium will not be understandable without returning to the events of the III century, when the most severe economic and political crisis broke out in the Roman Empire, which actually led to the decline of the state. In 284, Diocletian came to power (as almost all emperors of the III century, he was only a Roman officer of a more thank birth - his father was a slave) and accepted measures to decentralize power. At first, in 286, he divided the empire into two parts, checking the management of the West to his friend to Maximian Herkulia, and leaving the east. Then, in 293, wanted to increase the stability of the management system and ensure the changeability of power, he introduced a tetrarchy system - four-part management, which was carried out by two senior emperors-August and two younger emperors-Caesar. Each part of the empire was in August and Caesar (each of which had their own geographical area of \u200b\u200bresponsibility - for example, Augustus of the West controlled Italy and Spain, and Caesar West - Gallia and Britain). After 20 years, Augustus had to pass the power to Caesarians, so that those became August and elected new Caesarians. However, this system was unweighitive and after the renunciation of Diocletian and Maximian in 305, the empire again plunged into the era of civil wars.

Birth of Byzantium

1. 312 year - Battle on Malvian Bridge

After the renunciation of Diocletian and Maximian, the Supreme Power went to the former Caesar - the gallery and constant of chlorine, those became August, but the Caesarians with them, contrary to expectations, did not have the Son Constance Konstantin (later the emperor Konstantin I Great, considered the first emperor of Byzantium), nor Son Maximian McCencies. Nevertheless, they didn't leave imperial ambitions and from 306 to 312 the year alternately concluded the tactical union to jointly confront other applicants for power (for example, the appointed Caesar after the renunciation of Diocletian Flavia North), then, on the contrary, joined the fight. Constantine's final victory over Maksenciim in the Battle of the Mulseri Bridge across the Tiber River (now in Rome Dam) meant the unification of the Western part of the Roman Empire under the authority of Constantine. Twelve years later, in 324, as a result of another war (now with Littenia - August and the ruler of the East of the Empire, who was still appointed by Galery) Konstantin united East and West.

The miniature in the center depicts the battle on the Mulserian bridge. From Homili Grigory Theologian. 879-882 \u200b\u200byears

MS GREC 510 /

The battle on the Mulseri bridge in the Byzantine consciousness was associated with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe birth of the Christian Empire. Contributed to this, firstly, the legend about the wonderful sign of the cross, who Konstantin saw in the sky before the battle, - about this they tell (though, quite differently) Eusevei Kesia Eusevia Kesariysky(OK 260-340) - Greek historian, author of the first church history. and lactation Lactation(OK. 250 --- 325) - Latin writer, Apologist of Christianity, the written writer "On the death of persecutors" dedicated to the events of the diocletian era., and secondly, the fact that at about the same time two edicts were published. Edict - Regulatory act, decree. On religious freedom, legalized Christianity and equalized all religions in rights. And although the edition of the Edicts on religious freedom did not have a direct relation to the fight against Mackencie (the first in April 311 published the emperor gallery, and the second was already in February 313 in Milan Konstantin, along with lydification), legend reflects the internal connection at first glance independent The political steps of Constantine, who first felt that state centralization was impossible without consolidating society, primarily in the sphere of the cult.

However, in Constantine, Christianity was only one of the candidates for the role of consolidating religion. The emperor himself has long been a commitment to the worst of the invincible complete, and the time of his Christian baptism is still the subject of scientific disputes.

2. 325 year - I Ecumenical Cathedral

In 325, Konstantin convened representatives of local churches to the city of Nice Nikia - Now the city of the isp in North-West Turkey.to resolve the dispute between Alexander Bishop Alexander and Ariam, the presbyter of one of the Alexandria churches, about whether Jesus Christ is created by God Opponents Arian briefly summarized their teachings like this: "It was [such a time] when there was no [Christ].". This meeting was the first Ecumenical Cathedral - a meeting of representatives of all the local churches, with the right to formulate the doctrine, which will then be recognized by all local churches To say exactly how many bishops participated in the cathedral, it is impossible, since its acts are not preserved. The tradition calls the number 318. Anyway, it is possible to talk about the "universal" nature of the cathedral only with reservations, since in all this time, the Episcopian departments existed more than 1,500.. I The Ecumenical Cathedral is the key stage of the institutionalization of Christianity as an imperial religion: his meetings were not held in the temple, but in the imperial palace, the Cathedral of Konstantin I was opened, and the closure was combined with the Grand Celebrations on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of his board.

First Nice Cathedral. Fresco from the monastery of Stavropoleos. Bucharest, XVIII century

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I, Konstantinople who followed him, condantinople (gathered in 381) the cathedrals condemned the Arian teachings, about the creative nature of Christ and the inequality of the hatchee in the Trinity, and Apolyarist, on the incompleteness of the perception of human nature by Christ, and formulated Niko-Tsargrad Symbol of Faith, who recognized Jesus Christ Not created, but born (but at the same time), and all three hatters - possessing one nature. The symbol of faith was recognized as true, not subject to further doubts and discussions. The words of the Nikeo-Tsargrad Symbol of Faith About Christ, which caused the most fierce disputes, in the Slavic translation, sounds like this: "[I believe] in the unagnago gentlemen of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only beefing, and from the Father Born himself before all century; Light from the light, God is truly true from God ICTIN, born, is irrelevant, the father is unique, right away. ".

Never before, no direction of thought in Christianity was condemned by the entire completeness of the Universal Church and the Imperial Power and no theological school was recognized as heresy. The era of the universal cathedrals began - this is the era of the struggle of orthodoxia and heresy, which are in constant self-confidence and interdependence. At the same time, the same teaching could alternately recognize that heresy, then the right faith - depending on the political situation (so it was with in the V century), but the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility and need to protect the orthodoxy and the conviction of the heresy with the help of the state in doubt on Byzantium NOT RAD NEVER.

3. 330 - transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople

Although the cultural center of the Empire has always remained Rome, tetrarchs chose a city as their capitals on the periphery, of which they were more convenient to reflect external attacks: Nikomidia Nikomidy - Now I will reflect (Turkey)., Sirmiya Sirmium - Now Sremska-Mitrovica (Serbia)., Milan and Trier. During the reign of the West, Konstantin I transferred his residence to Milan, then in Sirmii, then in the Dessalonik. His rival Licini also changed the capital, but in 324, when the war began between him and Konstantin, his supporting point in Europe was the antique city of Byzantine on the shore of Bosphor, known as early as Herodot.

Sultan Mehmed II Conqueror and Snake Column. Miniature Neckaka Ottoman from the manuscript "Hyuncher-Scan" Seyid Lockman. 1584-1588 years

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During the siege of Byzantium, and then when preparing for a decisive battle in Christine, Konstantin estimated the provisions of Byzantium and, defeating Licinia, immediately began a program to update the city, personally participating in the markup of urban walls. The city gradually adopted the metropolitan functions: the Senate was established in it and many Roman Senate families were forcibly transported to Senate. It was in Constantinople who else during the life of Konstantin ordered to rebuild the tomb for himself. The city was overlooked a variety of antique worldwinds, for example, the bronze snake column, created in the V century BC, in honor of the victory over the Persians with payments Battle with payments(479 BC) — One of the most important battles of the Greek-Persian wars, as a result of which the land forces of the Empire of Ahemenides were finally crushed..

The chronicle of the VI century John Malala says that on May 11, 330, Emperor Konstantin appeared at the solemn ceremony of the consecration of the city in Diadem - the Sixture Systheus of the Eastern Despov, which his Roman predecessors were avoided in every way. The displacement of the political vector was symbolically embodied in the spatial movement of the Center for the Empire from the West to the East, which, in turn, had a decisive influence on the formation of the Byzantine culture: the transfer of the capital on the territory, who had already spoken in Greek, had led her greek-language character, and Constantinople himself turned out to be In the center of the Menantal Map of Byzantine and was identified with the whole empire.

4. 395 - separation of the Roman Empire on the Eastern and Western

Despite the fact that in 324, Konstantin, defeating Litini, formally united the East and the West of the Empire, the relationship between its parts remained weak, and cultural differences increased. At the I, the Universal Cathedral from the Western provinces arrived at no more than ten bishops (from about 300 participants); Most of the arrivals were not able to understand the welcoming speech of Konstantin, which he said to Latin, and it was necessary to translate to Greek.

Caxilia. Flavius \u200b\u200bOdoacre on Aversa coins from Ravenna. 477 yearThe Odacre is depicted without the imperial diadem - with a uncoated head, a duct hair and a mustache. This image is uncharacteristic for emperors and is considered "barbaric".

THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITYSH MUSEUM

The final separation occurred in 395, when the Emperor of Feodosius I is Great, for several months before the death that became the sole ruler of the East and the West, divided the power between his sons Arkady (East) and Honorime (West). However, formally, the West still remained connected to the East, and at the very sunset of the Western Roman Empire, at the end of the 460s, the Byzantine Emperor Lion I at the request of Senate Rome took the last unsuccessful attempt to build the western throne of his golden. In 476, the German barbarian mercenary, Odoacre displaced the last emperor of the Roman Empire of Romulus Augustus and sent the imperial insignificance (symbols of power) in Constantinople. Thus, from the point of view of the legitimacy of the authorities, the part of the empire was again combined: the Emperor Zinon de-Yura became the only chapter of the entire empire in Constantinople became the sole chapter of the entire empire, and the Odacard, who received the title of Patricia, rules Italy only as his representative. However, in reality, this has not yet been reflected in the real political map of the Mediterranean.

5. 451 year - Chalkidon Cathedral

IV Ecumenical (Chalkidonsky) Cathedral, convened for the final approval of the exercise on the embodiment of Christ in a single hypostasis and two nature and complete condemnation of monophysitism Monophizite (from Greek. όόνος is the only and φύσις - nature) - the doctrine that Christ did not have a perfect human nature, since his divine nature in the embodiment rendered her or merged with her. The opponents of monophysites were called diophysites (from Greek. Δύο - two)., led to a deep split, not overcomed by the Christian church to this day. Central state power continued to play with monophysites and under the Usurper Vasilisk in 475-476, and in the first half of the 6th century, under the emperors of Anastasia I and Justinian I. Emperor Zinon in 482 tried to reconcile supporters and opponents of the Khalkidon Cathedral, without going into dogmatic issues . His conciliatory message, called "Enotikon", provided peace in the East, but led to a 35-year-old split with Rome.

The main support of monophysites was the Eastern provinces - Egypt, Armenia and Syria. In these regions, regularly broke out uprisings on religious grounds and was formed parallel to Chalkidonite (that is, the independent monophimite hierarchy and its own church institutes, who gradually developed into independent, existing and understood, who had gradually developed into independent, existing and understood, and soak, Armenian and Coptic. Finally, the problem has lost the relevance for Constantinople only in the VII century, when, as a result of Arab conquest, the Monophimita provinces were rejected from the Empire.

The flourishing of early Byzantium

6. 537 - Completion of the construction of the Church of St. Sophia under Justinian

Justinian I. Fragment of the Mosaic of the Church
San Vitaly in Ravenna. VI century

Wikimedia Commons

With Justinian I (527-565), the Byzantine Empire reached the highest heyday. Civil Law Code summarized the centuries-old development of Roman law. As a result of military campaigns in the West, it was possible to expand the boundaries of the empire, including all the Mediterranean - North Africa, Italy, part of Spain, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily. Sometimes they talk about "Justinian Reconquiste". Part of the empire again became Rome. Justinian deployed extensive construction throughout the empire, and in 537 the creation of a new Saint Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople was completed. According to the legend, the plan of the temple was suggested personally to Emperor angel in the vision. The construction of such a scale has never been created more in Byzantium: the Grand Church, in the Byzantine Ceremonial, the Great Church received the name "The Great Church", became the focus of the authorities of the Constantinople Patriarchate.

The era of Justinian at the same time and finally tears with pagan past (in 529 the Athenian Academy closes Athenian Academy - The philosophical school in Athens, founded by Plato in the 380s to N. e.) And sets the line of continuity with antiquity. Medieval culture contrasts himself with early Christian, appropriating antiquity at all levels - from literature before architecture, but when throwing their religious (pagan) measurement.

The outcom from the bottom, striving to change the way of life of the Empire, Justinian met the rejection by the old aristocracy. It is this attitude, and not the personal hatred of the historian to the emperor and reflects - an evil pamphlet on Justinian and his wife Feodoru.

7. 626 - Akharo-Slavic Siege of Constantinople

On the Board of Heraclius (610-641), glorified in the court-free panegic literature as a new herak, the last foreign policy successes of early Byzantium are coming. In 626, Iraklia and the direct defense of the city of Patriarch Sergius managed to reflect the Avaro-Slavic siege of Constantinople (the words opening the Akathist of the Virgin Mary, they say exactly about this victory In the Slavic translation, they sound like this: "The winning governor, the victim's switched, who was born from the evil, thank you, the vibration of yours, the Mother of God, but this is a really powerful power of the Power, from all of us freedom, yes, you call: rejoice, bridal nonsense."), and at the turn of the 20-30s of the VII century during the Persian campaign against the powers of the Sasanidov Sasanid Empire - Persian state with the center in the territory of the current Iraq and Iran, which existed in 224-651. Were all over a few years before the province in the East: Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Palestine. In Jerusalem, in 630, the kidnapped as an honest cross, which took the death of the Savior, was solemnly returned. During the solemn procession, Irakli personally made a cross to the city and laid it in the church of the Mernel.

In Irakali, the last takeoff before the cultural gap of the dark centuries is experiencing a scientific and philosophical neoplatonic tradition, which comes directly from the antiquity: the representative of the last surviving ancient school in Alexandria comes to Constantinople in the imperial invitation to the Imperial invitation in Alexandria - Stefan Alexandria.

Plate from the cross with the images of Cheruvima (left) and the Byzantine Emperor Irakli with the Shahinshha Sasanid Hosra II. Maasa Valley, 1160-70s

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All these successes were reduced to no Arab invasion, after a few decades from the face of the earth of Sasanids and forever rejected the eastern provinces from Byzantium. Legends talk about how the Prophet Muhammed offered Heraclia to accept Islam, but in the cultural memory of the Muslim peoples, Irakli remained a fighter with nascent Islam, and not with Persians. These wars (generally unsuccessful for Byzantium) narrate the epic poem of the XVIII century "Book of Heraclia" - the ancient monument of writing at Swahili.

Dark Century and Iconstitution

8. 642 - Conquest of Egypt Arabs

The first wave of Arab conquests in Byzantine lands continued for eight years - from 634 to 642 years. As a result, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt were rejected from Byzantium. Having lost the most ancient Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria Patriarchates, the Byzantine Church, in fact, has lost its universal character and became equal to the Konstantinople Patriarchate, who has not been left for the status of church institutions within the empire.

In addition, losing fertile territories that provided it with grain, the empire plunged into a deep internal crisis. In the middle of the VII century, there is a reduction in the money circulation and the decline of cities (both in Malaya Asia and in the Balkans, which are no longer the Arabs, and Slavs) - they turned either in the village or in the medieval fortresses. Constantinople remained the only major urban center, but the atmosphere in the city changed and the ancient monuments brought there in the IV century began to inspire irrational fears.

Fragment of Papiral Letter at the Coptic Language of Monks Viktor and Psana. Files, Byzantine Egypt, tentatively 580-640 years Translation of a letter fragment into English on the Metropolitan Museum website.

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART

Constantinople also lost access to a papyrus, which was made exclusively in Egypt, which led to the rise in the cost of books and, as a result, decline to education. Many literary genres disappeared, who flourished before the genre of history gave way to the prophecy - losing cultural relationship with the past, the Byzantines walked to their history and lived with a constant sensation of the end of the world. Arab conquests that were the reason for this layer of worldview, did not reflect the reflection in the modern literature, their event row concerns the monuments of later eras, and the new historical consciousness reflects only the atmosphere of horror, and not facts. Cultural decline continued for more than a hundred years, the first signs of revival fall at the very end of the 7th century.

9. 726/730 According to the IX century historians, Lion III in 726 issued an iconocrocial edict. But modern scientists doubt the reliability of these information: most likely, in 726, conversations began in the Byzantine society about the possibility of iconoborical measures, the first real steps belong to 730. - Start of iconocological disputes

Holy mamopy amphipolis and angel who kills iconoborets. Miniature from Psalter Theodore Caesarian. 1066 year

The British Library Board, Add MS 19352, F.94R

One of the manifestations of the cultural decline of the second half of the VII century is the rapid growth of disordered practices of reverence Icons (the most zealous, scraped and fucked up the plaster with the icons of saints). This caused rejection by the part of the clerics, who seen in this threat of returning to paganism. Emperor Leo III ISAVR (717-741) used this discontent to create a new consolidating ideology, took the first icon coherent steps in 726/730. But the most fierce disputes about icons fell on the Board of Konstantin V Koponim (741-775). He implemented the necessary military administrative reforms, significantly intensifying the role of the professional imperial guard (tagm), and successfully restrained the Bulgarian threat at the borders of the Empire. The authority of both Konstantin and Lion, reflected in the 717-718 years of the Arabs from the walls of Constantinople, was very high, therefore, when in 815, after on the VII of the Universal Cathedral, the doctrine of icon repositors (787) was approved, a new round of war With Bulgarians provoked a new political crisis, the imperial power returned to the iconoborical policy.

The dispute about icons gave rise to two powerful directions of theological thoughts. Although the doctrine of the iconoborets is known significantly worse than the teachings of their opponents, indirect data suggest that the thought of the iconoborets of the emperor Konstantin Copronim and the Constantinople Patriarch John Grammar (837-843) was no less deeply rooted in the Greek philosophical tradition than the thought of the theologian-iconistant John Damascus and heads of anti-anti-protectic monastic opposition of the farodore studite. In parallel, the dispute developed in the church-political plane, the boundaries of the emperor, patriarch, monastic and bishopath were renovated.

10. 843 year - the celebration of Orthodoxy

In 843, with the Empress Theodore and the Patriarch Methodius, there was a final approval of the dogma icon. It became possible thanks to mutual assignments, for example, the posthumous forgiveness of the Emperor-iconoborce of Theophilus, whose widow was a feodora. The holiday "Celebration of Orthodoxy", arranged by Feodoroy on this occasion, completed the era of the Ecumenical Councils and marked the new stage in the life of the Byzantine state and the church. In the Orthodox tradition, he copes and today, and the anathema iconobores, named named, sound every year on the first Sunday of the Great Post. Since then, the iconocringence, which has become the last heresy, convicted of all the completeness of the Church, began to mythologized in the historical memory of Byzantium.

The daughter of Empress Theodora learn to read icons at Grandma Feoktists. Miniature from the Madrid Code of "Chronicles" John Skilitsy. XII-XIII century

Wikimedia Commons

Back in 787, on the VII of the Universal Cathedral, the theory of the image was approved, according to which the words of Vasily the Great, "the honor, rewarding the image goes back to the primitiveness," and hence the worship of the icon is not an idol service. Now, this theory has become the official teaching of the Church - the creation and worship of the sacred images from now on not only was allowed, but was charged with a christianine. From this point, an avalanche-like growth of fiction, it becomes familiar to us the appearance of an East Christian temple with an iconic scenery, the use of icons is embedded in liturgical practice and changes the course of worship.

In addition, the iconocological dispute stimulated reading, copying and studying the sources to which the opposing parties refer in search of arguments. Overcoming the cultural crisis is largely due to philological work in the preparation of church councils. The invention is minusla Minuscule - Letter with lower case letters, radically simplified and reduced books.may have been associated with the needs of the iconist opposition that existed in the conditions of "samizdata": the icon inquishers were to quickly copy the texts and did not have funds to create expensive uncial Unzial, or Muskul, - Letter with capital letters. Manuscripts.

Macedonian epoch

11. 863 - the beginning of the Fothian schism

Between the Roman and Eastern churches, dogmatic and liturgical discrepancies gradually increased (primarily relative to Latin add to the text of the Faith Symbol of the Forest of the Holy Spirit not only from the Father, but "and from the Son", the so-called FilioQue Filioque - Literally "and from the Son" (Lat.).). Constantinople Patriarchate and Pope fought for spheres of influence (primarily in Bulgaria, southern Italy and Sicily). The proclamation of Charles of the Great Emperor of West in 800 has caused a sensitive blow to the political ideology of Byzantium: the Byzantine emperor has gained a competitor in the face of Caroling.

Wonderful salvation by the Fothem of Constantinople with the help of Risea of \u200b\u200bOur Lady. Fresco from the Assumption Princess of the Monastery. Vladimir, 1648

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Two opposing parties inside the Konstantinople Patriarchate, the so-called Ignatian (supporters of the Patriarch of Ignatius, deposited in 858) and the Fotian (supporters of the erected - not without a scandal - instead of him, Foto), were looking for support in Rome. Dad Nicholas used this situation to approve the authority of the papal throne and expand its spheres of influence. In 863, he recalled the signatures of his envoys, approved the construction of Fothia, however, Emperor Mikhail III found that this was not enough to shift the Patriarch, and in 867, Fotius betrayed Pope Nicholas Anathema. In 869-870, a new cathedral in Constantinople (and to this day recognized by Catholics VIII Ecumenical) nominated Foto and Restored Ignatius. However, after the death of Ignatia, Fotiy returned to the Patriarchal Throne for nine years (877-886).

Formal reconciliation followed in 879-880, but the Antilatine line laid down in the circumferential message to the bishop thrones of the East, was based on a centuries-old polemical tradition, the echoes of which were heard and when the gap between churches B, and during the discussion of the possibility of church union in the XIII and XV centuries.

12. 895 - the creation of ancient of the famous Plato Codes

Manuscript page E. D. Clarke 39 with plato's writings. 895 yearThe rewriting of the tetralized was carried out by order of the Caesarian Aref for 21 Golden Coins. It is assumed that Scholia (comments on the fields) are left by the Arefa himself.

At the end of the IX century there is a new discovery of ancient heritage in Byzantine culture. Around the Patriarch of Fothy developed a circle, which included his disciples: Emperor Lev Vi Wise, Bishop Caesa Area and other philosophers and scientists. They copied, studied and commented on the works of ancient Greek authors. The oldest and most authoritative list of Plato's writings (it is stored under the sector E. D. Clarke 39 in the Baudlian library of Oxford University) was created precisely at this time by order of the Aref.

Among the texts who were interested in the erudite of the era, primarily high-ranking church hierarchs, there were also pagan works. Area ordered copies of Aristotle's works, Elia Aristide, Euclida, Homer, Lukian and Mark Auraliya, and Patriarch Fotius included in his "mineobibilion" "Mirobibilion" (literally "ten-weeks") - a review of the books read by the FotiM, which, indeed, there were not 10 thousand, but only 279. Annotations to the Hellenistic novels, estimating not them, it would seem, the anti-Christian content, and the style and manner of the letter and at the same time creating a new terminological apparatus of literary criticism, other than that used by antique grammar. Lev VI himself created not only solemn speeches on church holidays, who personally pronounced (often improvising) after the services, but also wrote an anrecontic poetry on an ancient Greek manner. And the nickname of the wise associated with the assembly of the poetic prophecies ascribed to him about the fall and the restoration of Constantinople, which were recalled in the XVII century in Russia, when the Greeks tried to lean the king Alexei Mikhailovich to the campaign against the Ottoman Empire.

The era of Foto and Lion Vi Wise opens the period of the Macedonian Renaissance (named by the name of the ruling dynasty) in Byzantium, which is also known as the Epoch of Encyclopedism or the first Byzantine humanism.

13. 952 - Completion of work on the treatise "On the management of the Empire"

Christ blesses the emperor Konstantin VII. Carved panel. 945 year

Wikimedia Commons

With the patronage of the Emperor of Constantine VII of the Bagranogenic (913-959), a large-scale project on the codification of the knowledge of the Byzantines in all areas of human life was implemented. Constantine's direct participation measure can not be determined with accuracy, however, personal interest and literary ambitions of the emperor, since childhood, who knew that he was not destined to rule, and most of the lives of forced to divide the throne with the co-guide, are not subject to doubt. According to the command of Constantine, the official history of the 9th century (the so-called Faofan follower) was written (the so-called follower of Feofan), information about the contiguous with the Byzantium of peoples and lands ("On the management of the Empire"), about the geography and history of the Empire regions ("On Femakh FEM. - Byzantine Military Administrative District."), Agriculture (" geoponics "), on the organization of military campaigns and embassies and the court ceremonial (" On the ceremonies of the Byzantine courtyard "). At the same time, the regulation of church life takes place: a synaksar and typics of the Great Church, which determine the annual procedure for the commemoration of the holy and church services, and after a few decades (about 980), Simeon metaphrause is proceeding to the large-scale project for the unification of living literature. At about the same time, a comprehensive encyclopedic dictionary "Courts" is drawn up, including about 30 thousand articles. But the most large-scale encyclopedia of Constantine - the anthology of the information of the ancient and earlyness of the authors of all spheres of life, conventionally called "exserpt" It is known that this encyclopedia included 53 partitions. Only the section "On Embassies", partially - "On Virtues and Vices", "On conspiracies against emperors", "Onviews". Among the heads of chapters: "On the peoples", "On the continuity of emperors", "On who invented what", "About Caesar", "On the Entrepreneurs", "On settlements", "On Hunting", "On Messages", " About speeches "," On Marriages "," On Victory "," On Defeasure "," On Strategies "," On the Nravakh "," On Miracles "," On Battles "," On Inscriptions "," On State Department ", "On church affairs", "On the expression", "On the coronation of emperors", "On death (lowland) of emperors", "About fines", "On holidays", "On predictions", "On the ranks", "On the reason for wars "," On the sieges "," about the fortresses "..

The buggernogenic nickname was given to children of the reigning emperors who were born in the Grand Chamber of the Grand Palace in Constantinople. Konstantin VII, the son of Lion Vi wise from the fourth marriage, was really born in this chamber, but was formally illegal. Apparently, the nickname should have emphasized his rights to the throne. Father made him his co-coster, and after his death, the juvenile Konstantin six years of the rules under the guardianship of Regents. In 919, the power under the pretext of the protection of Konstantin from the rebels usurped the warlord Romance Roman I Lacipin, he threatened with the Macedonian dynasty, issuing his daughter for Konstantin, and then was crowned with the co-coster. By the time of the beginning of the independent rule, Konstantin was formally considered the emperor for over 30 years, and he himself was almost 40.

14. 1018 - Conquest of the Bulgarian Kingdom

Angels lay on Vasily II imperial crown. Miniature from Psalti Vasily, Marchian Library. XI century

MS. GR. 17 / Biblioteca Marciana

Board of Vasily II Bulgarian (976-1025) - the time of the unprecedented expansion of the church and political influence of Byzantium on neighboring countries: the so-called second (final) Baptism of Russia (the first, according to legend, had to 860s - when the princes of Askold and Deer with boyars were allegedly baptized in Kiev, where it was specially for this Patriarch Fotius sent a bishop); In 1018, the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom leads to the elimination of the autonomous Bulgarian patriarchy, which existed for almost 100 years, and the institution instead of him semi-emunion of Ohrid Archbishopia; As a result of Armenian campaigns, Byzantine possessions in the East are expanding.

In the domestic policy, Vasily was forced to carry out tough measures to limit the influence of major landowner clans who actually formed their own army and in the 970-980s during civil wars challenged the power of Vasily. He tried hard measures to suspend the enrichment of large landowners (so-called dynats Dynat (from Greek. Δυνατός) - strong, powerful.), in some cases resorting even to direct confiscation of land. But it brought only a temporary effect, the centralization in the administrative and military sphere neutralized powerful rivals, but in the long run he made an empire vulnerable to new threats - Normans, Selzhuki and Pechenegs. The Macedonian dynasty, which has ruled over one and a half years, was formally interrupted only in 1056, but in reality, already in the 1020-30s, the real power received immigrants from official families and influential clans.

The descendants were awarded Vasily nicknamet Bulgarian for cruelty in wars with Bulgarians. For example, after a victory in the decisive battle at the Mountain Belasitsa in 1014, he ordered at once to blind 14 thousand captives. When it was the nickname, it is not known. Exactly that this happened until the end of the XII century, when, according to the historian of the XIII century, George Acropolyite, the Bulgarian king of Kaloyan (1197-1207) began to ruin the Byzantine cities in the Balkans, proudly calling themselves Romaterica and thereby opposing himself to Vasily.

Crisis of the XI century

15. 1071 - Battle of Manzikert

Battle at Manzikert. Miniature from the book "On the Unfortunates of the famous people" Boccaccio. XV century

BIBLIOTHèQUE NATIONALE DE FRANCE

The political crisis, which began after the death of Vasily II, continued in the middle of the XI century: Clans were still competed, the dynasties were constantly replaced by each other - from 1028 to 1081, 11 emperors were changed in the Byzantine throne, there was no such frequency at the turn of the VII-VIII centuries. . From the outside, the Byzantium pressed Pechenegs and Selzhuki Turks The power of the Seljuk Turkings in just a few decades in the XI century conquered the territory of modern Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan and became the main threat of Byzantium in the East. - The latter, hovering in 1071 victory in the battle of Manzikert Mancipert - Now the small town of Malazgirt on the easternmost tip of Turkey next to Lake Wang., deprived the empire most of its territories in Asia Minor. No less painful for Byzantium, the full-scale gap of church relations with Rome in 1054, which subsequently obtained the name of the Great Schism Schism (from the Greek. Σίίίμμα) is a gap.Because of which Byzantium finally lost the church influence in Italy. However, contemporaries almost did not notice this event and did not give him due value.

However, it is precisely this era of political instability, aspects of social borders and, as a result, high social mobility gave rise to a unique even for Byzantia, Mikhail Pwell's figure - erudite and an official who took an active part in the construction of the emperors (his central work "Chronography" is very autobographical) , he thought over the most complicated theological and philosophical issues, studied the pagan chaldean oracles, created works in all imaginable genres - from literary criticism before the agiography. The situation of intellectual freedom gave the impetus to the new typical Byzantine urban from Neoplatonism: in the rank of "Ipat philosophers" Ipat philosophers - In fact, the chief philosopher of the empire, the head of the philosophical school in Constantinople. Pwell replaced John Ital, who studied not only Plato and Aristotle, but also such philosophers as ammonium, Filopon, Porfiry and Bed, and, at least, according to his opponents, who taught about the resettlement of the souls and immortality of ideas.

Comninovsky revival

16. 1081 - Coming to power Alexey I Comnin

Christ blesses Emperor Alexey I Comnin. Miniature from Dogmatic Panbialy Eviefmy Zigabena. XII century

In 1081, as a result of the compromise with the clans of the DUK, Melisssen and Paleologists, the family of comnins came to power. It gradually monopolized all state power and thanks to complex dynastic marriage absorbed the former rivals. Starting with Alexey I Comnotine (1081-1118), the aristocratization of the Byzantine society occurs, social mobility decreases, intellectual freedoms are reduced, the imperial power is actively interfering in the spiritual sphere. The beginning of this process was marked with the church-state condemnation of John Italy for the "Palatonian ideas" and paganism in 1082. Then the condemnation of Leo Halkidonsky, who opposed the confiscation of church property to cover military needs (at that time, Byzantia was war with Sicilian Normans and Pechenegs) and almost accused Alexey in the iconocrust. There are violes over Bogomils Bogomilia - The teaching arising in the Balkans in the X century, in many respects of the religion of Manicheev. According to Bogomylov, the physical world was created by Satan's overthrowed from Heaven. The human body was also his creation, but the soul is still the gift of good God. Bogomiles did not recognize the Church Institute and often opposed the secular authorities, raising numerous uprisings., One of them, Vasily, was even burned in the fire - the phenomenon for the Byzantine practice is unique. In 1117, the commentator Aristotle Evstream Nicesky appears before the court on charges of heresy.

Meanwhile, contemporaries and the nearest descendants were remembered by Alexey I rather as a ruler, successful by his foreign policy: he managed to conclude a union with the Crusaders and put a sensitive blow to Seljuks in Malaya Asia.

In the Satire "Timarion" the story is conducted on behalf of the hero who has taken a journey into the afterlife. In his story, he mentions John Ital, who wanted to take part in the conversation of ancient Greek philosophers, but was rejected by them: "I was also a witness to how Pythagoras sharply pushed John Ital, who wanted to join this community of wise men. "Szrebye," he said, "the Galilee robe, who was called by the Divine Saint Rizami, otherwise to say - adopting baptism, are you trying to communicate with us, whose life was given to science and knowledge? Or throw off this vulgar dress, or now leave our brotherhood! "" (Translation S. V. Polyakova, N. V. Femlenkovskaya).

17. 1143 - coming to power Manuil I Comnin

The trends that have been outlined with Alexei I received development in Manuile I Comnin (1143-1180). He sought to establish personal control over the church life of the Empire, sought to unify theological thoughts and took part in church disputes. One of the questions in which Manuel wanted to say his Word was the following: What are the trinity attacks take the victim during the Eucharist - only God-Father or the Son and the Holy Spirit? If the second answer is true (but it was decided at the Cathedral of 1156-1157), then the same son will be sacrificed, and the host.

Manuel's foreign policy was noted in the east (the most terrible - the Byzantine defeated by the Byzantines in the despondency of Miriochefal in 1176 from the hands of Seljuks) and attempts to diplomatic convergence with the West. The ultimate goal of Western Policy Manuel saw the association with Rome on the basis of the recognition of the Supreme Government of the Unified Roman Emperor, who had to become Manuel himself, and the associations of churches officially divided into. However, this project was not implemented.

In the era of Manuil, literary creativity becomes a profession, literary circles arise with their artistic fashion, elements of the folk language penetrate the court aristocratic literature (they can be found in the compositions of the poet of Theodore Odrma or Chronicist Konstantin Manascia), the genre of the Byzantine love novel is emerging, the arsenal of expressive means is expanding Grows the measure of author's self-reflection.

Sunset Byzantium

18. 1204 - the fall of Constantinople from the hands of the Crusaders

At the board of Andronika I comNNIN (1183-1185), the political crisis was assumed: he conducted a populist policy (reduced taxes, ripped relations with the West and severely straightened with corrupt officials), which restored a significant part of the elite against it and aggravated the foreign policy position of the empire.

Crusaders attack Constantinople. Miniature from Chronicle "Constantine-Fields" Choffru de Villarduen. Approximately 1330 Willarduen was one of the leaders of the campaign.

BIBLIOTHèQUE NATIONALE DE FRANCE

Attempting the approval of the new Dynasty of Angels did not bring fruits, the society was deconsolidated. There were also setbacks on the periphery of the empire: the uprising rose in Bulgaria; Crusaders captured Cyprus; Sicilian Normans ruined the Dessalonik. The struggle between applicants for the throne inside the angels family gave European countries a formal reason to intervene. On April 12, 1204, the participants of the fourth crusade were charged by Constantinople. The most vivid feature description of these events we read in the "History" of Nikita Honiato and the postmodern novel Baudolino Umberto Eco, which sometimes pins the pages of Honiata.

On the ruins of the previous empire, several states arose under the Venetian administration, only to the most invented Byzantine state institutions. The Latin Empire with the center in Constantinople rather was the feudal formation of the Western European sample, the same character was also from the dukes and the kingdoms arising in thesalonica, Athens and on Peloponnese.

Andronicus was one of the most eccentric rulers of the Empire. Nikita Honiators says that he commanded to create his portrait in one of the churches of the capital in the appearance of poor landpasher in high boots and with a scythe in his hand. Legends went and about the animal cruelty andronicus. He satisfied the public burning of his opponents on the racetrack, during which the executioners pushed the victim in the fire with sharp peaks, and daring to condemn his cruelty of the St. Sophia, Georgy Dicipat, threatened to fry on a spit and send his wife instead of the Kushan.

19. 1261 - Constantinople's worship

The loss of Constantinople led to the emergence of three Greek states, equally claimed to be full heirs of Byzantium: the Nicea Empire in the North-West of Malaya Asia under the control of the dynasty of the capeares; The Trapezund Empire in the northeastern part of the Black Sea coast of Malaya Asia, where the descendants of the companions were settled - the Great Commines, who took the title "Emperors Romeev", and the Epirian kingdom in the western part of the Balkankogo Peninsula with the Angels Dynasty. The revival of the Byzantine Empire in 1261 occurred on the basis of the Nike Empire, who pushed competitors and skillfully used the assistance of the German Emperor and Genoesers in the fight against the Venetians. As a result, the Latin emperor and Patriarch fled, and Mikhail Viii Paleologists took Constantinople, was re-crown and proclaimed "New Constantine".

In his policy, the founder of the new dynasty tried to reach a compromise with Western powers, and in 1274 he even went to church Ulya with Rome than the Greek Bishopath and Constantinople Elite confined against himself.

Despite the fact that the formal empire was revived, its culture lost the former "Constantinopletzentitarianity": Paleologists were forced to put up with the presence of Venetians in the Balkans and the significant autonomy of the tracksound, the rulers of which formally refused the title of "emperors Romeyev", but in reality did not leave imperial ambitions.

A bright sample of the imperial ambitions of Trapezund - built there in the middle of the XIII century and producing a strong impression and today the Cathedral of the Holy Sophia of the Wisdom of God. This temple at the same time and opposed the Trapezund of Constantinople with His Saint Sophia, and on the symbolic level turned the trapezund to the new Constantinople.

20. 1351 - approval of the teachings of Gregory Palam

Saint Gregory Palama. Icon Master of Northern Greece. Beginning of the XV century

On the second quarter of the XIV century there are the beginning of the Palamite disputes. St. Grigory Palama (1296-1357) was the original thinker who developed a multitude of disputes the doctrine of the difference in the God of the Divine Entity (with which a person cannot unite nor know it) and non-resident divine energies (with which the connection is possible) and defended the possibility contemplation by means of a "smart feeling" of divine light, manifested, according to the Gospels, apostles during the transformation of Christ For example, in the Gospel of Matthew This light is described as follows: "After the days, Jesus Peter, James and John, brother, and erected their mountain, and transformed against them: And the face of him, like the sun, clothing He was taken white, like the light "(Matt. 17: 1-2)..

In the 40s and 50s of the XIV century, the theological dispute worked closely with a political confrontation: Palama, his supporters (Patriarchs of Callist I and Philofee Kokkin, Emperor John Vi Cantakuzine) and opponents (later swallowed in Catholicism Philosopher Varlaam Calabrian and his followers of Gregory Akindin, Patriarch John Iv cripple, philosopher and writer Nikifor Grigor) alternately tried tactical victories, they suffered defeat.

Cathedral of 1351, who approved the victory of Palam, nevertheless, did not put the end of the dispute, whose echoes were heard in the XV century, but forever closed the way to antipalames into the highest church and state power. Some researchers following Igor Medvedev I. P. Medvedev. Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries. St. Petersburg., 1997. They see the thoughts of antipalames, primarily Nikifora Grigora, trends, close to the ideas of Italian humanists. Even a more complete reflection of humanistic ideas found in the work of the Neoplatonian and the ideologist of the pagan renewal of Byzantium George Gemist Fallon, whose works were destroyed by the official church.

Even in serious scientific literature, it is sometimes possible to see that the words "(anti) palamits" and "(anti) Isihasts are used as synonyms. It is not quite true. Isychasm (from Greek. Ἡσυχία [Isychia] - Silence) as ancooked prayer practice, which gives the opportunity to directly experienced communicating with God, received a justification in the works of theologians of earlier eras, for example, in Simeon of the New Theologian in the X-XI centuries.

21. 1439 - Ferraro-Florentine Sania

Florentine Ulya Eugene IV. 1439 yearCompiled in two languages \u200b\u200b- Latin and Greek.

British Library Board / Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

By the beginning of the XV century, it became obvious that the Ottoman military threat would question the very existence of the empire. Byzantine diplomacy was actively looking for support in the West, there were negotiations on the association of churches in exchange for Military assistance Rome. In the 1430s, a fundamental decision on the association was made, but the subject of the trading was the venue of the cathedral (on the Byzantine or in Italian territory) and its status (whether it would be designated as "unifying"). In the end, the meeting occurred in Italy - first in Ferrara, then in Florence and in Rome. In June 1439, Ferraro Florentine Union was signed. This meant that formally the Byzantine Church recognized the correctness of Catholics on all controversial issues, including on the issue. But the Ulya did not find support from the Byzantine bishopath (the Bishop of Mark Evgenik was the head of her opponents), which led to the coexistence in Constantinople two parallel hierarchies - union and Orthodox. After 14 years, immediately after the fall of Constantinople, the Osmans decided to rely on the anti-joins and put the Patriarch of the follower Mark Evgenika - Gennady Scholaria, but formally the abolition of Ulya happened only in 1484.

If the history of the Church of the Union remained only a short-failed experiment, its trace in the history of culture is much more significant. Figures, similar to Vissarion, Nicene, a student of the lamess of Fallon, Uniate Metropolitan, and then Cardinal and the Titular Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, played a key role in the transmission of the Byzantine (and antique) culture to the West. Vissarion, in the epitaph of whom words were knocked out: "Greece moved to Rome, Greece translated by Greek classical authors to Latin, patronized by Greek intellectual emigrants and handed over to Venice his library, which included more than 700 manuscripts (at that time, the most extensive private library of Europe), which became the basis of the library of St. Mark.

Ottoman Power (named so named First Ruler Ottoman I) originated in 1299 on the ruins of the Seljuk Sultanate in Anatolia and during the XIV century increased expansion in Malaya Asia and in the Balkans. The brief respite of Byzantium gave the confrontation of Ottomans with the troops of Tamerlan at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, however, with the coming to power of Mehmed I in 1413, Ottomans again began to threaten Constantinople.

22. 1453 - the fall of the Byzantine Empire

Sultan Mehmed II Conqueror. Picture of Gentile Bellini. 1480 year

Wikimedia Commons

The last Byzantine Emperor Konstantin XI Paleologist took unsuccessful attempts to reflect the Ottoman threat. By the beginning of the 1450s, Byzantium, only a small region retained in the vicinity of Constantinople (Trapezund was actually independent from Constantinople), and Ottomans were controlled by both the most of Anatoly and the Balkans (in 1430, Fassalonika fell, in 1446 he was devastated by Peloponnes). In search of allies, the emperor applied to Venice, Aragon, Dubrovnik, Hungary, Genoese, Pope, but real help (and very limited) were offered only Venetians and Rome. In the spring of 1453, the battle of the city began, May 29, Konstantinople Pal, and Konstantin XI died in battle. About his death, the circumstances of which scientists are not known, many incredible stories were folded; In the People's Greek culture, for many centuries, there was a legend that the last Byzantine king was facing an angel in marble and now rests in a secret cave at the Golden Gate, but the Ottomans will be awakened and driven.

Sultan Mehmed II The conqueror did not break the line of continuity with Byzantium, but inherited the title of the Roman emperor, supported the Greek church, stimulated the development of Greek culture. The time of his rule is marked by projects that at first glance seem fantastic. Greek-Italian Humanist Catholic Georgy Trapezund wrote about building the World Empire led by Mehmed, in which Islam and Christianity will unite in one religion. And the historian Mikhail Kritovoul created the praise story Mehmonda - Typical Byzantine Poagirik with all the mandatory rhetoric, but in honor of the Muslim ruler, which is nevertheless named with the Sultan, but on the Byzantine manner - Vasilev.