The types of cultural variability, in addition to development, are. Feudal monarchy
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Together with the sunset Kievan Rus ended the first civilizational period in the development of Russian culture, and from the middle of the XIII century. in its history, the process of formation and development of the Great Russian nationality and its spiritual characteristics began. This was the period of the formation of a centralized state, its internal consolidation and strengthening of international positions. As a result of the complex and contradictory interaction of ethnic, historical, political and cultural factors, a new ethnocultural complex has emerged, the center of which is North-Eastern Russia and Moscow. Naturally, a new ethnocultural community has developed - the Great Russians, that is, a new nationality with specific features of spirituality and mentality. After the Mongol invasion, the policy of the ruling circles of Russia was aimed at preserving the Russian Orthodox identity in the face of external threats and cultural expansion. This did not lead to the complete isolation of the country; it continued to experience the influence of both the East and the West, while maintaining spiritual ties with the Orthodox peoples. In such conditions, the formation of the actual Russian cultural archetype, which received the name of Muscovite Russia, took place.
Rome Constantinople Moscow. At the turn of the XV - XVI century. In Russia, the political theory “Moscow is the third Rome” appears, which substantiated the world-historical significance of the capital of the Russian state, Moscow, as a political and ecclesiastical center.
It was set forth in the epistles of Philotheus of Pskov. The essence of the theory boils down to the fact that after the fall of Rome and Constantinople, the true faith was preserved only in the Moscow state, therefore from now on until the “end of the world” Moscow is the third Rome. According to this theory, Russia is the historical heir and successor of the historical mission of the first and second Rome, and the Russian people were chosen by God. Philotheus' theory "Moscow is the third Rome" determined the spiritual and historical destiny of Russia in the context of the entire world history. These ideas of Philotheus provide an understandable explanation for the rise of Moscow, and also predict her messianic role in the future.
It should be noted that Philotheus's ideas combined elements of the so-called “Lasting Rome” theory, which is very widespread in Christian countries, according to which the history of the Roman Empire will continue forever. The desire to declare and emphasize their identity with the Roman state can be traced in socio-political thought different countries eastern and Western Europe... Philotheus's theory "Moscow is the third Rome" contains two main ideas: 1) missionary (the author calls on the Moscow sovereign to convert all pagan peoples in his kingdom to Christianity) 2) church (the prince must take over the management of church affairs).
Thus, the theory "Moscow - the third Rome" expresses the great-power idea of the Russian people, as well as the idea of God's chosen people of the Russian people. The ideology "Moscow - the third Rome" had a significant impact on the subsequent development state forms autocracy in Russia.
The topics of publicistic messages reflecting social development were questions about the power of the tsar and, in general, about the structure of the Russian state. The leading direction of social and political thought of the XIV-XV centuries. , reflected in the annals and other literary works, was expressed in a religious form the idea of all-Russian unity and strong princely power in alliance with the church. It was a feudal ideology in terms of its class-political content, expressing a progressive movement at that time towards the creation of a single feudal monarchy. This ideology developed with the greatest force in the works of Moscow socio-political thought.
In the late 40s - early 50s of the XVI century. I. S. Peresvetov writes his petitions to Ivan IV (possibly a fictional person). To express his views, Peresvetov uses a kind of literary device. He depicts a nonexistent ideal monarch - Mahmet-Saltan of Turkey, who, having concentrated all power in his hands, managed to establish fair relations and solid law and order in his state.
We observe a fierce dispute on the same problems in the famous correspondence (1564-1577) between Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky, one of his supporters in the 1950s. Having fled abroad with the beginning of the oprichnina, Kurbsky sent a message to the tsar, accusing him of tyranny and cruelty. Grozny answered. The entire correspondence comprises two letters from the tsar and three princes, who also wrote the pamphlet "The Story of the Grand Duke of Moscow." Thus, Kurbsky advocated a monarchy, but limited. Tsar Ivan, however, considered only a monarchy with unlimited power to be a true monarchy. This he proved - in in this case with a feather in his hands. Arguments are primarily facts from previous history, according to which "autocracy" exists in the Russian land "by God's will."
The struggle against the church found its expression in such a publicistic work as "Conversation of the Elders of Valaam" (mid-16th century). The author, a supporter of strong church authority, opposes attempts by the clergy to interfere in public administration and against monasteries taking over black peasant lands... His main demand is the complete abolition of monastic land tenure.
Most of the grandiose handwritten historical and literary works are associated with the activities of Metropolitan Macarius. By 1554 he and his collaborators had created the "Great Chetiya Menaia" - a 12-volume collection of all the books "read" in Russia: lives and teachings, Byzantine laws and monuments of church law, stories and legends. The works were distributed according to the days on which they were recommended to be read
Another major work was the "Book of the Decent Tsar's Genealogy". The degree book arranges the narrative according to "degrees". Each degree corresponds to the reign of the prince (from Vladimir to Ivan IV) and the metropolitan. This emphasized the idea of the unity of the royal and ecclesiastical authorities.
In the middle of the XVI century. the chroniclers prepared a new collection of chronicles, which received the name of the Nikon Chronicle (since one of the lists belonged to Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century). The Nikon Chronicle absorbed all the previous chronicle material from the beginning of Russia to the end of the 50s of the 16th century. A remarkable feature of this set is the presence in it of some data related mainly to ancient period Russian history, which are not found in other chronicles. The authors of the Nikon Chronicle also made an attempt not to simply present the material, but to explain certain events.
In the 70s of the XVI century. the compilation of the illustrated world history - the Litsevoy Chronicle Code was completed. It consisted of 12 folios, of which 10 have survived to us. In the obverse vault, world history is described as a change of great kingdoms - Hebrew, Babylonian, Persian, Alexander the Great, Roman, Byzantine. The natural result of this process is the formation of the Russian state.
Chronicle of the XVI century. are also represented by local compositions. For example, "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom" describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. In the 60s, the "History of the Kazan Kingdom" was compiled, which proved the historical justice of the conquest of the Kazan Khanate. By the end of the XVI century. one of the editions of "The Tale of the Beginning of Moscow" also applies
The genre literature includes such an original work as "Domostroy", the author of which was probably Archpriest Sylvester. "Domostroy" means "home economics", so you can find a variety of tips and instructions in it: how to raise children and treat your wife, store supplies and dry clothes, when to buy goods in the market and how to receive guests. The instructions, however, are sanctified by the authority of God and scripture.
Thus, the period of the XIII-XVII centuries is the time of the formation of the Great Russian ethnos and its main stereotypes in the mind, the self-determination of the Russian Church, and its finding of its place on the cultural map of the world. The desire for unity, for the unification of the people, which arose in the period of a difficult interfaith situation in Russia, is the central element of Russian self-awareness, which was supplemented by rebelliousness to those who wanted to encroach on the independence of the people; loyalty to the king (the father of the family for the people according to "Domostroi"); loyalty to the highest moral ideals. All these elements of self-awareness allowed the people to self-identify themselves as Russian, and self-awareness determined the further course of Russian history.
Degradation
Desemantization
Efficiency
Relevance
18. The characteristic features of primitive culture are ...
Mythological consciousness
Dominance of collective representations
Personal beginning
The origin of philosophy
19. Establish the correspondence of m \ y with the definition and concept:
1.the way of human existence and perception of the world, entirely based on the semantic relatedness of a person with the world
2.inseparability of cultural elements
3.belief in transmigration of souls
1.syncretism
2.archetype
4.reincarnation
20. Make the correspondence between the m \ u of a sculptor of the classical period and his work
1.Phidias -----
2.Miron ----------
3.Polyclet --------
1.Diskobol
2. Athena Parthenos.
3. Aphrodite of Knidos
4.Dorifor
Privacy
Public life
Church life
22. The pedestrian of Russian literature of the 16th century. Domostroy is a set of rules for ___________ behavior
Civil
Household
Moral
Public
The head of the family for Domostroi is the unlimited ruler in the house like the TsAR in the state
TEST # 4.
Does not apply to the main tasks of cultural studies
Social research Structures of various human collectives
Study of the genesis of culture as a whole, as well as individual phenomena and processes in culture
The most deep, complete and holistic explanation of culture, its essence, content, features and functions
Kulutra is one of the most complex systems, a kind of super-system, with the elements of a cat. Subsystems appear - separate cultural ones.
Achievements
Phenomena
Does not apply to fundamental cultural studies
Cultural semantics
Psychology of culture
History of cultural studies
Culture methodology
One of the founders of axiology is
L. Morgan
G. Rickert
The totality of cultural objects, forms, features, meanings, expressed in the symbolic form of yavl.
Acculturation
Cultural integration
Cultural text
Counterculture
6. The totality of changes taking place in culture in space and in time is ...
Culture dynamics
Axiology culture
Sociocultural adaptation
Globalization of culture
The process of assimilation by the individual social roles and the norms are called
Decentralization
By inculturation
Globalization
Socialization
A feature of the congregation of the New Time since the 17th century. Is an
Locality
Intolerance
Multilingualism
Democracy
He called Russia East-West
Plekhanov G.
Berdyaev N.
P. Chaadaev
A. Herzen
The Mesolithic era is characterized by
The appearance of the bow and arrow
The emergence visual arts
Transition to agriculture
The emergence of ceramics
The reason for the non-aggressive modus of Japanese culture was
Lack of military skills
Established aesthetic norms
Religions of Buddhism
The established economic and cultural complex
The main style of the era of Peter the Great's reforms
Romanticism
Sentimentalism
Classicism
The sections of cultural studies are
Applied Culturology
History of cultural studies
Ethnology
Psychology of culture
In C. Jung's concept, the collective unconscious
Inherent in all people
Has a cultural character
Based solely on instinct
Inherent in mediums, shamans, sorcerers
15. The process of cultural change includes ________ variability
Technological
Historical
Social
The political
For man western culture har-ny
The desire to "live by reason"
A clear separation of oneself from any object that is an object of knowledge
Reverence for all forms of life
Physiological Sensitivity
Human development in the Paleolithic era khar-sya
The emergence of rituals
The emergence of mythology
By the addition of proto-religious beliefs
The disintegration of the tribal community
18.Conformity m / y
3 the misanthrope
1 Jean Racine
2 Jean Lafontaine
3.Pierre Corneille
19. From D. T. Suzuki's commentary on Basho's poem:
“Look closely!
Shepherd's purse flowers
You will see under the wattle fence! "
Oriental art is characterized by ...
Lack of personality
+ detachment from nature
Pragmatism
Symbolism
20.Base - an outstanding Japanese ___ poet of the 17th century
TEST # 5
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Date the page was created: 2016-02-13
This article will focus on what the socio-economic life of Russian society was like in XVI-XVII centuries... Domostroy remains the main source for this period, so we will try to carefully consider different aspects of public life according to this source.
"Domostroy" was the main source of everyday life in Russian society in the 16th - 17th centuries. According to some researchers (S.M.Soloviev, I.S.Nekrasov, A.S. Orlov, currently D.V. Kolesov), the text of Domostroi is the result of a long collective work begun in Novgorod at the end of the 15th century. According to others (D.P. Golokhvastov, L.V. Mikhailov, L.I.Sobolevsky) the author-
The estate belongs to the Archpriest of the Annunciation Monastery in Moscow, an associate of Ivan the Terrible, Sylvester. It was his edition that became widespread in Russia from the middle of the 16th century and was used as a guide to family life for almost 200 years. Domostroy is on a par with such monuments as Stoglav, Velikie Cheti-Minei, etc., surpassing them in expressiveness and imagery of language. The book sets out the foundations of the Orthodox family and economic life. "Domostroy" is a kind of textbook on home economics, raising children, home and public Orthodox life.
He stands on a religious point of view and narrowly practical calculations and is exclusively occupied with family life. Domostroy does not apply public relations, the meaning of friendship, mutual services, there is also no consciously patriotic prescriptions, notions of obligations to the fatherland, which was carefully noted by his researcher Nekrasov. Domostroy combines 64 chapters of the set of rules, which are divided into 3 parts: On the spiritual structure (As faithful); About the structure of the world (How to honor the king) and About the structure of the house (How to live with wives and with children and with household members).
Domostroi is based on the relationship between a man and a woman, which was built in the system of patriarchy. In families where relationships are built in this system, the woman fully devotes herself to her husband, children and home. She has no right to decide important family issues... A man makes decisions alone. This fact can be seen throughout the reading of "Domostroi". The head of the family is the man who plays the role of husband and father. He must educate his wife, children and household. Obliged to teach not to steal, not to lie, not to slander, not to condemn, not to be angry, not to offend, not to remember evil, not to take revenge, to be obedient and submissive to the elders, to the middle ones - friendly, to the younger and the poor - friendly and merciful and any offense endure with gratitude for God's sake. Wives, children, and household members have a duty to obey and obey in everything. It is also believed that if a man does not teach good to his entire family, then he will destroy his life, house and servants and will be punished by God [1, p. 23]. Domostroy pays considerable attention to the position of women in society and in the family.
The woman is the keeper of the hearth and on her shoulders lies the creation of well-being and peace in the house. A woman is obliged to obey her husband, and to accept and fulfill any instruction or request with love and fear. In the morning, getting out of bed, having washed and prayed, a good housewife should direct the work to the servants and always control all the costs that go to business in the house. The hostess herself must be able to cook and teach her servants what she knows. And if the wife is a needlewoman, then she is obliged to sew shirts for her husband and embroider on the hoop with gold and silk. The hostess should not sit idle, but she needs to work all day, pray before going to bed, and in the morning get up before everyone else and wake up the servants and household members. The hostess can rest either at the request of her husband, or for poor health. A wife should not visit neighbors with the aim of asking for something, since a good housewife should have everything of her own.
She is honored only when her house is clean and tidy, the yard is swept, and the snow is removed in winter. Noticing a disorder in the house, the husband must definitely give his wife helpful advice or instruction. If the wife understands and accepts her mistake and obeys her husband, then he should praise her and help her, but if the wife does not act according to her husband's orders and does not teach his servants to obey him, then the husband should punish her bodily, “use fear in private”, and punish and welcome (probably fondle with kind word). At the same time, it is forbidden for a husband to take offense at his wife or wife at her husband. You must always live in love and in harmony. A woman should consult first of all with her husband, and then with good, kind wives, who can politely and politely give advice or guidance in solving any economic matters.
You need to talk with guests about handicrafts, about housework, about how to run the household and what things to do. And a good hostess, who has order in the house, on the table, unusual and beautiful handicrafts, polite servants, who are intelligent, kind and intelligent, need to be questioned especially carefully and obediently, since from such a hostess you can hear many useful and wise things that will be useful in life every woman. And if a woman is asked about something that she does not know, she must answer: “I don’t know that, I haven’t heard anything and I don’t know; and I myself do not ask about unnecessary things, I don’t gossip about princesses, or about boyars, or about neighbors ”. Also in "Domostroy" a separate chapter is highlighted, which tells that a woman is forbidden to drink alcoholic beverages at home and at a party, and it is also forbidden to hide food (to make hiding places). You need to eat with your husband at the same table. A good wife should not gossip to her husband about her servants, and if something happened and she cannot figure it out herself, then she needs to tell her husband the whole truth and consult with him in resolving this issue.
Honor in every woman has always been dearer than all beauties. The wife needs to be respected. The woman is the empress at home, an example of moral self-control, modesty and hard work for children and servants. Although after God, she is subordinate to the sovereign in everything, but is his first deputy in the family and home. They are equal before children, like father and mother; "According to Bose" they have the same honor and respect from their children. Domostroy pays great attention to the upbringing of children. Parents should keep and love their "children", take care of them, educate, teach politeness, "fear of God", not steal, not slander, not remember the basics, not get angry. When children grow up, the father begins to raise his sons, and the mother - daughters.
A father should punish his children in his youth: “if you punish him with a rod, he will not die, but he will be healthier, for you, beating him on the body, will deliver his soul from death. Do not laugh, playing with him in his infancy, in his infancy you had fun, but if you grow up, you will grieve, and in the future, like a sore throat for your soul. " And also the father should bring up children in prohibitions, protect spiritual purity and bodily dispassion and marry his daughter blameless. By observing all these rules, the father finds prosperity in the house and the forgiveness of sins by God. If the children sin, then the parents will take this sin upon themselves, and then they will receive ridicule and shame from people, and there will be a loss in the house.
And if the children are reasonable, reasonable, educated, trained in crafts and handicrafts, then such a family will have respect from the people, prosperity in the house and will be pardoned by God. The main task of children is to honor and protect mother and father and obey them. If children honor and respect their parents all their lives, then all their sins are forgiven and people glorify them. If a child insults and beats his parents, then he becomes cursed and doomed to "fierce death." The Prophet Isaiah said: "Whoever mocks his father and reproaches his mother's old age, let the crows peck him and the eagles devour him!" He who gives honor to his parents, obeying them in everything will become a consolation for them, and in a difficult life period God will help, save and hear prayer. The "child" must not forget the labors of the father and mother, and in old age you need to take care of them as they cared and loved their child from birth. And the main thing is not to hold a grudge and forgive your loved ones. Thus, we examined various aspects of the life of Russian society.
And we can conclude that Domostroy was based on a clear regulation of life, which was followed by most people in the XVI-XVII centuries. The relationship between a man and a woman was based on the system of patriarchy, the complete subordination of women to men. The woman was the keeper of the home and her main task was in housekeeping and raising children. But we know that the situation begins to change at the end of the 17th century, in connection with the Peter's reforms, which also affected the private life of people of that era.
References 1. Domostroy.-SPB., 1994.-345 p. 2. Kolesov V.V. Domostroy. - SPB., 2007 .-- 287 p. 3. Kornhin V.V. Domostroy lists of the 16th-17th centuries: the history of publication and study. - M., 2003 .-- 256 p.
Belokopytova A.L., student of 8 "B" class MBOU "Gymnasium No. 11", Yelets Supervisor: Shumskaya O. V., teacher of history and social studies MBOU "Gymnasium No. 11", Yelets
The ideology of absolutism in Russia can be defined as patriarchal. The head of state (king, emperor) is presented as "the father of the nation", "the father of the people" who loves and knows well what his children want. He has the right to educate them, teach and punish them. Hence the desire to control everything, even the smallest manifestations of social and privacy: decrees of the first quarter of the 18th century. instructed the population when to turn off the lights, what dances to dance at assemblies, in what coffins to bury, to shave or not to shave beards, etc.
Idea absolute monarchy appears in Russia in the second half of the 17th century. and is closely intertwined with projects of economic transformation of the country.
One of the first theoretical justifications for establishing absolute enlightened monarchy given by Simeon of Polotsk, who wrote his "Rod of Government" to the Church Council (1666-1667) . In the treatise, the royal personage rises to the level of the "king-sun", the divine origin is attributed to the royal power, any criticism or condemnation against it is rejected. The king is directly identified with his state.
Another ideologist of absolute monarchy, Y. Krizhanich, in his treatise "Politics" criticizes the theory "Moscow is the third Rome", seeing in it, as in the erection of the origin of the Russian tsars to Augustus Caesar, admiration for other people's models.
Krizhanich proposes a number of economic, social and political and legal transformations necessary for Russia. The author comes to the conclusion about the divine nature of the person of the bearer of supreme power.
Of the three (correct) forms of government - absolute monarchy, boyar rule and posad rule (republic) - he singles out the first as the best.
All government administration should be concentrated in the hands supreme ruler... No councils and seimas can meet without his instructions, no elders, judges, rulers or chiefs can be appointed in cities without his knowledge. Krizhanich calls the Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich the ideal of the monarch.
Krizhanich prefers a hereditary monarchy and proposes to legislate the inheritance of the throne by women and foreigners. Inheritance is preferable to choice, with which troubles and conspiracies are always associated.
The legal status of all estates in the country should be legislatively regulated, their rights and obligations in relation to society should be determined.
The ideology of absolute monarchy was most consistently developed by I.T. Pososhkov, who proposed in 1724 in the imperial name a project of reforms affecting all aspects of the state and legal life of the country ("The Book of Poverty and Wealth"). Pososhnikov associated the economic upsurge with the establishment of a strict rule of law.
The author of the project proposed creating a new "Judicial Book", a unified set of laws, the adoption of which he entrusted to the general council of the land, made up of clergy, "scholars from citizenship and from low ranks." It was proposed to take foreign (and even Turkish) legislation as sources for the Book. The sovereign himself must approve the Book, keeping in it only those provisions that he approves.
Pososhkov proposed to appoint judges from among people of low ranks, and to exclude high-born nobles from judges. The court agreement must be recorded, the court must be expeditious, the grounds for the detention of the defendants must be checked by the judges.
On the ground, it was proposed to strengthen police control over order (through sotsky, fifty and ten), put in order taxation, refusing petty and detailed extortions.
According to Pososhkov, the landowners are the servants of the sovereign granted by the land, and the peasants are workers temporarily transferred by the state to the nobles, a special form of remuneration for the service of the nobility. Like other authors, Pososhkov considered serfdom as a temporary rather than permanent measure.
Two types of absolutism
The state that emerged at the beginning of the 18th century is called the police not only because it was during this period that professional police, but also because the state sought to interfere in all the little things in life, regulating them.
In certain periods of the existence of an absolute monarchy, its ideology became ideology of education: legal forms emerged , reminiscent of Western European (French, English), attempts were made to create the legal foundations of statehood ("right-wing state"), constitution, cultural enlightenment.
These trends were due not only to the personality of a particular monarch (Catherine II, Alexander I), but also socio-economic and
political situation. Part of the nobility abandoned traditional and conservative methods of management and politics, looking for more flexible forms. This was facilitated by the cultural and industrial development of the country.
"Enlightened absolutism" arose in periods when the old (police and patriarchal) methods of government became ineffective. However, at any time, a return to the old methods could be carried out (the liberal period of the reign of Catherine II ended after the peasant war of Pugachev).
The system of government established in the era of absolutism is characterized by fairly frequent palace coups, carried out by the noble aristocracy and the palace guard. Did this mean weakening and crisis of the system of absolute monarchy? Apparently not. The ease with which the change of monarchs took place testifies to the fact that in the established and consolidated system of the absolutist monarchy, the personality of the monarch no longer had any special significance. Everything was decided by the mechanism of power itself, in which each member of society and the state was only a “cog”.
The political ideology of absolutism is characterized by a striving for a clear classification of social groups and individuals: the personality dissolves in concepts such as “soldier”, “prisoner”, “official”, etc. The state, with the help of legal norms, seeks to regulate the activities of each subject. Another feature is characteristic of absolutism - an abundance of written legal acts, taken on every occasion. The state apparatus as a whole, its individual parts act according to the prescription of special regulations, the hierarchy of which is closed by the General Regulations.
In the sphere economic ideology the philosophy of mercantilism is becoming dominant, orienting the economy to the excess of exports over imports, accumulation, thrift and state protectionism.
The economic base of absolutism
The area of origin of capitalist elements (without the manifestation of which the establishment of absolutism is impossible) in Russia became manufactory production(state and private), corvée landlord production, waste trades and peasant trade (of course, merchant trade remained the area of capital accumulation). In the XVIII century. in Russia there were about 200 manufactories (state, merchant, proprietor), which employed up to 50 thousand workers. However, there was no free labor market: registered peasants, migrant workers and fugitives were employed in factories.
Peasants
Despite the resistance of the nobility and bureaucracy, the peasantry played an increasingly important role as an economic factor. Along with this, serf labor prevailed over free labor.
This was facilitated by the fact that strong public sector based on the labor of serfs. Peasant obligations (corvee days) were not regulated by law, which increased arbitrariness. The exploitation of uncultivated peasants (artisans, otkhodniks) was not beneficial to the landowners, so they prevented non-agricultural economic activity peasants. The migration of peasants was strongly limited: the fertile southern lands were mastered by landowners and fugitive peasants; individual farming did not develop there (this was prevented by the legal equalization of single-family owners with state peasants).
The obligation to pay the poll tax and the quitrent tax, in addition to the landlords (serfs), was extended from 1719 to black-haired peasants, odnodvorets, Ukrainians, Tatars and yasak people, and from 724 to all those included in the census books. All this mass of peasants belonged to the state.
By this time it has already taken shape all-Russian market, the center of trade relations of which Moscow remained. Merchants, landowners and peasants traded. The legislator's attitude to merchant peasants- along with the establishment of permits and benefits for them, the law was constantly inclined to restrict this activity. In 1711, privileges were established for peasants who trade in cities, but already in 1722 village traders were forbidden to trade in cities. In 1731, the peasants were forbidden to trade in ports, produce manufactured goods and take contracts. In 1723, restrictions were imposed on the registration of peasants in the posad . In 1726, the issuance of passports to otkhodniki peasants began. The peasants were not allowed to volunteer in the army 1727) and take the oath (1741). In 1745 a decree was issued allowing peasants to trade in the villages, and in 1748 they received the right to enroll in the merchant class.
Black-haired peasants, those who lived in the community retained ownership of the arable land, mows and lands that they cultivated; could sell them, pledge them, give them as a dowry. They paid the state a monetary quitrent and performed duties in kind. The peasants of the non-Russian population of the Volga and Ural regions, in addition, paid tribute in kind to the state. A special group of state
the peasants were single-courtiers (who did not fall into the nobility-gentry, immigrants from Moscow service people). They paid the poll and quitrent taxes; from 1713 they served in the Landmilitia, which performed police functions until 1783.
State peasants had the right to transfer to other classes, change their place of residence, participate in state meetings, and were often exempted from taxes. At the same time, their lands remained the object of encroachments by landowners. The distribution of state land to private owners was suspended in 1778 (in the process of boundary reorganizations) and in 1796, when it was forbidden to sell state land.
Private peasants in the 18th century. made up the majority of the peasant population. The palace peasants living on the palace lands were under the control of the palace chancellery (since 1775 - the treasury chambers). From among the palace peasants by the beginning of the 18th century. the peasants of the sovereign were allocated, in 1797 transferred to the jurisdiction of the Department of Appanages.
The most numerous was the group landlord peasants. The sources of enslavement included birth, revision records, the securing of illegitimate foundlings by educators, prisoners of war of non-Christian origin (until 1770) and participants in anti-government uprisings. Serfdom could arise under contracts of sale, exchange, donation (until 1783).
The termination of the serfdom was associated with the serving of the recruitment service (the recruit's wife and children were also released), the exile of the serf to Siberia, leave on a letter of leave or a spiritual will, ransom, withdrawal of the landlord's estate to the treasury, the return of the serf from captivity, flight to remote outskirts and registration in state parishes, factories and plants (since 1759). The peasant, until he carried on his landowner, who had concealed serf souls during the census, received the right to find a new master for himself or go into the army
The position of the serfs. The decree of 1769 emphasized that the land on which the proprietor peasants lived did not belong to them, but to their owners. Feudal labor of peasants was expressed in corvee (starting from the 19th century it was limited to three days a week), "month" (when the peasant worked for the master all week, receiving monthly provisions for this) and quitrent in cash.
A large number of serfs are the landowner's courtyards who were supported by the community. Some of the proprietor peasants were allowed to rent or leased out (for a period of up to five years). Since the end of the 17th century. the landlords were given the right to sell.
Peasants without land, mortgage them, give them, bequeath them, exchange them for property, pay off debts with them. The decrees of 1717 and 1720, which allowed hired people to be recruited, further intensified human trafficking.
The landlords could move serfs from one state to another (from courtyards to plowed ones), from one village to another - for this, starting from 1775, an application was required to the upper zemstvo court and the payment of a tax for the year. The landowners allowed the marriage of serfs (the Decree of 1724 on the prohibition of coercion into marriage was not actually applied), those who got married without the landowner's permission were considered fugitives. For the purchase of suitors from other estates, certain amounts were released.
Buying real estate the serf could carry out only in the name of the landowner. Those who owned a shop or a factory paid the landowner a land tax. Peasant property was inherited only through the male line and in agreement with the landowner. Peasants could acquire inhabited land in the name of the landowner (from the 60s of the 18th century).
Registration of serfs in the guild(since 1748) was carried out according to a letter of leave issued by the master. From 1785, peasant trade was limited to products of their own production. Since 1774, the absence of a peasant from his place of residence was permitted only with a passport issued by the governor.
The Senate Decree of 1758 gave landowners the right to fine peasants, subject them to corporal punishment (sticks and rods), and imprisonment in estates' prisons. Since 1760, the landowners received the right through the local authorities send peasants to Siberia, from 1765 - to hard labor for any period. Peasants could be sent to restraining houses and recruits.
The return of the fugitive peasants (according to the decrees of 1661 and 1662) was accompanied by a penalty for the landowners who received them - several peasants were taken from him. For the peasants themselves, escape was punished with a whip or hard labor. The malicious harboring fugitives (landlords and clerks) were punishable by confiscation of property.
Economic "peasants... For the ability to manage monastic peasants, the number of which at the end of the XVII century. was significant, a struggle broke out between the Synod and the College of Economics, which took place only in 1764. All church and monastery peasants were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economics and began to be called "economic" peasants.
Unlike private owners, they could not be subject to arbitrary resettlement, but, like the first, they were recruited and punished with lashes. From among them, bishops and monastic ministers stood out, serving life corvee instead of recruiting and quitrent duties. In 1786, this category of peasants was equalized by the state.
Attributed (possessory) peasants... In 1721, a decree was issued that allowed merchants and factory owners to acquire populated villages in order to provide workers for the enterprises created. In 1752, the Decree determined the number of peasants who could be acquired to work in factories, but already in 1762 such a purchase was prohibited: only civilians with passports could work in factories. Then (in 1798) a new permit for the acquisition of serfs for production followed (in the Decree of 1797, these peasants were called "session" peasants), which was valid until 1816.
Since 1722, it was also allowed postscript to factories and plants runaway and newcomers working for them; in 1736, the craftsmen who worked for them were forever attributed to the enterprises, compensation was paid to their owners. But in 1754 a decree was issued allowing the owners of the assigned peasants to reclaim them. The factories retained the assigned fugitives, but it was henceforth forbidden to accept new fugitive peasants. According to the instructions of 1743, illegitimate and "staggering raznochintsy" were equated to those assigned (possessional).
Possessional peasants could not be sold separately from factories, transferred from factory to factory, set free, mortgaged or recruited for serfs. They performed the recruiting duty, paying tax, paid the poll tax, the factory owners could apply corporal punishment to them and exile to Siberia. A decree of 1754 granted the right to breeders to recruit artisans, and the Senate in 1775 recognized this category of peasants as private.
By order of the Berg and Manufacturing Collegiums, part of the state peasants. Unlike those assigned to factories forever, certain categories of poor and "walking" people were assigned for a period (five years). If these latter were equated with the status of serfs, then the former state peasants assigned to factories, since 1796, have restored their status of "state".
Changes in social structure Russian society of the period of absolutism (in its early stages) led to the emergence of a new social stratum associated with the capitalist development of the economy. Small trades and manufactures formed the basis for its appearance. Since most manufactories were privately owned, the issue of workers' hands became especially acute for the nascent entrepreneurship.
The legislator, taking into account the state interest in the development of industry, has taken a number of measures aimed at solving the problem
A procedure was established for registering state peasants (in the state sector of the economy) with manufactories and purchasing them with land, with the obligatory use of their labor in manufactories (in the private sector). These categories of peasants are called attributed and possessional.
In 1736, entrepreneurs were given permission to buy peasants without land, especially for use in industry, since 1744 they can be acquired by entire villages. The growth of wages in industrial production stimulated the process of registering peasants (a significant part of their earnings went through taxes to the treasury and through quitrent to the landowners).
There were measures by which the registered peasants could get rid of the work in factories: pay off by paying certain sums, or put hired people in their place. Most of the registered peasants were formed from private peasants and peasants, enshrined in accordance with the Decree of 1736.
Differentiation of the peasantry led to the separation of wealthy people from its midst: manufactures, usurers and merchants. This process ran into many obstacles of a socio-psychological, economic and legal nature.
Peasant withdrawal was limited to owners interested in exploiting peasants in corvee. At the same time, the increase in the amount of the quitrent stimulated the landowners to use the labor of the peasants on the side, in waste. For industrialists, the prohibition to sell peasants without land and at retail (1721) made it difficult to use their labor in factories and manufactures.
The management of the assigned peasants was carried out by the Berg and Manufacturing Colleges. The sale of these peasants was allowed only together with the manufactures. Such an organizational measure was possible only under the conditions of a feudal regime and by its nature resembled the attachment of the townspeople to the townships, and the peasants to the land, produced by the Cathedral Code of 1649. It prevented the redistribution of labor within the industry and outside it, did not stimulate an increase in labor productivity and its quality. However, this turned out to be the only way in those conditions to form a contingent of labor in industry, to create a "pre-proletariat".
Cities
Industrial enterprises and manufactories were organized near large centers where trade relations, commodity masses and workers were concentrated. New urban-type settlements began to be built around the newly formed enterprises, mines, mines and shipyards.
The emerging urban bourgeoisie was quite variegated in its composition and origin. In general, it was a taxable estate, but for some of its groups (manufactures, merchants of the highest guilds, etc.) special privileges and benefits were established.
By decrees of the 60-80s. XVII century all courtyards and settlements of individuals located on the territory of the posadov were subscribed to the treasury. The settlements adjacent to the settlements were attributed to the settlements, and their owners received other, distant estates in return. Belomest residents were forbidden to acquire new yards in the settlement; By a decree of 1693, it was forbidden to accept property owners and runaways in tax. As an exception, people from the "sovereign volosts" could be admitted to craft and trade since 1698
Customs charter 1653 and New trade charter 1667 the posad merchants were granted the right to free trade. New managerial and financial responsibilities began to be assigned to the merchants, for example, the collection of the "streltsy tax" (1681) or participation in the work of the Ship Chamber.
The cities began to form self-government bodies: Posad gatherings, magistrates. The urban estate began to take shape. According to the regulations of the Chief Magistrate of 1721, it was divided into regular citizens and "vile" people.
Regular guilds, in turn, were subdivided into the first (bankers, merchants, doctors, pharmacists, skippers of merchant ships, painters, icon painters and silversmiths) and the second (artisans, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, small merchants) guilds.
Guilds were managed by guild gatherings and foremen. According to the European model, shop organizations were created, which consisted of foremen, apprentices and apprentices, the leadership was carried out by foremen. The emergence guilds and workshops spoke of the fact that corporate professional principles were opposed to the feudal (suzerain-vassal) principles of economic organization, new incentives to work appeared, unknown to the serf system.
These systems (guild and guild), which emerged from the Middle Ages, at the first stage of their development by no means ensured the emergence of new bourgeois and capitalist principles. They got along with serfdom and absolutism.
Manufacturing stimulated the growth of trade turnover. The main forms of trading were trade fairs and torzhoki. The penetration of the rich peasants into the merchant class, the departure from the protectionist policy caused instability in the position of the old traditional merchants.
During his trip to Europe in 1698 ("the great embassy"), Peter I invited a large number of foreign gentlemen to work in Russia. In 1702, the same invitation manifestos were published in Germany, but in addition to masters, financiers, manufacturers and artisans were invited to Russia. Various benefits and privileges were established for those invited.
The Manufactory Collegium organized foreign training for Russian craftsmen. In Russian cities, the government encouraged the creation of artels, organizational form of entrepreneurship, in which there was a combination of labor and capital. Even earlier (at the end of the 16th century), trading houses(Stroganovs, Bazhenins, etc.).
The government provided financial benefits to the organizers of factories and plants: they were exempted from state and local city duties, they were given the right to trade duty-free (for some time), receive irrevocable subsidies and interest-free courts. The Manufactory Collegium undertook to support domestic entrepreneurship.
Until 1719 (before the formation of the Manufacturing Collegium), the owners of commercial and industrial companies were given the right to try workers in civil and labor matters.
By the decree of 1722 (July), it was forbidden to remove workers from factories, even if they were fugitive serfs; as early as 1721, manufacturers of non-noble origin were allowed to acquire populated villages, attributing them to factories. Convicted women were sent to factories for "correction".
The commercial and industrial class received rights and benefits that were slightly inferior to those of the nobility.
And the peasants. The use of methods of non-economic coercion, the combination of the supreme power with land tenure is characteristic. From the point of view of the Marxist theory, feudalism is a socio-economic formation replacing the slave-owning one and preceding the capitalist one.
See also
Notes (edit)
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Books
- Feudal monarchy in France and England X-XIII centuries, C. Petit-Dutailly. The book of the prominent French historian Sh. -E. Petit-Dyutailly (1868 1947) is dedicated to the development of royal power in two states of the Middle Ages, France and England, in an era when Western ...
- Feudal monarchy in France and England X-XIII centuries. , Petit-Dyutailly Charles. The author reveals the features and differences of both monarchies and at the same time shows the similarities and borrowings in the field of legislation and administration "from one bank of the Channel to the other". But…
