The subject and main objects of ecology. Subject of environmental law
Principles for analyzing speech violations(development, systemic approach, consideration of speech violations in the relationship of speech with other parties to the child's mental development) help to establish a natural relationship between different speech and non-peculiar processes: violations of auditory perception and deviations in the timeline, between pronunciation defects and phonism formation, between active and passive speech; Reveal the system interaction and interactiveness of the disturbed components of speech in the process of pathological development of the oral and written speech of children.
In the process of organizing corrective learning, great importance is attached general Principles: the raising nature of learning, scientific, systematic and consistency, availability, visibility, consciousness and activity, strength, individual approach.
Speech therapy effect relies on special principles: the etiopathogenetic (accounting of etiology and the mechanisms of speech violation), systematic and taking into account the structure of the speech violation, the complexity, differentiated approach, step-bypass, ontogenetic, accounting for personal characteristics, activity approach, the use of a workaround, the formation of speech skills in the conditions of natural speech communication.
In individual classes, the skills of proper sound is formed. The method of teaching pronunciation is characterized as analytically synthetic, polystensory, concentric (MA Povalyaeva) .
When eliminating speech violations, it is necessary to take into account the totality etiologicalfactors resulting in their occurrence (external, domestic, biological and socio-psychological factors).
So, in disliers, the wrong bite predisposes to disturb the articulation of sounds, underdevelopment of articulation motility. In this case, the speech therapy effect is combined with orthodontic intervention in the normalization of bite. Dyslavlia can be caused and insufficient attention to the child around the child, i.e. Social factor. In this case, the speech therapy work is aimed at the normalization of speech contacts of the child with a social environment, on the development of speech motility, phonderatic perception.
The content of speech therapy effect depends on mechanismspeech violation. With the same symptoms of violations of speech, various mechanisms are possible. For example, the replacement of sounds during disliers can be due to the inaccuracy of the auditory difference, the non-dissolution of sounds on the rumor or the replacement of these sounds due to the underdevelopment of thin articulators. When eliminating dischairs, the main impact on the leading violation is the non-recognition of the hearing differentiation or the underdevelopment of the articulation motility.
Principle system approach it assumes the need to take into account the structure of the defect, determining the leading violation, the ratio of primary and secondary. The complexity of the structural and functional organization of the speech system may cause a breakdown of speech activity as a whole, even with a violation of its individual links, which determines the significance of the impact on all components of speech in the elimination of speech disorders.
Speech disorders in most cases are syndrome,in the structure of which the complex links between speech and non-symptoms are distinguished. This determines the need for a complex (medical and psychological and pedagogical) effect, that is, the impact on the whole syndrome as a whole. A particularly significant integrated effect in the elimination of dysarthria, stuttering, alalia, aphasia.
The speech therapy effect is based on onhegenetic principletaking into account the patterns and the sequence of formation of various forms and functions of speech, from simple to complex, from concrete to more abstract, from situational speech to context, etc.
Of great importance in the implementation of speech therapy work has correctional educationin general, where the features of personality formation in children with various violations of speech, as well as age characteristics are taken into account. The speech therapy effect on the child with speech violations is associated with normalization. social contactswith surrounding people.
Personal features are particularly important in correction of speech disorders associated with organic lesions of the central nervous system (Alalia, Afaja, dysarthria, etc.) - in this case, in the symptoms of the violation, the pronounced features of the formation of the personality of both the primary nature caused by the organic lesion of the brain and The nature of secondary layers.
Correction of speech disorders is carried out with regard to leadingactivities. Preschoolers are carried out in the process of gaming activities, which becomes a means of developing analytic synthetic activities, motility, sensory sphere, enrichment of the dictionary, mastering the language laws, the formation of the child's personality.
Taking into account the leading activities of the child in the process of speech therapy work, various situations of speech communication are simulated. To secure the right speech skills in the conditions of natural speech communication need close communication in the work of the speech therapist, teachers, educators, families.The speech therapist informs teachers, parents about the nature of the speech violation in the child, about the tasks, methods and techniques of work at this stage of the correction, it seeks the consolidation of the right speech skills not only in the speech therapy office, but also in the lessons, in extracurricular time under the control of teachers and parents.
The speech therapy effect is carried out by various methods. Training methodin pedagogy, it is considered as a way of joint activities of the teacher and children aimed at developing children knowledge, skills and skills, on the formation of mental abilities, education of feelings, behavior and personal qualities.
In the speech therapy work uses various methods:practical, visual and verbal.The choice and use of methods is determined by the nature of the speech violation, the content, goals and objectives of the correctional and speech therapy, the stage of work, the age, individual-psychological characteristics of the child, etc. At each of the stages of the speech therapy work, the effectiveness of mastering the correct speech skills is ensured by the optimally successful selection of the corresponding group of methods . For example, when removing stuttering in preschool age, the efficiency of the speech therapy work is achieved by practical and visual methods. At school age, verbal techniques are predominantly used with visual.
TO practical methodsspenting exposure include: exercises, games and modeling.
The exercise- This is a multiple repetition by a child action when performing practical and mental tasks. In the speech therapy work, they are effective in eliminating articulators and voice disorders.
Exercises are divided by piecery performing(respiratory, voice, articulator; developing common, manual motility); constructive(Designing letters from elements, reconstruction of letters); creative,supposing the use of learned methods in new conditions, on a new speech material.
In the speech therapy work is used widely speechexercises (repetition of words with sound and others), gameexercises (imitation of action, animal habits), which remove voltage in children, create an emotional and positive attitude.
When performing exercises, compliance with the following conditions:
Awareness of the child's goal exercise;
Systematically, which is implemented in multiple repetition;
Gradual complication of conditions taking into account the correction phase of the age and individual psychological characteristics of the child;
Aware of practical and speech actions;
Independent execution, especially at the final stage of the correction;
Differentiated approach to analyzing and evaluating performance.
Game methodit assumes the use of various components of gaming activity in combination with other techniques: show, explanations, instructions, questions. The leading role belongs to the teacher, who selects the game in accordance with the intended goals and objectives of the correction, distributes roles, organizes the activities of children.
Modeling- This is the process of creating models and their use in order to form ideas about the structure of objects, relations and connections between their elements (graphic schemes of the proposition structure, syllable and sound composition of the word).
Visual methods- These are the forms of assimilation of knowledge, skills and skills, depending on the visual benefits applied in teaching and technical training. Visual methods include observation, viewing drawings, paintings, layouts, a demonstration of dia- and movies, listening to audio recordings, as well as showing a sample of a task execution, method of action that in some cases act as independent methods.
Observationit is related to the use of paintings, drawings, articulation profiles, layouts, as well as with a display of sound articulation, exercise.
Visual funds must comply with the following requirements: to be clearly visible to all children; Saw taking into account the age and individual psychological characteristics of the child; respond to the tasks of speech therapy work at this stage of the correction; accompanied by accurate and specific speech.
Benefits can be used with various purposes: to correct the disorders of the sensory sphere; for the development of phonderatic perception; development of sound analysis and synthesis; To secure the correct sound pronunciation; For the development of the lexico-grammatical system of speech; Improving connected speech.
Using verbal methods determined by the age-related features of children, structure and character of a speech defect, goals, tasks, a stage of corrective impact.
The main verbal methods are the story, conversation, reading.
Story- This is a form of learning, in which the verbal statement is descriptive. The story involves the impact on the thinking of the child, imagination, feelings, encourages speech communication, exchanging impressions. The retelling of fairy tales, literary works is also used.
Conversationdepending on the didactic tasks, there may be a preliminary and final, generalizing. The use of the conversation in the speech therapy should comply with the following conditions:
Rely on the sufficient volume of ideas, the level of speech skills and skills, to be in the "zone of the nearest development" of the child;
Take into account the features of the child's thinking;
Questions must be clear, clear, requiring an unequivocal response;
It is necessary to intensify the mental activity of children with various techniques;
The nature of the conversation must comply with the objectives and objectives of the correctional work.
In the process of speech therapy effects are also used various verbal techniques:explanation, explanation, pedagogical assessment.
Explanation and explanationincluded in visual and practical methods.
Pedagogical assessmentthe result of the task, the method and stroke of its implementation contributes to improving the efficiency of the correction process, stimulates and activates the activity of the child, helps the formation of self-control and self-esteem. When evaluating the activity of the child, it is necessary to take into account its age and individual-psychological features.
The speech therapy effect is carried out in the following training forms: frontal, subgroup, individual lesson, lesson.
Basic tasks the speech therapy effect is the development of speech, correction and prevention of its violations. In the process of speech therapy work, the development of sensory functions is envisaged: motility, especially speech motility, cognitive activity, attention, memory, the formation of a child's personality with simultaneous regulation or correction of social relations, the impact on the social environment.
Efficiencythe speech therapy effect is due to the following factors:
Level of development of speech therapy as science;
Connecting theory and practice;
The nature of the defect and the degree of severity of its symptoms;
The age of man, the state of his health;
Mental characteristics of a person, its activity in the process of speech therapy correction;
Deadlines for the start and duration of speech therapy;
Implementation of the basic principles of correctional and speech therapy;
Skill and personal qualities of the speech therapist (11).
Thus, the professionalism of the speech therapist, the choice of adequate tools and methods of speech therapy, taking into account the structure and nature of the violation of speech, age and individual characteristics of the child with speech pathology determine the perspective of the process of eliminating speech violations.
3. The wording of the tasks of individual classes in accordance with the leading directions of work.
The tasks of individual speech therapy classes are formulated depending on the correctional reference stage, the form of dislieves. At rinolalia, depending on the preoperative or after the operational period of work.
With sensory functional disliers, the work features are as follows:
1) preferential development in the preparatory period of the function of the resistant analyzer compared with the recycling (work on the audio differentiation of sounds);
2) focusing at work on the formation of phonderatic processes in children;
3) targeted work on the elimination or prevention of alphabetic substitution on the letter;
4) A mandatory stage of differentiation if you have a mixed sound in the speech.
Overcoming motor functional disliers also has its own characteristics.
1. In the preparatory period, preferential attention is paid to the development of the child's articulation motorcycle, it has enough clear and coordinated articulation movements. As for the development of auditory perception, it is important here to teach a child to distinguish the correct sound of sound from defective (for example, a normal sound pronunciation [sh] from the interdental).
2. As a rule, it does not arise in the special allocation of the 4th stage of the work - the differentiation phase of the mixed sounds.
During sensorotor functional disliers, depending on the prevailing symptoms in different versions Combine work techniques used to overcome motor and sensory functional disliers.
Based on the purpose and objectives of the speech therapy effect, it is justified to allocate the following stages of work:
preparatory stage; stage of formation of primary utility skills and skills; Stage formation of communicative skills and skills.
Speech therapy effect during disliers (E.N. Russian, L.A. Garaninina).
1. Preparatory stage.
2. Stage of the formation of primary pronuncutive skills:
Sound formulation;
Automation of sound in syllables, words, sentences, texts;
Differentiation of sound.
4. Stage of the formation of communicative skills and skills.
In parallel with the correctional work on the development of articulation in children improve phondeMectic processes.
On the preparatory Stage Use exercises contributing to the development of speech hearing, intensifying children to the speech of others and their own speech.
At the stage stopping sounds And their automation is working on the formation of the right phonamatic representations. Along with the articulation characteristics of the sound, its acoustic signs are specified (the duration of the sound, height, the presence of vibration, etc.).
At the stage differentiationsounds use a variety of sound discrimination.
1. Receiving a demonstration of the articulation of differentiable sounds (forms: visual, auditory, kineette, tactile).
2. Reception of phonderatic analysis, which traditionally includes three linguistic operations:
Phonematic analysis (sound highlights against the background of the word, determining the position of the sound with respect to other sounds, etc.);
Phonematics synthesis (drawing up words from a given sequence of sounds, drawing up words with a given number of sounds, etc.);
Phonematical views.
3. The connection of sound and letters.
The formation of phonetically correct speech in children with Rynolalia is essential to solving several tasks:
1) the creation of a long "oral outflow" during the pronunciation of all speech sounds, except for nasal;
2) mastering the articulation of all speech sounds;
4) the differentiation of sounds in order to prevent sound analysis disorders;
5) normalization of the rhythmic-intonation side of speech;
6) Automation acquired in speech communication.
Correction of speech disorders in children with Rinolalia must begin in the preoperative period (these classes are most fully considered Ippolites L.G and Yermakova I.I). Before the operation It is necessary to form the prerequisites for the correct sound;
4.Ins from compensatory movements facial muscles;
5. To make the correct pronunciation of vowels;
6. Prepare the correct articulation of available consonant sounds;
After operation Correctional tasks are complicated. Their goals:
4. Clean the mobility of a soft sky;
5. Ensure the wrong way of articulation bodies;
6. Prepare the pronunciation of all speech sounds without nasal shade (with the exception of nasal sounds).
1) the normalization of the "mouth exhalation", i.e., the education of the long-term oral air jet when uttered all the sounds of speech, except for nasal;
2) mastering the full articulation of all sounds of speech in accordance with the program;
4. Relation of didactic and speech material
TO technical means
During the pronunciation of pronunciation, special technical means and teaching aids are widely used.
TO technical meansapplications that convert sound speech into optical signals (instruments of type I-2, VI, Vibroscopes); Devices converting sound signals into mechanical (vibrators), etc.
The skillful use of these technical means provides a more complete perception of phonetic elements of someone else's own speech, which makes it possible to evaluate the quality of their own speech and make the necessary amendments. Vibrators are used both on the front and individual classes. Devices that convert sound speech into optical signals are mainly used on individual occupations.
TO tutorialsinclude: textbooks for pronunciation; tables; illustrations (demonstration material, time sensing material); Toys (sounding toys, doll furniture sets and dishes, dolls with a set of clothes for them, animal toys, balls, checkboxes, set for playing in sand - bucket, shovel, scoop, etc.); games (lotto, domino in pictures, "up-down", "circus", etc.); Special equipment (mirror, speech therapy probes, spatula, alcohol as disinfectant, wool).
Vitely didactic tables, illustrative material, games are usually teachers using parents with their own hands. Textbooks, tables, toys, games, illustrative material are equally suitable for both front and for individual occupations.
Mirrors, probes, spatula - affiliation mainly individual classes. If the necessary articulation does not work on the hearing imitation, then the teacher resorts to the development of intermediate articulation (for example, fricative P), showing the position of the speech organs in front of the mirror, or to other techniques using mechanical assistance of the probe, spatula.
Ecology- Biological science on relationships between live organisms and their habitat. This term was proposed in 1866 by the German zoologist Ernst Geckel. The formation of ecology was possible after extensive information was accumulated about the variety of living organisms on Earth and the peculiarities of their lifestyle in various habitats and there was an understanding that the structure, functioning and development of all living beings, their relationship with the habitat was subordinated to certain patterns that must be studied.
Ecology He studies as the influence of environmental factors into individual organisms and the relationship between living beings, the formation of more complex systems to the level of the entire biosphere. Despite this, the main object Traditional environmental studies can be considered the ecosystems of our planet of different levels of the organization (depending on the depths of the research) and their elements. The main thing subject Ecology studies are the relationships (their features and development) of living organisms, their groups of different ranks, living and non-residential components of ecosystems, as well as the nature of the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors for the functioning of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.
Subject of ecology - Structure or set of connections between the environment and organisms.
Basic object Environmental studies are ecosystems of our planet at different levels of the organization.
The goal of ecology - protection of the natural environment and the vital interests of a person from the possible negative impact of economic and other activities, emergency situations of natural and technogenic nature, their consequences.
Tasks of ecology Change depending on the lented level of living matter. Population ecology explores the patterns of the dynamics of the number and structure of populations, as well as the processes of interactions (competition, predation) between populations of different types. The tasks of the ecology of communities (biocenology) include the study of the patterns of organization of various communities, or biocenoses, their structure and functioning (circulation of substances and energy transformation in power circuits).
Among tasks of ecology The priorities are the following:
Study of the overall state of the modern biosphere, the conditions for its formation and causes of changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors;
Prediction of the dynamics of the state of the biosphere in time and space;
Development of ways to harmonize the relationship between society and nature, taking into account the main environmental laws;
Preservation of the ability of the biosphere to self-cleaning, self-regulation and self-healing;
Study of the patterns of organization of life, including in connection with anthropogenic effects on natural ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole;
Scientific substantiation of the rational exploitation of natural resources, predicting changes in nature as a result of human activity and the management of biosphere processes, as well as preservation of human habitat;
Development of a system of measures that ensure the minimum of chemical means of combating harmful views;
Environmental indication of the properties of certain components of ecosystems, including indication of pollution of the natural environment;
Restoration of disturbed natural ecosystems, including the reclamation of agricultural land, restoration of pastures, fertility of exhausted soils, productivity of water bodies, etc.;
Preservation (preservation) of reference areas of the biosphere;
Development of technological, engineering and design decisions, minimizing damage caused by the environment and human health;
Forecasting and evaluating the possible negative consequences of existing and projected enterprises (technological processes) for the environment, human, living organisms, various industries;
Timely detection and further adjustment of those technological processes that destroy the environment are threatening human health and negatively affect natural ecosystems.
Methods of ecology are divided into field (studying the lives of organisms and their communities in natural conditions, i.e., long-term observation in nature with the help of various equipment) and experimental (experiments in stationary laboratories, where it is possible not only to vary, but also strictly control the effect on living organisms Any factors according to a given program.
To study and predict natural processes, the method of mathematical modeling is also widely used. Such ecosystem models are based on numerous information accumulated in field and laboratory conditions. At the same time, the constructed mathematical models help to see what is difficult or impossible to check in the experiment. However, the mathematical model itself cannot serve as an absolute proof of the correctness of one or another hypothesis, but it serves as one of the ways of analyzing reality.
Also, with the help of methods of mathematical modeling, it is possible to establish the relationship between organisms in ecosystems (nutritional and non-functional), dependence of changes in the number (performance) of populations from the effects of environmental factors, etc. Mathematical models allow you to predict possible options for developing events, allocate separate relations, combine them (for example The number of features of fishing animals can be removed from natural populations in order not to reduce their density, providing outbreaks of the number of pests, consequences and the biosphere on separate ecosystems and the biosphere.
In addition to traditional methods have new. Among them, for example:
Statistical method that allows you to receive, process and analyze primary statistical materials.
The balance sheet allows you to compare natural resources with the pace of use.
A comparative method involves learning objects by comparing with others. In ecology often compare contaminated environmentally friendly areas.
Comparatively simple methods of mathematical statistics are widely used, namely: the processing of variational series with the determination of mathematical expectation, dispersion, mean quadratic deviation, obtaining intensive and extensive indicators for comparison, etc.
The combination of field and experimental research methods allows the ecologist to find out all aspects of relationships between alive organisms and numerous environmental factors, which will allow not only to restore the dynamic equilibrium of nature, but also to manage ecosystems.
So, modern ecology is one of the fundamental sciences about the relationship between the living and inanimate nature, the new philosophy of humanity, and it, like many sciences, is still at the formation stage.
1. Sections of ecology.
To begin with, we will give a definition of the subject of ecology. Ecology is a science on the relationship of living beings among themselves and with their inorganic nature surrounding them, on ties in the supervisory systems, on the structure and functioning of these systems.
Ecology as science has been formed only in the middle of the last century, after the information about the variety of living organisms on Earth has been accumulated, about the characteristics of their lifestyle. There was an understanding that not only the structure and development of organisms, but also the relationship between their habitat is subordinated to certain patterns that deserve special and careful learning.
The term "ecology" introduced a well-known German zoologist E. Hekkel, who in his works "Universal morphology of organisms" and "Natural History of Peace" for the first time tried to define the essence of new science. The word "ecology" comes from the Greek "Oikos", which means "dwelling", "location", "refuge".
Main sections
Ecology is divided into:
General environment, exploring the basic principles of the organization and functioning of various oversgan systems;
Private ecology, whose sphere is limited to the study of specific groups of a certain taxonomic rank.
General ecology is classified by the levels of the organization of supervisory systems:
Population ecology (sometimes called demo-ecology, or ecology of the population) exploring the population - a set of individuals of one species united by a common territory and a gene pool.
The ecology of communities (or biocenology) examines the structure and dynamics of natural communities (or cenos) - the aggregates of jointly dwelling populations of different species.
Biogeocenology is a section of general ecology that studies ecosystems (biogeocenoses).
The ecosystem is a community of living organisms and habitats, which is a single whole based on food bonds and energy production methods. And biogeocenosis is a stable, self-regulating, spatially limited natural system, in which living organisms and surrounding them are functionally interrelated abiotic medium.
Private ecology consists of plants and animal ecology. Comparely recently, the ecology of bacteria and mushrooms took shape. It is legitimate and more fractional division of private ecology (for example, the ecology of vertebrates, mammals, hare-beyak, etc.).
Regarding the principles of fission of ecology on general and private unity in the views of scientists. According to some researchers, the central object of the ecology - ecosystem, and the subject of private ecology reflects the ecosystem unit (for example, terrestrial and water; water is divided into marine and freshwater ecosystems; freshwater ecosystems, in turn - on river ecosystems, lakes, reservoirs and etc.) The ecology of the aquatic organisms and the systems formed by them studies hydrobiology.
Ecology division is applied to:
Autoecology, exploring the relationship between individual species with the medium (mainly with abiotic factors);
Syncology, studying communities and biogeocenoses.
This division is proposed by Swiss Botany K. Schretcher. Population ecology binds both of these partitions.
Many sectors of ecology have a pronounced practical orientation. Such is the agricultural ecology, the subject of which the agricultural ecosystems created by man.
The influence of the natural environment on the human society, the features of urbanized biogeocenoses studies emerging in the middle of 20 century. Ecology of a person. The increased risk of radioactive pollution of the environment led to the emergence of radioecology. The teaching of the biosphere is developed in particular contact with biogeochemistry. The relationship of organisms to the abiotic and biotic environment in the past geological era, the problems of reconstruction of the ancient cenosis in fossil residues are the subject of paleoecology.
2. Ecology and economy.
The history of the interaction of society and nature shows that humanity most often developed its economy due to the predatory use of natural resources. The spontaneous development of productive forces already in ancient societies applied irreplaceable damage to nature. The change in landscapes in large areas as a result of the destruction of the forest to create agricultural land, uncontrolled grazing of cattle, soil depletion, due to the emergency intensification of agriculture, salinization of irrigated land led to the degradation of huge areas and the decline of the entire civilizations of the ancient world. It is from that time that the rapid process of desertification began.
However, in antiquity, anthropogenic environmental impacts were still relatively insignificant, they could not lead to radical environmental changes in nature. And only the 20th century with the colossal development of the productive forces became a critical point of reference, which the fate of humanity was dependent on the nature of the interaction of nature and society.
The economic system as a whole is the production system, distribution and consumption of goods and services. As part of these processes, society and nature is constantly interaction. Any production and consumption is associated with the use of natural resources and environmental impact. Any economic decision also affects the habitat in the broadest sense of this concept.
Today, the violation of environmental equilibrium is expressed in many forms. It can be said that there is a single opinion that the main forms are: the irrational exploitation of non-renewable natural resources (sources of raw materials and energy), accompanied by a danger to quickly exhaust; Pollution of the biosphere harmful waste; The large concentration of economic facilities and urbanization, crucial landscapes and a reduction in free areas for recreation and treatment. The main reasons for these forms of expression of the environmental crisis are rapid economic growth and forced industrialization, leading to urbanization. Fast economic growth, based on the development of productive forces, ensures their further development, improvement of working conditions, reducing poverty and an increase in public wealth, the rise of the cultural and material wealth of society and an increase in the average life expectancy. But at the same time, the investigation of accelerated economic growth is the degradation of nature, i.e. Violation of environmental equilibrium. With acceleration of economic development, the economic development of nature is diminishing, the use of natural materials and all resources is intensified. With the exponential growth of production, all production resources are growing and the use of capital, raw materials and energy waste and waste, which are increasingly intensively polluting the environment so that nature contamination occurs on an exponential curve. The consequences of urbanized economic growth for the natural environment are multi-faceted, first of all, more intensive use of natural resources, primarily irreparable, puts us before the danger of their full work out. At the same time, with an increase in the operation of natural resources, the amount of waste introduced in nature is increasing.
Huge rays of raw materials and energy accompanying industrial development, send modern technology and quick search for natural resources. And the production of secondary products increases the mass and the number of new substances that are not in nature and which do not have natural assimiors, therefore, more and more materials appear in the ecosphere, which cannot be recycled or used in their vitality. It is possible to freely agree that the specificity of the modern environmental situation follows both the increasing impact of a person in nature and from qualitative changes caused by the quantitative growth of productive forces in the world. And the first and second points are based on modern scientific and technological progress, the prevailing technique of production, which are mainly created by the developed capitalist countries. The development of technology and technology is primarily focused on unilateral exploitation of natural sources, and not to update and expanded reproduction, it leads to accelerated developing rare non-renewable resources. The new technique contributes such changes in the natural environment that are not adapted to the conditions that dominant in it, whether it is about new processes and reactions, or a mass production for short term. These relatively rapid changes differ from the rhythm of natural processes, where mutations occur in fairly large time intervals. This discrepancy between the evolutionary course of natural macroprocesses and changes as a result of people's activities in individual components of the natural system creates significant violations in the natural environment and is one of the factors of this environmental crisis in the world.
The degradation of the natural environment and the ecological disorders arising from it are not a product of only technological development and an expression of temporary and random violations. On the contrary, the degradation of the natural medium is an indicator of the deepest industrial civilization and a superfluid method of production. Production based on three whales: Profit, opportunity, prestige, - on artificially stimulating needs, artificial wear and accelerated replacement of production products, becomes one of the main causes of nature disorders. Therefore, the protection of the natural environment from degradation in modern society cannot occur in the anti-human relationship based on the blind pursuit of profit.
Environmental law - This is a combination of legal norms regulating public relations in the field of environmental management, environmental protection and environmental safety.
Subject of environmental law. The legal sciences of items are subject to public relations, developing about any object and in the field of legal norms. The following public relations may be included in the subject of legal regulation:
Having a volitional character, i.e. expressed in the fact that the emergence, change and termination of data public relations It is possible and depends on the will of people;
Developing about objects of nature and their environmental bonds (associated with the withdrawal of substances and energy from the natural environment;
Using the useful qualities of the natural environment; introduced into the natural medium of substances or energy that did not exist previously in nature or existing in minor quantities; in connection with the transformation of the natural object used);
Particularly included in the scope of environmental and legal norms.
Since the subject of legal regulation means public relations to which the legal norms are directed, the subject itself is determined not by the "norm-manager", but according to the "fine-executor". So, lumbering works are carried out by a forestry organization in accordance with its charter. Working forestry, crucible, fulfill the conditions of employment contract, but, nevertheless, the attitude on the logging of forest (direct forest management) is included in the subject not civil, not labor, but environmental law, since the process of this forest management is resolved by forest legislation standards, which are norms " performers.
The subject of environmental law differs from natural resource right - a wider range of social relations, other quality;
from civil law - the lack of a property in the use and protection of natural objects, even if the latter and are material values; in the lack of commodity relations in the field of environmental management, although the law provides for the publication of environmental management, it does not give natural resources to sell and buy natural objects in connection with the exception of them from commodity relations and civil turnover;
from agricultural law - the difference in the right of law (the subject of agricultural law is public relations on the organization of agricultural production, and the subject of environmental law is the relationship of direct exploitation of natural objects).
The grounds of environmental legal relations (as well as other legal relations in the system of law) are legal facts divided into events and actions. The event arises and generates environmental and legal relations in addition to the will of the person. The action is the most common foundation for the emergence of environmental legal relations.
In the environmental law as a branch of law, the rules for the behavior of people arising from the objective laws of nature and the corresponding effects of these laws are recorded. In the form of legal norm, however, in a full form, none of the laws of nature is established. The right does not enshrine any scientific concepts in the field of ecology, in a certain sense, leading its development. Scientific concepts about the interaction of society and nature affect the formation of environmental law indirectly. At the same time, the knowledge of other sciences in the field of ecology is transformed into jurisprudence. As the need is aware, they are used to form and develop environmental law as a branch of law.
b) environmental law as a branch of law Includes a system of legal norms regulating public relations:
on the study, preservation and reproduction of the environment, including prevention and elimination of the consequences of human economic activities (environmental law);
according to the rational use of natural resources, the satisfaction of the needs and compliance with environmental rights of nature users (unites the norms of such independent natural resource branches of law, such as land, water, forest, non-dery (mountain), etc.). Environmental law also includes ethologized norms of other branches of law (civil, criminal, administrative).
There are three forms of manifestation of environmental law as a branch of law: legal concept (ideology), norms of law and legal relations.
Ideologyenvironmental law is the form of the conceptual policy of the state and the association of environmental and legal norms into the system. This policy is expressed by ideas, doctrines, theories that form together the legal concept of environmentally friendly sustainable development of society when interacting with nature.
Norms of environmental law Enshrid the environmental policy of the state in the obligatory rules of behavior of individuals, the rules for carrying out activities by legal entities and the subjective rights of these persons in the relations of environmental management and the protection of the environment.
In his aggregate ecological and legal norms Compose a system of legal norms that establish the legal basis for the implementation of environmental public relations.
In turn, environmental legal relations are public environmental relations resolved by law - legal links of law entities. Through legal relations, environmental law is powered and implemented. Without legal relationships as a form of manifestation of environmental law, it does not work.
c) environmental law as academic discipline
Environmental law as educational discipline represents a knowledge system expressing the main provisions of environmental law as a branch of science, rights and legislation formulated, taught and studied in a certain logical sequence for the best study and assimilation of these knowledge.
The environmental law rate system does not reproduce completely environmental law as a branch of law, legislation and science due to various understanding of their understanding.
The science of environmental law includes, for example, sections of knowledge about the history of development, on the methods of interdisciplinary interaction with other sciences, on foreign legislation and experience in the field of legal ecology and other sections that are not covered by the framework of environmental law as a branch of law.
At the same time, the educational course of environmental law cannot fully dedicted only to current environmental legislation. The main goal of learning environmental law is to prepare professional lawyers who can effectively work in the field of environmental relations regulated by the right. It takes into account the need for a clear orientation of them on the rapid change in the content and forms of legal regulation of environmental public relations under the organization of modern economic activities. The educational course of environmental law should provide training for lawyers who know environmental and other ecologized legislation that comply with and ensuring compliance.
Educational law is intended to form a learned knowledge and need to use the right to ensure the correct behavior of natural resources. Conscious perception of the environment, conviction in the need for a careful attitude towards nature, to the reasonable use of its wealth, an understanding of the importance of multiplying renewable natural resources.
Figure, large-scale, sometimes unforeseen and scientific unpredictability of the effects of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment causes the need to exercise ecological and legal education constantly.
Subject of ecology.
The subject of ecology is a totality or structure of ties between organisms and the environment. The object of study in ecology - ecosystems, i.e. Unified natural complexes formed by alive organisms and habitats. The competence of ecology includes the study of certain types of organisms (organized level), populations (population and biosphere as a whole (biosphere)
The main sections of the ecology.
Ecology is the science of the relationship between organisms and their habitat. The main traditional part of the ecology as biological science is general ecology
which studies the general patterns of the relationship between living organisms and medium (including humans). As part of general ecology, allocate the main sections:
– outecology, Exploring the links of a separate organism (species, individual) with its surrounding medium;
- population Ecology ( demecology) The task of which includes the study of the structure and dynamics of populations of individual species. The population environment is considered as a special section of outecology;
– sinecology (Biocenology) Learning the relationship of populations, communities and ecosystems with the environment.
-Gogographic ecology (geoecology) - section of ecology that studies environmental patterns of geographical processes in high levels of hierarchy (sushi, marine and freshwater, highty, etc.); here also applies and geochemical ecology.
At the junction of ecology with other branches of knowledge, the development of new directions continues: social, engineering, mathematical, agricultural, cosmic, geoecology.
Industrial (Engineering) Ecology He studies the impact of industry, transport, energy, agricultural production (technosphere) to nature, explores the possibilities of formation and patterns of functioning of simplified biocenoses used in technological processes.
Social ecology It interacts closely with human ecology, while the relationship in the Society - Nature system is considered. A wide interpretation indicates the ratio of society with geographic, social and cultural media.
From a scientific and theoretical point of view, the division of ecology on theoretical and applied is substantiated.
Theoretical Removes the general laws of life organization.
Applied ecology He is studying the mechanisms of the destruction of the biosphere by a person, the ways of preventing this process develops the principles of rational use of natural resources.
Methods of ecology.
The methodological basis of modern ecology makes up a combination of a systematic approach, inventory observations, experiment and modeling. Quantitative methods - measurements, calculations, mathematical analysis.
- Methods for registering and evaluating the state of the environment are a necessary part of any environmental research. Meteorological observations, determining the quality indicators of natural water, determination of the state of soils, measuring the illumination, radiation background, physical field strength, determination of chemical and bacteriological pollution of the medium. This group of methods include monitoring - periodic or continuous tracking of environmental quality. At the same time, modern methods of physicochemical analysis are used, bioindication (use to monitor the state of the environment of organisms, especially sensitive to changes in the medium and to the appearance of harmful impurities), remote sensing, telemetry and computer processing.
- Methods of quantitative accounting of organisms and methods for assessing biomass and productivity. For this purpose, calculations are applied on the control sites, in the volume of water or soil, route accounting, calfs and labeling of animals, observations of their movements using telemetry, aerospace registration of the number of studs, the accumulation of fish, the bodies of the angle, the state of crops and the yield of fields.
- Studies of the influence of environmental factors on the vital activity of organisms. In the laboratory conditions, the impact of the controlled factor, the functions of plants and animals are recorded. This way establishes optimal or boundary conditions of existence. This is how the critical or fatal doses of chemical and other agents are determined, according to which the maximum permissible concentrations and impacts underlying environmental rationing are calculated.
2. Biogeocenosis is an elementary unit of biogeocenotic level of organization of life.
Biogeocenosis (from Greek. Ίίος - life γη - land + κοινός - common) is a system that includes a community of living organisms and a closely associated set of abiotic environmental factors within one territory related to the cycle of substances and the energy flow (natural ecosystem). It is a stable self-regulating environmental system.
Biogeocenosis properties:
Natural, historically established system;
A system capable of self-regulation and maintaining its composition at a certain constant level;
Characterized by a cycle of substances;
An open system for receipt and energy output, the main source of which is the sun.
Biogeocenosis main indicators:
· Species composition - the number of types inhabitants in biogeocenosis.
· A species diversity is the number of species living in biogeocenosis per unit area or volume.
· In most cases, the species composition and species diversity quantitatively do not coincide and the species diversity directly depends on the studied area.
· Biomass - the number of biogeocenosis organisms, expressed in units of mass. Most often, biomass is divided into:
Biomass producers
Biomass consumes
Biomass renders
·Productivity
· Sustainability
· Ability to self-regulation
Forms of existing relationships between organisms in biogeocenosis.
6 basic types of relationships:
· Interjection (symbiosis, mutualism)
· Useful (commensalism) (cheating, tenant, fellowship)
· Intermediate (antagonism, competition)
· Neutral (amenzalism)
· Neutral (neutralism)
3. The evolution of biogeocenoses. Succession ecosystem, its types and stages.
The evolution of biogeocenosis is based on the evolution of individual populations of various organisms, and its result is the emergence of a community that includes new species, each of which performs the function inherent only to it in a holistic system.
Suksessia (from Lat. Succesio - continuity, inheritance) is a consistent irreversible and regular change of one biocenosis (phytocenosis, microbial community, etc.) Another on a certain area of \u200b\u200bthe time in time.
Views.
There are many classifications of Sukessions, in terms of indicators that can change during the Sukcession or for reasons shifts:
On the scale of time (fast, medium, slow, very slow),
On reversibility (reversible and irreversible),
According to the degree of constancy of the process (constant and non-permanent),
By origin (primary and secondary),
By trends in productivity (progressive and regressive),
On the trend of changes in species wealth (progressive and regressive),
On anthropogenicity (anthropogenic and natural),
According to the nature of the changes occurring during the suscession (carotrophic and heterotrophic).
Stages.
In accordance with the Trophic Biocenosis Structure, a primary role in the development of new habitats belongs to plant organisms. The development of vegetation in habitats, where there were no plants, designate as primary Suksessia, and in places with preserved, but destroyed vegetation cover - as secondary.
Suksessia completed by Climax - the formation of the community, the species composition of which in the future changes slightly. SUCSISSIA speed as the climax is approached. The process is practically terminated when the addition or exclusion of species does not lead to a change in the developing biogeocenosis environment, i.e. Equilibrium is established between elements of biocenosis and the physical environment upon reaching the climax.
4. Ecology of a person. Features of human ecology as biosocial science. Its methods and interdisciplinary.
Ecology of a person is a comprehensive ecological and socio-economic industry in knowledge, where all social, economic and natural conditions are considered as equally important components of human life, providing different parties to its needs.
The science area, which studies the patterns of occurrence, the existence and development of anthropological systems, which are a community of people in a dynamic relationship with a medium and satisfying their needs.
The main distinguishing feature of anthropoecological systems compared to natural ecosystems It is the presence of human communities in their composition, which in the development of the entire system belongs to abiotic factors, a dominant role. The activity of people's communities in the occupied territory is determined by the level of environmental impact. Developing communities, for example, during industrialization, are characterized along with increasing population, an increase in its needs in food, raw materials, water resources, waste disposal. This increases the burden on the natural environment.
The human ecology includes:
Social ecology;
Environmental hazardous factors (EEO), including chemical (chemical pollution of the medium), physical (electromagnetic, radioactive, vibration, noise, light, thermal), biological (biological pollution, infection of the environment, the source of which live organisms and live carriers) are mechanical ( Solid waste, garbage) factors.
Methods of human ecology
Own ecology methods can be divided into three groups.
· Field methods are methods to study the impact of a complex of factors of the natural environment on natural biological systems and establish the overall picture of the existence and development of the system.
· 2. Laboratory methods are methods that allow us to study the influence of a complex of factors modeling in laboratory conditions on natural or simulated biological systems. These methods make it possible to obtain approximate results that require further confirmation in the field.
· Experimental methods are methods that allow us to study the influence of individual factors of a natural or simulated environment on natural or simulated biological systems. They are used in combination with both field and laboratory methods.
In addition to their own methods, ecology has widely used methods of maternal sciences, such as biochemistry, physiology, microbiology, genetics, cytology, histology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, etc.
5. Medical ecology (object, tasks, methods). Environmentally dependent diseases, features of their flow.
Medical ecology is a comprehensive scientific discipline that considers all aspects of environmental impact on public health with the center of attention on medial diseases.
Medical ecology (synonym Medical aspects of anthropoecology) - section of anthropoecology and the direction in modern preventive medicine, analyzing communication and the dependence of public health and its violations from the factors of the environmental, social and technogenic environment.
Medical ecology is trying to establish the cause of diseases in direct communication with the environment, while the large variety of environmental factors, nosological forms of diseases and genetic characteristics of a person are taken into account. Physical, chemical agents are ordinary environmental pollutants. Features of human lifestyle (alcohol abuse, smoking) can also be included in the list of risk factors.
In the modern world, the city is extremely big effect on a person. Therefore, medical ecology is closely related to the ecology of the city, industrial ecology. In the 20th century began to increase the proportion of chronic diseases, which are currently dominated. These include oncological diseases, diseases of the connective tissue, the immune system, neurodegenerative, autoimmune diseases, the effect of chronic fatigue, and others. There are several reasons for this:
Accumulation in the environment of chemical, alien compounds (reaches 4 million tons annually);
The depletion of systems responsible for neutralizing toxic compounds (the human body in the process of evolution has developed only special mechanisms necessary for neutralizing (detoxification) of harmful factors of the outer and internal environment).
The inducer of the disease in humans can be various reasons. On the one hand, these are genetic defects of the hereditary apparatus, manifested in the form of pigment kservoch, Down syndrome, etc. On the other hand, the medium-based effects in combination with genetic changes form a huge amount of nosological forms of diseases. On the basis of this, it can be concluded that the increase in the number of chronic diseases is largely determined by environmental factors (abiotic and biological). According to WHO, 75% (for 2002) of all annual deaths in the world is due to the action and incorrect lifestyle, 90% of all malignant neoplasms are caused by environmental factors and only 10% are other factors. Analysis of the reasons leading to cancer shows that the main of them are environmentally unsafe food and smoking.
6. Medical ecology (subject, tasks, methods). Biogeochemical provinces and environmental diseases of a person.
Medical ecology (subject, tasks, methods). (see ticket 5 Start)
Biogeochemical provinces are areas on the surface of the Earth, differing in content in soils, waters and sediment sediments of chemical elements or their compounds with which biogeochemical endemics are associated with plants, animals and humans. More than 30 chemical elements are known (lithium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, iron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphorus, calcium, etc.), according to which the biogeochemical provinces are determined and the anomalous content of which causes endemics.
The following biogeochemical regions of the biosphere, which are a combination of several biogeochemical provinces:
1) Taiga-Forest Non-Earth - biological reactions of organisms are due to a lack of calcium, phosphorus, cable, copper, iodine, boron, molybdenum, zinc, sufficient, in some cases excessive, manganese, increased strontium content, especially in the floodplains of rivers. With a lack of calcium and phosphorus, in particular, the depletion of domestic animals and diseases of the bone-articular system they have, cobalt - a decrease in reproduction, meat and woolen productivity, copper - anemia in cattle and sheep, iodine and cobalt - endemic goiter in humans and sheep;
2) The forest-steppe, steppe black earth - the biological reactions of organisms are determined by sufficient, less often with the amount of calcium, a sufficient number of cobalt, copper, iodine, sometimes disadvantage of potassium, mobile manganese and often disadvantage of phosphorus. Diseases and biological reactions characteristic of the Taiga-Forest Non-Blacks of the region are not found;
3) dry-step, semi-desert, desert - biological reactions of organisms are associated with an increased sodium content, calcium, chlorides, sulfates, often boron, sometimes molybdenum, disadvantage of copper, iodine, manganese, in some cases - excess nitrites. The lack of copper, the excess of molybdenum and sulfate-ion SO4 cause diseases of the central nervous system, violation of the coordination of movements in young livestock. Excess boron leads to some diseases in humans, sheep and camels;
4) mountain regions - Biological reactions of organisms are diverse and are determined by the changing concentration and the ratio of many geochemical elements. Among the diseases there are various endemic diseases, chemical and morphological variability of organisms, endemic goiter, hypo and avitaminosis.
Examples of some diseases
Disease "Minamata" - human and animal disease caused by mercury compounds. It has been established that some water microorganisms are able to translate mercury into highly toxic methyl, which in food chains increases its concentration and accumulates in significant
Survey "Yusho" - poisoning of people with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). Known in Japan at the production of rice oil in the product hit the product from refrigeration units. Then the poisoned oil went on sale as animal feed. At first, about 100 thousand chickens died, and soon people had the first symptoms of poisoning. This was expressed in changing the color of the skin, in particular the darkening of the skin in children born from mothers who suffered from PCB poisoning. Late the heavy lesions of the internal organs (liver, kidneys, spleen) and the development of malignant tumors were discovered.
7. Environment. Human habitat. Environmental factors, their classification.
Surrounding organic world - Compound part of the environment of each living being. Mutual communication of organisms - the basis of the existence of biocenoses and populations.
Wednesday is one of the main environmental concepts that means the entire spectrum of the organism of the elements and conditions in the part of the space where the body lives, everything, among which he lives and what directly interacts. At the same time, the organisms, adapting to a certain set of specific conditions, in the process of life, themselves gradually change these conditions, i.e. Wednesday of its existence.
Habitat is the part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts. The components and properties of the medium are diverse and changeable. Any living creature lives in a complex, changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulates its livelihoods in accordance with its changes.
The habitat of the body is a combination of abiotic and biotic conditions of his life. The properties of the medium are constantly changing, and any creature to survive, adapts to these changes.
The impact of the medium is perceived by organisms through the medium factors called environmental.
Classification of factors.
1. Factors of inanimate nature (abiotic): climatic, atmospheric, soil, etc.
2. Factors of wildlife (biotic) - the influence of some organisms to others: from the side of plants (phytogenic), animals (zogenic), etc.
3. The factors of human activity (anthropogenic): direct influence on organisms (fishing) or indirect - to habitats (pollution of the medium).
Modern environmental problems and increasing interest in ecology are associated with the action of anthropogenic factors.
There is a classification of the degree of adaptation of organisms to them in periodicity (change of day, seasons of the year, tidal phenomena, etc.) and the direction of action (warming Kli Mata, the wiping of the territories, etc.). Organisms are easiest to adapt to clearly changing factors (strictly periodic, directed). Adaptation to them is often hereditated. Even if the factor changes the frequency, the body continues to maintain adaptation to it for some time, to act in the rhythm of the biological clock (when changing time zones). The greatest difficulties for adaptation are factors indefinite, for example, anthropogenic factors. Many of them act as harmful (pollutants). From the rapidly changing factors, there is a great concern today of climate change (in particular, due to the greenhouse effect), a change in water ecosystems (due to the amelioration, etc.). In some cases, in relation to them, the organisms use mechanisms of predaptations, i.e., adaptations developed with respect to other factors. For example, plant resistance to air pollution to some extent, structures that slow down the processes of absorption of substances are also favorable, which are also favorable and for drought-resistant, in particular dense cover fabrics of the leaves. This must be taken into account for example, when selecting types for growing in areas with high industrial load, as well as for gardening cities.
8. Man as an object of action of environmental factors. Adaptation of man to habitat.
Due to the biosocial nature of a person adapting it to habitat, partly biological, but mainly social nature. Currently, socio-hygienic measures have been predominant for developing new living environments and creating the best living conditions in already developed media, the results of which is the improvement of funds and livelihood systems, achieving the condition of comfort in human habitats. Adaptations are created in relation to factors of both natural and artificial media, so they are not only ecological, but also socio-economic.
Socio-hygienic measures aimed at optimizing the living conditions and production activities include the device of housing and other premises, the design of clothing, the organization of food and water supply, the rational mode of work and recreation, consciously directional training of the body and much more.
The basis of human adaptation is the socio-economic mechanisms, but an important role also belongs to the state of natural adaptive and protective mechanisms that constitute the biological legacy of people. It is sufficiently demonstratively this role is detected in the transition to habitats with extreme conditions, which manifest themselves due to the presence of a pronounced adverse effect on the populated territory of the environmental factor or a combination of factors.
Over time, part of people, the function indicators are returned to a normal level. Others remain modified compared to the initial values, however, health and well-being are restored. In such cases, they are talking about the acclimatization of people to new habitat conditions. For plants and animals transferred to an unusual habitat, the acclimatization criterion serves their survival, for people - restoration of high working capacity. The change in the physiological mechanisms during acclimatization is often complicated.
In the adaptations of human populations to new extreme conditions in which they turn out to be a huge role playing their original genetic polymorphism. In each population of a person, heterogeneous constitutional types can be distinguished, differing from each other with features of adaptation to new conditions due to the differences in their genotypic characteristics. Especially clearly differ from each other types "Styer" and "Sprinter". The artist's body is rather poorly adapted to withstand powerful short-term loads, but after a relatively short restructuring, it is able to transfer long-term uniform effects of environmental factors in inadequate conditions.
The Sprinter type can carry out powerful physiological reactions in response to strong, but short-term effects of extreme environmental conditions. The long action of adverse factors even relatively small intensity is carried by the sprints badly. Along with these extreme types, there is an intermediate version - "Mix", characterized by average adaptation abilities.
The long-term existence of groups of people in the territories, differing in the prevailing climatic, alimentary and other factors, led to the formation of symptoms reproduced in a number of generations. These complexes correspond to environmental types of people and determine a higher level of adaptability to accommodation in a certain biogeographical environment due to biological mechanisms.
9. Concepts about adaptive types. The characteristics of the main adaptive types.
The adaptive type is the reaction rate, independently (convergent) arising in similar habitats, in populations that may not be interconnected by genetically. According to this hypothesis, several sustainable biological characteristics are sufficiently distinguished.
There are four main adaptive types: arctic, continental, equatorial and pre-saying.
The arctic adaptive type is characterized by the amplification of gas exchange, high cholesterol content and immune proteins in serum, reinforced skeleton mineralization. It is submitted by the description of the Saami, Forest Nenets, Chukchi and Eskimos.
Pre-saying adaptive type, data on which is based on the study of the foothill Tajiks. Different with a decrease in gas exchange and a skimmed mass of body- formed this type as a reaction to a wet and cold climate. Reducing cholesterol content in blood serum, high content of immune proteins, strongly mineralized skeleton - formed for the lack of oxygen.
Continental adaptive type is characterized based on the description of morphophysiological features of Buryat. Different with a decrease in the specific weight of the skimmed body weight, significant fat, weak skeletal mineralization, amplification of protein fractions of serum. A peculiar sign of this type from a morphophysiological point of view is relative short-ray. In general, the whole complex is the amount of adaptation to the continental climate.
Equatorial adaptive type represents a similar amount of adaptations, but to a tropical climate, expressed in Bushmen, a bow and Indian nations. Its characteristic features - a relative increase in the surface of evaporation along with a high content of immune and construction proteins in serum, i.e. A certain adaptation to the wet heat.
In addition to the adaptive types already listed, the adaptive type of moderate belt, presented by Central European and Eastern European populations, and characterized by the average development of the properties mentioned above. Such a neutral complex corresponds to the most optimal conditions for a moderate belt.
10. Anthropogenic environmental systems. City as a habitat of people.
A distinctive feature of anthropogenic ecosystems is that the dominant environmental factor in them is represented by community of people and products of its production and social activities.
In an anthropogenic ecosystem, artificial medium prevails over natural.
The most important modern anthropogenic ecosystems: cities, rural settlements, transport communications.
City as a habitat of people.
For the current state of development of human society, intensive urbanization is characterized. The number of inhabitants of large cities is growing. In countries with high population density, the merger of neighboring cities and the formation of extensive territories with a high level of urbanization - megacities occurs.
The living conditions in the cities are peculiar: on the one hand, in the city, the problems of employment, food supply, medical care, from the other - in the cities are most pronounced by the conversion of a natural environment, which often leads to negative consequences.
High clouds and fogs in cities lead to a weakening of illumination, as well as reduce the intensity of ultraviolet radiation, reaching the surface of the Earth. The lack of light leads to the increase in cases of hypovitaminosis D and Rakhita in city children and reduces their resistance to colds and child infectious diseases. Other unfavorable factors of the urban environment are noise and vibration, as a result, it is more common to defeat the auditory and neurosis more often.
The high pace of life, constant stress, hypodynamics of citizens and high calorie food contribute to the violation of the functions of the nervous, cardiovascular systems, metabolism. The incidence rate in cities is 1.5% -2 times higher than in rural areas.
Cities are also characterized by low birth rate, and their population growth occurs mainly due to the influx of people from rural areas.
11. Agrocenoses. The difference between agrocenoses from natural biogeocenoses.
There are two main types of agricultural ecosystems: extensive and intense agrocenaries. The first exist using human and animal muscular energy. Products of these systems are used to feed families of small farmers and for sale or exchange in the local market. The second are associated with major costs of chemical energy and machines. Food products are produced here in an amount exceeding local needs, and they are exported to sell, playing an important role in the economy.
Unlike the cities of agrocenosis, or agricultural ecosystems, are characterized by the main component - autotrophic organisms, which provide them with organic matter and excrete oxygen. From natural biogeocenoses, they differ in the following features:
1. In addition solar energy To maintain agro-profits, additional energy costs are needed: chemical in the form of fertilizers, mechanical in the form of work of human muscles and animals, as well as energy combustible materials and electricity.
2. The species diversity of organisms is sharply reduced and represented by individual agricultural crops, sometimes even one, weeds and pests of agricultural plants, as well as a limited number of domestic types.
3. Dominant plants and animals are under control artificial selection. Agrocenoses are organized in such a way as to obtain the maximum amount of food. Currently, about 10% of ice-free sushi is occupied by arable land, 20% are used as pastures.
12. Modern biosphere concepts.
The term biosphere - for the first time he was proposed by Lamarcom in 1802, and in 1875 Zyuss applied this term to denote the living shell of the Earth. The doctrine of the biosphere developed Vernadsky, which, the biosphere called the Earth shell, in the formation of which living organisms play a major role.
The biosphere is a complex multicomponent system, which includes the entire live and non-living nature. It covers part of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and upper part of the lithosphere, interconnected by biogeochemical cycles of migration of substances and energy.
IN AND. Vernadsky considered the biosphere as a region of life, including along with organisms and their habitat. He allocated seven different in the biosphere, but geologically interrelated types of substances:
Live substance - living organisms inhabiting our planet.
Bone substance - non-residential bodies resulting from the processes that are not related to the activities of living organisms (rocks of igneous and metamorphic origin, some sedimentary rocks).
Biogenic substance - non-living bodies resulting from the vital activity of living organisms (some sedimentary rocks: limestone, chalk, et al., As well as oil, gas, stone coal, atmospheric oxygen, etc.).
Biocosal substance - biocosna bodies, which are the result of joint activities of living organisms and geological processes (soil, iba, weathering bark, etc.).
Radioactive substance - atoms of radioactive elements (for example, uranium (238U, 235U), thorium (232th), radium (226RA) and radon (222RN, 220RN), potassium (40K), Rubidium (87RB), calcium (CA), zirconium ( 96ZR), tritium (3H), beryllium (7W, 10W) \u200b\u200band carbon (14c), etc.
Scattered atoms are separate atoms of elements found in nature in a scattered state (in this state often there are atoms of micro- and ultrasic-elements: Mn, CO, Zn, C, AI, ND, etc.)
The substance of cosmic origin is a substance coming to the surface of the Earth from space (meteorites, cosmic dust).
13. Structure and functions of the biosphere. Biosphere borders.
The structure of the biosphere.
The gas shell consists mainly from nitrogen and oxygen. In small quantities, carbon dioxide is held in it (0.03%) and ozone. The state of the atmosphere has a great influence on the physical, chemical and biological processes on the surface of the Earth and in the aquatic environment. For biological processes, the greatest significance has: oxygen used for breathing and mineralization of a dead organic matter, carbon dioxide, which is involved in photosynthesis, and ozone, shielding the earth's surface from solid ultraviolet radiation. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water pairs were formed largely due to volcanic activity, and oxygen - as a result of photosynthesis.
The biological spectrum of the structure of the biosphere has a stepped character: community, population, organism, organ, cell, gene.
Biosphere borders.
Live organisms are unevenly distributed in the geological shells of the Earth: a lithosphere, a hydrosphere and an atmosphere. Therefore, the biosphere now includes the top of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the lower part of the atmosphere.
Lithosphere is the upper solid sheath of the Earth. Its thickness fluctuates in the range of 50-200 km. The spread of life in it is limited and sharply decreases with depth. The overwhelming number of species is concentrated in the upper layer having a thickness of several tens of centimeters. Some species penetrate into a depth of several meters or tens of meters (rolling animals - moles, worms; bacteria; roots of plants). The greatest depth on which some types of bacteria were discovered are 3-4 km (in groundwater and oil-bearing horizons). The spread of life in the depth of the lithosphere is hampered by various factors. The penetration of plants is impossible due to the lack of light. For all forms of life, environmental density and temperature serve as significant obstructions. On average, the temperature increase is about 3 ° C per every 100 m. That is why the lower boundary of life distribution in the lithosphere is considered three kilometer depth, (where the temperature reaches about +100 ° C).
The hydrosphere is an aqueous membrane of the Earth, is a combination of oceans, seas, lakes and rivers. Unlike the lithosphere and the atmosphere, it is completely mastered by alive organisms. Even at the Day of the World Ocean, at depths of about 12 km, a variety of living beings (animals, bacteria) were found. However, the bulk of species dwells in the hydrosphere in the range of 150-200 m from the surface. This is due to the fact that the light penetrates this depth. And, consequently, in lower horizons it is impossible to exist plants and many species dependent in plant nutrition. The spread of organisms at large depths is provided by the permanent "rain" of excrement, residues of dead organisms falling from the upper layers, as well as predatoryness. The hydrobionts inhabit both fresh and salted water and in habitat are divided into 3 groups:
1) Plankton - organisms living on the surface of water bodies and passively moving through the movement of water;
2) necton - actively moving in the thickness of water;
3) Benthos - organisms living on the bottom of the reservoirs or burned in il.
The atmosphere is the Gas Sheath of Earth, which has a certain chemical composition: about 78% nitrogen, 21 - oxygen, 1 - argon and 0.03% carbon dioxide. The biosphere includes only the lowest layers of the atmosphere. Life in them cannot exist without direct communication with the lithosphere and hydrosphere. Large wood plants reaches several tens of meters in height, having up their crowns. For hundreds of meters, flying animals are raised - insects, birds, bats. Some types of prey birds rise by 3-5 km above the surface of the Earth, looking for their prey. Finally, ascending air flows are passively recorded on tens of kilometers up bacteria, spores of plants, mushrooms, seeds. However, all the listed flying organisms or entered bacteria are only temporarily in the atmosphere. There are no organisms that are constantly living in the air.
Upper border The biosphere is taken to consider the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 30 to 50 km above the surface of the Earth. It protects everything alive on our planet from powerful ultraviolet solar radiation, to a large extent absorbing these rays. Above the ozone layer, the existence of life is impossible.
The structure and functioning of the biosphere.
The biosphere is a global environmental system consisting of a variety of lower grade ecosystems, biogeocenoses, whose interaction with each other and is due to its integrity. Indeed, biogeocenoses exist not isolated - between them there are direct connections and relationships. For example, in the aqueous biogeocenoses by the wind, rains, mineral and organic substances are taken out of terrestrial ecosystems. There may be a movement of organisms from one biogeocenosis to another (for example, seasonal animal migrations). Finally, all unites the atmosphere of the Earth, which serves as a common reservoir for living beings. It comes in oxygen (released by plants during photosynthesis) and carbon dioxide (formed in the process of respiration of aerobic organisms). From the atmosphere of the plants of all ecosystems draw carbon dioxide, which is necessary to them in the process of photosynthesis, and all breathing organisms are obtained by oxygen.
The existence of the biosphere is based on a continuously performed cycle of substances, the energy basis of which is sunlight.
The cycle of substances in nature between living and inanimate matter is one of the most characteristic features of the biosphere. Biological circulation is a biogenic migration of atoms from the environment in organisms and from organisms to the environment. Biomass performs other functions:
1) Gas - constant gas exchange with an external environment due to the breath of living organisms and photosynthesis of plants;
2) concentration - constant biogenic migration of atoms into living organisms, and after their death - in a non-living nature;
3) Oxidative-zero-state - metabolism and energy with an external environment. During dissimulation, organic substances are oxidized, the ATP energy is used when assimilation;
4) biochemical - chemical transformations of substances that make up the basis of the body's vital activity.
14. Biotic cycle. Consider on the example of the cycle of one element.
Biotic cyphans.
The sustainable functioning of the ecosystems and the performance of various functions is possible only under the condition of the law of constancy of the substance and energy, which is implemented in biotic circulation. Global migration cycles of chemical elements in the biosphere are associated with outer shells of our planet (atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere) into a single whole, providing, on the one hand, its stability, and on the other - the continuous evolution of its composition.
K. Baer established the law of leaning. Vernadsky very figuratively formulates this law. The law of leracity: atoms included in some form of a living agent captured by a single life swirl returned, and it may not be returned back to the bone matter of the biosphere.
Thanks to the "law of leaning", you can talk about atoms remaining within the live matter during the geological periods, all the time in motion and migration, but not back into oblique matter. In other words, the basis of the functioning of a living thing is a biotic cycle of substances. The biotic circulation is ensured by the interaction of the three main groups of organisms:
1) producers - green plants carrying photos of photosynthesis, and bacteria capable of chemosynthesis; They create a primary organic matter;
2) consumers consuming organic matter; These are vegetative and predatory animals;
3) renders decomposing a dead organic substance to mineral; This is basically bacteria, mushrooms and the simplest animals.
On the ascending branch of a biotic cycle, based on the implementation of the energy function with green plants, the accumulation of solar energy in the form of organic substances synthesized by plants from inorganic connections - carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, ash nutritional elements. The descending branch of the biotic cycle is associated with the losses of the organic matter. The most important process is the respiration of plants, in which up to half of the organic substance assimilated at photosynthesis is oxidized to CO2 and returns to the atmosphere. The second essential process of spending organic matter and energy accumulated in it is the consumption of plants by animals. Popular energy is also largely consumed for breathing, life activity, reproduction, stand out with excrement.
In biotic cycle, in addition to the organic substance of elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen), a large number of biologically important elements (nitrogen, calcium, sodium, potassium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur) are involved, as well as trace elements (bromine, iodine, molybdenum, copper, and Magnesium, lead, cobalt, nickel). The list of elements absorbed by the living substance can be significantly expanded, and even poisonous elements (mercury, selenium, arsenic) and radioactive are included in it. Global migration cycles of chemical elements not only associate three outer shells of our planet into a single whole, but also determine the continuous evolution of its composition.
Carbon cycle.
Carbon in the biosphere is often represented by the most mobile form - carbon dioxide. The source of primary carbon dioxide of the biosphere is volcanic activities associated with the age-old degassing of the mantle and the lower horizons of the earth's crust.
Migration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's biosphere flows in two ways. The first path consists in absorbing it in the process of photosynthesis with the formation of organic substances and in the subsequent disposal of them in the lithosphere in the form of peat, coal, mountain slates, scattered organic, sedimentary rocks.
15. The evolution of the biosphere.
The living agent is sharply isolated from the environment in the form of billions of organisms, the dimensions of which range from hundreds of meters to 10-6 cm. They are autarchic * centers of energy and physicochemical processes and are continuously associated with the environment of biogenic migration of atoms of this environment in them And of them. The laws of physics and chemistry in the living substance are the same we observe in the rest of nature, but they do not cover the entire life phenomena.
The biosphere is a multicomponent hierarchical system. Various components Systems are interconnected by different categories of communication. The most stable connections are saved. There is a permanent source of energy - this is the radiation of the Sun. The progressive bufferness of the biosphere, due to its multiplencency, ensures the stability of newly emerging systems. After all, as a result, the selection remains only enough stable systems. Hereditary variability, a change in living conditions as a result of life, as well as as a result of abiogenous reasons, open unlimited possibilities of progressive evolution. Only in the branch leading to person, the tendency to develop out competition and without the controlling role of natural selection found its rather complete expression.
The patterns of the evolution of the biosphere are due to three factors: the relationship of the biosphere to the environment, the interaction of living and non-living within the biosphere, the peculiarities of the mutual relationship between organisms. Live substance processes on our planet three different forms of energy:
The radiant energy of the sun, thermal, light.
The cosmic atomic energy of radioactive decay, the cause of which is unknown, but which covers, apparently, all elements (B, B, and G, - radiation).
Space, emanating from our galaxy (Milky Way) Energy of scattered elements.
Life arose on the basis of a cycle of organic matter caused by the interaction of its synthesis and destruction processes. In the course of the next differentiation of the organic substance, a biotic circulation was separated, in which organisms began to play the main role. So the biosphere arose.
At first, the biosphere functioned by the interaction of single-cell synthetics and destructors between themselves and with abiotic factors. Then, as a result of the new differentiation, multicellular organisms appeared.
Opening and learning genetic code It indicates that the individual development of any living being (ontogenesis) and the development of a systematic group of creatures (phylogenesis) more similar to editing and printing ready-made text or introducing a program encrypted in diskette. At the same time, such a paradox is observed: the organisms recreate themselves, that is, they recreate new organisms without reducing the complexity of their structure. Moreover, such prolonged periods of evolution are known to the paleontologists, during which the complexity of organisms increased.
For the first time, the close relationship of processes in the biosphere with cosmic, solar processes opened an outstanding Russian scientist A. L. Chizhevsky. He proved that the biosphere is under the influence of radiation coming from the Sun and remote galaxies. The yield of agricultural plants, periods of mass reproduction of many animals, such as locust, lemming, etc., epidemics, peaks of cardiovascular diseases of people and many other processes in the biosphere are associated with the processes in the sun (solar flares, stains, etc. P.). "We are the children of the Sun," A. L. Chizhevsky spoke sampled.
Previously, biologists took into account only the electromagnetic radiation of the Sun in the high-energy portion of its spectrum - infrared, visible and ultraviolet parts of the range - as a source of energy for all living things. Only in recent decades, an important role was to manifest itself, which is assigned to the nature of electromagnetic fields of earth and cosmic origin in the ranges of radio frequencies, low and infusion frequencies. It turned out that it was these weak energy signals that carry information that is perceived, accumulates and is used by organisms. Nevertheless, on the basis of the information that Helio - and cosmobiologists today, it can be argued that the functioning of the biosphere as a whole is associated with information signals of cosmic origin.
It has been established that the sensitivity of organisms to electromagnetic signals increases with the complication of the structure of organisms. So, vertebrate animals are much more sensitive to electromagnetic fields than invertebrates and even more so - the simplest. With complication, biosystems increase their ability to accumulate weak signals and perceive the information they carry.
Since C. Darwin has traditionally been considered that genetic information controls the environment through natural selection of the most adapted individuals. We should remember that the simplest creatures are best adapted to a variety of earthly conditions - bacteria, viruses, blue-green algae. They exist on Earth without noticeable changes of their organization.
16. Teaching V.I. Vernadsky about the noosphere.
Noosphere ("Thinking Shell", the Sphere of Reason) - the highest stage of the development of the biosphere. This is the sphere of interaction between nature and society, within which a reasonable human becomes the main, determining the factors of development.
Why did the concept of "noosphere" arose? It appeared in connection with the assessment of the role of a person in the evolution of the biosphere. The incredit value of the exercise V. I. Vernadsky about the noosphere is that he revealed the geological role of life, a living matter in planetary processes, in the creation and development of the biosphere and the entire diversity of living beings in it. Among these creatures, he allocated a person as a powerful geological force. This force is able to influence the course of biogeochemical and other processes in its exposure to the earth and near-earth space. All this environment varies very significantly by man thanks to his work. He is able to rebuild it according to his ideas and needs, to change the actual one biosphere, which developed throughout the entire geological history of the Earth.
Man, according to V. I. Vernadsky, is part of the biosphere, her<<определенной функцией>\u003e. Stressing the close relationship of a man of nature, he admitted that the prerequisites for the occurrence of the human mind took place in the time of animals, the predecessors of Homo Sapiens, and the manifestation of it began many years ago, at the end of the tertiary period. But as a new geological force was able to express himself only a person.
The impact of human society as a whole integer on nature in its nature is sharply different from the effects of other forms of living substance. V. I. Vernadsky wrote: "Previously, organisms influenced the history of those atoms that were needed by them for growth, breeding, nutrition, respiration. The person expanded this circle, affecting the elements necessary for the technique and the creation of civilized forms of life "that changed the" eternal run of geochemical cycles. "
The formation of the noosphere, according to V.I. Vernadsky, is a long-term process, but a number of scientists believe that humanity has already entered into the period of the noosphere, although many believe that it is too early to talk about it, as what is happening now in the interaction of man and nature It is difficult to link with the onset of the era of the mind. Nevertheless, the progress of the human mind and scientific thought of the noosphere is obviously: they have already come beyond the biosphere of the Earth, into space and the depths of the lithosphere. According to many scientists - the noosphere in the future will be the special area of \u200b\u200bthe solar system
17. Ecological crisis and ways to overcome it.
Ecological crisis - Crisis of the relationship between society and nature, the preservation of the environment. For millennia, a person has constantly increased its technical capabilities, strengthened the intervention in nature, forgetting the need to maintain biological equilibrium in it.
Especially sharply increased the load on the environment in the second half of the XX century. In relations between society and nature, a high-quality leap occurred, when, as a result of a sharp increase in the number of people, intensive industrialization and urbanization of our planet, economic loads began everywhere to exceed the ability of environmental systems to self-cleaning and regeneration. As a result, the natural cycle of substances in the biosphere was disturbed, the health of the current and future generation of people was under threat.
Ecological problem modern Mira Not only an outer, but also multifaceted. It manifests itself in almost all sectors of material production (especially in agriculture, chemical industry, black and non-ferrous metallurgy, nuclear energy), and is related to all regions of the planet.
Ways to overcome the environmental crisis.
In many countries, the problem of ecology is in the first place and now it is beginning to pay more attention to it, new emergency measures are being taken:
Strengthen attention to environmental issues and ensuring the rational use of natural resources;
Establish systematic control over the use of enterprises and organizations of land, water, forests, subsoil and other natural wealth;
Strengthen attention to issues on the prevention of pollution and soil salinization, surface and groundwater;
Pay great attention to the preservation of water protection and protective functions forests, preservation and reproduction of plant and animal world, preventing air pollution;
Strengthen the fight against industrial and household noise.
To improve the protection of green zones and forest parking areas, it is necessary to determine their clear boundaries.
Long and short-term recreation sites in them should be installed and landscaped in them. Protection and timely cleaning of these territories are organized. A significant role is played by conducting work on the expansion of green spaces in the cities and suburban areas, the creation of new parks, gardens, squares. It is also strictly limiting the removal of land in the forests of green zones of cities, forest protective stripes and other forests of the first group, for purposes that are not related to the development of forestry.
Land users are required to carry out effective measures to increase soil fertility, carry out a complex of organizational and economic, agrotechnical, timber and hydraulic and hydrotechnical measures to prevent the wind and aquatic erosion of soils, prevent salinization, forgoing, pollution of land, overgrowing with weeds, as well as other processes worsening the state soil.
Industrial and construction enterprises, organizations, institutions are obliged to prevent contamination of agricultural and other land with industrial and other waste, as well as wastewater.
One of the main tasks is the regulation of water relations in order to ensure the rational use of water for the needs of the population and the national economy. In addition, there are other tasks:
Protection of water from pollution, clogging and exhaustion;
Prevention and elimination of harmful effects
Improving water objects;
Protection of the rights of enterprises, organizations, institutions and citizens, strengthening legality in the field of water relations.
Prohibited commissioning:
New and reconstructed enterprises, workshops and aggregates, utilities and other facilities not provided by devices that prevent pollution and clogging of water or their harmful effects;
Irrigation and watering systems, reservoirs and channels prior to the designations provided by projects preventing flooding, flooding, wiping, salinization of land and soil erosion;
Drainage systems until the readiness of water accepons and other structures in accordance with the approved projects;
Water intake structures without fishery devices in accordance with the approved projects;
Hydraulic structures until the device is ready for passing flooding and fish in accordance with the approved projects;
Drilling wells for water without equipment by their waterproofing devices and the establishment of sanitary protection zones in appropriate cases;
It is prohibited to fill the reservoir before the implementation of the activities provided by the projects for the preparation of the bed.
Important importance for environmental protection has a choice of territory for the construction of new and expanding existing cities and other settlements. It is necessary to choose the territories on the lands of non-farming or unsuitable for agriculture or in agricultural lands of the worst quality. The priority development is subject to the development of land, which are within the boundaries established for this city or other settlement.
Of all the problems mentioned above, the main problem floats - the problem of health care: it is now very difficult to meet an absolutely healthy person.
More attention should be paid to sanitary requirements for planning and building settlements:
1) Planning and building settlements should provide for the creation of the most favorable conditions for the life and health of the population.
2) Residential arrays, industrial enterprises and other facilities should be placed in such a way as to eliminate the adverse effect of harmful factors on health and sanitary living conditions of the population.,
3) In the design and construction of urban-type cities and towns, it should be provided for: water supply, sewage, street coating devices, landscaping, lighting, providing sanitary cleaning and other types of improvements.
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