The goal of a systems approach is. Systems approach

methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop research methods and design complex objects - systems different types and classes.

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systems approach

SYSTEMS APPROACH- the direction of philosophy and methodology of science, special scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the study of objects as systems. The concept of the item orients the study towards disclosing the integrity of an object and the mechanisms that provide it, towards identifying the various types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture. The concept of "S. NS." (English "systems approach") began to be widely used from the late 60s - early 70s. 20th century in English and Russian. philosophical and systemic literature. Close in content to "S. NS." are the concepts of "systems research", "the principle of consistency", "general systems theory" and "systems analysis". S. p.-interdisciplinary philosophical-methodological and scientific direction research. Without directly solving philosophical problems, the social sphere needs a philosophical interpretation of its provisions. An important part of the philosophical substantiation of S. of the item is consistency principle. Historically, the ideas of a systemic study of the objects of the world and the processes of cognition arose in ancient philosophy (Plato, Aristotle), were widely developed in the philosophy of modern times (I. Kant, F. Schelling), were studied by K. Marx in relation to the economic structure of capitalist society. In the theory created by Charles Darwin biological evolution not only the idea was formulated, but the idea of the reality of the supraorganic levels of organization of life (the most important prerequisite systems thinking in biology). S. p. Represents a certain stage in the development of methods of cognition, research and design activities, methods of describing and explaining the nature of analyzed or artificially created objects. The principles of S. of the item come to replace the widespread in the 17-19 centuries. concepts of mechanism and oppose them. The most widespread application of the methods of superficiality is found in the study of complex developing objects - multilevel, hierarchical, self-organizing biological, psychological, social, and other systems, large technical systems, "man-machine" systems, and so on. Among the most important tasks of the system are: 1) the development of means for representing the objects under study and constructed as systems; 2) construction of generalized models of the system, models of different classes and specific properties systems; 3) study of the structure of systems theories and various system concepts and developments. In a systematic study, the analyzed object is considered as a certain set of elements, the interrelation of which determines the integral properties of this set. The main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both inside the object under study and in its relationship with the external environment, the environment. The properties of an object as an integral system are determined not only and not so much by the summation of the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of its structure, special system-forming, integrative connections of the object under consideration. To understand the behavior of systems (primarily purposeful), it is necessary to identify the control processes implemented by this system - forms of information transfer from one subsystem to another and ways of influencing some parts of the system on others, the coordination of the lower levels of the system from the elements of its higher control level, the impact on the last of all other subsystems. Significant importance is attached to the detection of the probabilistic nature of the behavior of the objects under study. An important feature S. p. Is that not only the object, but the process of research itself acts as a complex system, the task of which, in particular, is to combine various models of the object into a single whole. System objects very often are not indifferent to the process of their research and in many cases can have a significant impact on it. With the development of the scientific and technological revolution in the second half of the 20th century. there is a further clarification of the content of the system of information - the disclosure of its philosophical foundations, the development of logical and methodological principles, further progress in the construction of a general theory of systems. S. p. Is theoretical and methodological basis system analysis. The prerequisite for the penetration of S. of the item into science in the 20th century. there was, first of all, the transition to a new type of scientific problems: in a number of fields of science, the problems of the organization and functioning of complex objects begin to occupy a central place; cognition operates with systems, the boundaries and composition of which are far from obvious and require special research in each individual case. In the second half of the 20th century. tasks similar in type arise in social practice: in social management, instead of the previously prevailing local, sectoral tasks and principles, large complex problems begin to play a leading role, requiring close interconnection of economic, social, environmental and other aspects of public life (for example, global problems, complex problems of socio-economic development of countries and regions, problems of creating modern industries, complexes, urban development, environmental protection measures, etc.). The change in the type of scientific and practical tasks is accompanied by the emergence of general scientific and special scientific concepts , which are characterized by the use in one form or another of the basic ideas of S. p. Along with the extension of the principles of S. p. to new areas of scientific knowledge and practice, from the middle of the 20th century. the systematic development of these principles begins in methodological terms. Initially, methodological research was grouped around the tasks of constructing a general theory of systems. However, the development of research in this direction has shown that the totality of problems in the methodology of systems research significantly goes beyond the tasks of developing only a general theory of systems. The term “S. NS.". The S. of the item does not exist in the form of a strict theoretical or methodological concept: it performs its heuristic functions, remaining a set of cognitive principles, the main meaning of which is the appropriate orientation of specific research. This orientation is carried out in two ways. First, the substantive principles of the theory of education make it possible to record the inadequacy of old, traditional subjects of study for the formulation and solution of new problems. Secondly, the concepts and principles of the subject matter significantly help to build new subjects of study, setting the structural and typological characteristics of these subjects and thus contributing to the formation of constructive research programs. The role of the software industry in the development of scientific, technical, and practice-oriented knowledge is as follows. Firstly, the concepts and principles of S. of the item reveal a wider cognitive reality in comparison with that which was fixed in the previous knowledge (for example, the concept of biosphere in V.I.Vernadsky's concept, the concept of biogeocenosis in modern ecology, the optimal approach in economic management and planning, etc.). Secondly, within the framework of the theory of information, new, in comparison with the previous stages of the development of scientific knowledge, schemes of explanation are being developed, which are based on the search for specific mechanisms of the integrity of an object and the identification of the typology of its connections. Thirdly, it follows from the thesis about the variety of types of connections between an object, which is important for S. p. Thesis that any complex object admits several dismemberments. At the same time, the criterion for choosing the most adequate dismemberment of the object under study can be the extent to which it is possible to construct a "unit" of analysis, which makes it possible to fix the integral properties of the object, its structure and dynamics. The breadth of the principles and basic concepts of the discipline of science puts it in close connection with other methodological directions of modern science. In terms of its cognitive attitudes, S. p. Has much in common with structuralism and structural and functional analysis, with which it is connected not only with the operation of the concepts of system, structure and function, but also with an emphasis on the study of the various types of relationships of the object. At the same time, the principles of S. of the item have a broader and more flexible content; they have not undergone such a rigid conceptualization and absolutization, which was characteristic of some interpretations of structuralism and structural-functional analysis. I.V. Blauberg, E.G. Yudin, V.N. Sadovsky Lit .: Problems of system research methodology. M., 1970; Blauberg I.V., Yudin E.G. Becoming and essence systems approach... M., 1973; Sadovsky V.N. Foundations of general systems theory: Logical and methodological analysis. M., 1974; A.I. Uemov Systems approach and general systems theory. M., 1978; Afanasyev V.G. Consistency and society. M., 1980; Blauberg I.V. Integrity problem and systems approach. M., 1997; Yudin E.G. Methodology of Science: Consistency. Activity. M, 1997; Systemic research. Yearbook. Issue 1-26. M., 1969-1998; Churchman C.W. The Systems Approach. N.Y. 1968; Trends in General Systems Theory. N.Y., 1972; General Systems Theory. Yearbook. Vol. 1-30. N.Y 1956-85; Critical Systems Thinking. Directed Readings. N.Y, 1991.

A systematic approach is often mentioned in connection with the tasks of organizational development: a systematic approach to solving company problems, a systematic approach to making changes, a systematic approach to building a business, etc. What is the meaning of such statements? What is a systems approach? How does it differ from the "non-system" approach? Let's try to figure it out.

Let's start with the definition of "system". Russell Ackoff (in his book "Planning the Future of a Corporation") gives the following definition: "A system is a collection of two or more elements that meet the following conditions: (1) the behavior of each element affects the behavior of the whole, (2) the behavior of the elements and their impact on the whole are interdependent, (3) if there are subgroups of elements, each of them affects the behavior of the whole and none of them independently affects the behavior. " Thus, the system is such a whole, which cannot be divided into non-independent parts. Any part of the system, being separated from it, loses its properties. So a person's hand, separated from his body, cannot draw. The system has essential qualities that its parts do not have. For example, a person can compose music and solve math problems, but no part of his body is capable of this.

With a systematic approach to solving practical problems, any subject or phenomenon is considered as a system and at the same time as part of a larger system. Ackoff defines a systematic approach to cognitive activity as follows: (1) identification of the system of which the object of interest is a part, (2) explanation of the behavior or properties of the whole, (3) explanation of the behavior or properties of the object of interest to us in terms of its role or functions in the whole of which he is a part.

In other words, when faced with a problem, a manager who thinks systematically does not rush to look for the culprit, but first of all finds out what external conditions in relation to the situation in question caused this problem. For example, if an angry customer calls about a delay in the delivery of equipment, then the most obvious reaction is punishment of the production staff who did not fulfill the order on time. However, if you look closely, the roots of the problem can be found far beyond the production processes, when the requirements for the ordered equipment were not clearly defined in the specification, changed several times in the course of work, and when concluding the contract, the sellers set unrealistic terms, without taking into account the specifics of the order. Who is to be punished here? Most likely, you need to change your sales and order management system!

This topic is rich in meanings. There is a lot to say here ... I'll leave it as a groundwork for a future article.

Significant place in modern science takes a systematic research method or (as they often say) a systematic approach.

Systems approach- the direction of research methodology, which is based on the consideration of an object as an integral set of elements in a set of relations and connections between them, that is, consideration of an object as a system.

Speaking about a systematic approach, we can talk about a certain way of organizing our actions, one that covers any kind of activity, identifying patterns and relationships in order to use them more efficiently. At the same time, the systematic approach is not so much a method for solving problems as a method for setting problems. As the saying goes, "Right the question asked- half the answer. "This is a qualitatively higher, than just objective, way of cognition.

The basic concepts of the systems approach: "system", "element", "composition", "structure", "functions", "functioning" and "purpose". We will reveal them for a complete understanding of the systems approach.

System - an object, the functioning of which, necessary and sufficient to achieve the goal facing it, is provided (under certain environmental conditions) by a set of its constituent elements that are in expedient relations with each other.

Element - an internal initial unit, a functional part of the system, the own structure of which is not considered, but only its properties are taken into account, which are necessary for the construction and functioning of the system. An element is "elementary" in that it is the limit of the division of a given system, since its internal structure in this system is ignored, and he acts in it as such a phenomenon, which in philosophy is characterized as simple. Although in hierarchical systems, an element can also be considered as a system. And the element is distinguished from a part by the fact that the word "part" indicates only the internal belonging of something to an object, and "element" always denotes a functional unit. Every element is a part, but not every part - element.

Compound - complete (necessary and sufficient) set of elements of the system, taken outside of its structure, that is, a set of elements.

Structure - the relationship between the elements in the system, necessary and sufficient for the system to achieve its goal.

Functions - ways to achieve the goal based on the appropriate properties of the system.

Functioning - the process of implementing the appropriate properties of the system, ensuring its achievement of the goal.

Target is what the system should achieve based on its functioning. The goal can be a certain state of the system or another product of its functioning. The importance of the goal as a system-forming factor has already been noted. Let's emphasize it again: an object acts as a system only in relation to its goal. The goal, requiring certain functions for its achievement, determines through them the composition and structure of the system. For example, is a pile of building materials a system? Any absolute answer would be wrong. Regarding the purpose of housing, no. But as a barricade, shelter, probably yes. A pile of building materials cannot be used as a house, even with all the necessary elements, for the reason that there are no necessary spatial relationships between the elements, that is, structure. And without a structure, they are only a composition - a collection of necessary elements.

The systematic approach focuses on the study not of the elements as such, but first of all the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general main points of the systems approach the following:

1. Studying the phenomenon of integrity and establishing the composition of the whole, its elements.

2. Investigation of the laws governing the connection of elements into a system, i.e. the structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach.

3. In close connection with the study of the structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system.

4. Investigation of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems.

Methods of constructing and substantiating a theory occupy a special place in the methodology of science. Among them, an important place is occupied by explanation - the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation could be:

a) structural, for example, how the motor works;

b) functional: how the motor works;

c) causal: why and how it works.

When constructing a theory of complex objects, an important role is played by the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete.

On the initial stage cognition proceeds from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect individual aspects of the object under study. While dissecting an object, thinking, as it were, mortifies it, presenting the object as a dissected, dismembered scalpel of thought.

The systems approach is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interrelated elements (components), which has an output (goal), input (resources), connection with external environment, feedback. This is the most difficult approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general systems theory, according to which each object in the process of its research should be considered as a large and complex system and, at the same time, as an element of a more general system.

The detailed definition of the systems approach also includes the obligation to study and practical use following eight aspects:

1. system-element or system-complex, consisting in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems ah, you can find material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically conscious interests of people and their communities;

2. systemic and structural, which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing you to get an idea of the internal organization (structure) of the object under study;

3. system-functional, involving the identification of functions for the performance of which the corresponding objects have been created and exist;

4. system-target, meaning the need for a scientific definition of the objectives of the study, their mutual coordination;

5. system-resource, which consists in a thorough identification of the resources required to solve a particular problem;

6. system-integration, consisting in determining the set of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and peculiarity;

7.system-communication, meaning the need to identify the external connections of this object with others, that is, its connections with environment;

8. systemic-historical, which allows you to find out the conditions in the time of occurrence of the object under study, the stages it has passed, the current state, as well as possible development prospects.

The main assumptions of the systematic approach:

1. There are systems in the world

2. The system description is true

3. Systems interact with each other, and, therefore, everything in this world is interconnected

The main principles of the systematic approach:

Integrity, allowing to consider simultaneously the system as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchy of structure, i.e. the presence of a set (at least two) of elements located on the basis of the subordination of the elements of the lower level to the elements of the higher level. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible on the example of any particular organization. As you know, any organization is the interaction of two subsystems: managing and controlled. One obeys the other.

Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationship within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

Plurality, which allows you to use a variety of cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

Systems approach levels:

There are several types of systems approach: integrated, structural, holistic. It is necessary to separate these concepts.

An integrated approach assumes the presence of a set of components of an object or applied research methods. In this case, neither the relationship between the components, nor the completeness of their composition, nor the relationship of the components with the whole are taken into account.

The structural approach involves the study of the composition (subsystems) and structures of an object. With this approach, there is still no correlation between subsystems (parts) and a system (whole). Decomposition of systems into subsystems is performed in more than one way.

In a holistic approach, the relationship is studied not only between parts of an object, but also between parts and the whole.

From the word "system" you can form others - "systemic", "systematize", "systematic". In a narrow sense, the systems approach is understood as the application of systemic methods to study real physical, biological, social and other systems. The systems approach in a broad sense includes, in addition, the use of systemic methods for solving problems of taxonomy, planning and organizing a complex and systematic experiment.

The systematic approach contributes to the adequate formulation of problems in specific sciences and the development of an effective strategy for their study. The methodology, the specificity of the systemic approach is determined by the fact that it orients the study towards disclosing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, towards identifying the various types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The 1970s were marked by a boom in the use of a systems approach around the world. The systematic approach was used in all areas of human life. However, practice has shown that in systems with high entropy (uncertainty), which is largely due to "non-systemic factors" (human influence), a systemic approach may not give the expected effect. The last remark testifies to the fact that "the world is not as systemic" as the founders of the systems approach imagined it.

Professor Prigogine A.I. this is how it defines the limitations of the systematic approach:

1. Consistency means certainty. But the world is uncertain. Uncertainty is essentially present in the reality of human relations, goals, information, in situations. It cannot be overcome to the end, and sometimes it fundamentally dominates over certainty. The market environment is very mobile, unstable and only to some extent simulated, cognizable and controllable. The same is true for the behavior of organizations and employees.

2. Consistency means consistency, but, say, value orientations in an organization and even in one of its members, they are sometimes contradictory to the point of incompatibility and do not form any system. Of course, various motivations introduce some consistency into service behavior, but always only partially. We often find this in the totality of management decisions, and even in management groups and teams.

3. Consistency means integrity, but, say, the customer base of wholesalers, retail companies, banks, etc. does not form any integrity, since it cannot always be integrated and each client has several suppliers and can change them endlessly. There is no integrity and information flows in the organization. Isn't that the case with the resources of the organization? "

35. Nature and society. Natural and artificial. The concept of "noosphere"

Nature in philosophy is understood as everything that exists, the whole world, subject to study by the methods of natural science. Society is a special part of nature that stands out as a form and product of human activity. The relationship of society with nature is understood as the relationship between the system of human community and the habitat of human civilization.

Component of the concepts "system approach", "system analysis", " systemic problem"," Systems research "is" system ". It is believed that this word appeared in Ancient Hellas 2000–2500 years ago and initially, depending on the context, meant: combination, organism, device, organization, structure, union. It also expressed certain acts of activity and their results (something put together, something put in order). That is, initially the word "system" was associated with the forms of socio-historical being. The transfer of the meaning of a word from one object to another and at the same time the transformation of the word into a certain generalized concept was accomplished in stages.

Consistency has always, consciously or unconsciously, been the method of any science. The first question about scientific approach the physicist put the control of complex systems André Marie Ampere... When building a classification of all kinds of sciences (1834-1843), he singled out a special science of government and called it cybernetics. He emphasized its main systemic features: “Incessantly, the government has to choose among various measures the one that is most suitable for achieving the goal ... and only thanks to an in-depth and comparative study of the various elements provided to it for this choice, knowledge of everything that concerns the people it controls , - character, views, history, religion, means of subsistence and prosperity, organizations and laws, - it can make itself general rules behavior that guides him in each case. I call this science cybernetics from the word kybernetike, which denoted at first, in a narrow sense, the art of ship control, and then acquired a broader meaning of the art of control in general ”.

The ideas of consistency in relation to state governance were also developed in the works of the Polish scientist B. Trentovsky. In his work "The Attitude of Philosophy to Cybernetics as the Art of Managing the People", he emphasized that truly effective management should take into account all the most important external and internal factors affecting the control object. In particular, the philosopher wrote: “Our successes are related to the systematic approach to solving problems, and our failures are caused by deviations from the systematic approach. A signal about the lack of consistency of existing activities is the emergence of a problem. "

Among the founders of the systematic approach are A. lexander Alexandrovich Bogdanov... In 1911 the first volume of his book "General organizational science (tectology)" was published, and in 1925 - the third. It is based on the idea that all existing facilities and processes have a certain degree, a level of organization. Unlike specific natural sciences studying the specific features of the organization of specific phenomena, tectology should study the general laws of organization for all levels of organization.

All phenomena were considered by A. Bogdanov as continuous processes of organization and disorganization. He did not give a strict definition of the concept of organization, but noted that the level of organization is the higher, the more the properties of the whole differ from the simple sum of the properties of its parts.

An important feature of tectology is that it focuses on the patterns of development of an organization, the importance of feedbacks, taking into account the organization's own goals (which can both contribute to the goals of the highest level of the organization and contradict them), the role of open systems. A. Bogdanov emphasized the role of modeling and mathematics as potential methods for solving tectology problems. Later, the ideas of the theory of organization were developed in the works of the outstanding representatives of Russian natural science I.I.Shmalgauzen, V.N.Beklemishev.

As a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of a systematic approach, one can consider the idea of a South African lawyer and commander Jan-Christian Smats about integrity different forms life. In 1926, he outlined his synergistic view of the universe, noting that "an organism is made up of parts, but is not simply the sum of these parts."

The law of synergy, according to which in complex systems the properties and capabilities of the whole exceed the properties and capabilities of parts, introduced into scientific use I. Ansoff... Synergetics studies the mechanisms of interaction between the elements of a system in the process of its self-organization and self-development.

The practical value of studying the synergistic effect lies primarily in the use of unique properties large systems- self-organization and the ability to determine a very limited number of parameters, the impact on which can be controlled by the system.

The methodological prerequisites for the emergence of a systematic approach can be considered the development of a theory common systems L. Bertalanffy, A. Rapoport and K. Boulding, the creation of the science of cybernetics by N. Wiener and the development of information theory.

Systems theory L. von Bertalanffy... The idea of constructing a theory applicable to systems of any nature was put forward at the beginning of the 20th century. Ludwig von Bertalanffy.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972) - Austrian biologist, Ph.D., professor at several universities in Austria, Canada and the United States. The main contribution of L. Bertalanffy to the emergence and development of a systematic approach to management is associated with the introduction of the concept “ open system"And the creation of a" theory of general systems. "

According to L. Bertalanffy, a living organism is something more than the sum of individual elements, since it uses the principle of synergy to organize their interaction. All organisms exist in close relationship with the external environment, their functions and structure are maintained through the continuous exchange of information with it. Therefore, any organism, and in relation to management, any organization can be considered as an open system.

The key concepts of the theory of open systems have become the concept of self-organization as a method of progressive differentiation, equifinality, reflecting the independence of the final state from initial conditions, and teleology, describing the dependence of the behavior of the organism on some "known to him in advance" goals in the future. Open systems theory views organizations as complex systems made up of parts that should be studied as a whole. The main task of the organization is to ensure survival by transforming external influences and adapting to ongoing changes. Since the elements of the organization are living people, the administration must take into account the peculiarities of the manifestation human nature in the labor process.

In contrast to open systems, closed systems are based on the same fundamental principles and laws that operate in physics. Thinking in terms of closed systems corresponds to classical management theory. In accordance with this approach, closed organizations are managed by administrative and engineering personnel, operations in them are routine and repetitive and are reduced

to the solution of predetermined tasks. In these systems, there is a strict hierarchy of control, strict subordination of departments, great attention is paid to ensuring the effectiveness of the activities of individual structural units.

According to Western scholars, the influence of L. Bertalanffy's theory of open systems on the theory of business and management turned out to be enormous, since it was she who helped formulate the theory of enterprise management in the 1950s – 1960s. In addition, it was invisibly present in the ones used in the 1990s. practical methods of management.

L. von Bertalanffy dealt a lot with the problem of generalizing the concept of open systems in order to apply it in other fields of knowledge. This work led him to develop a general theory of systems and a new understanding of the unity of science. Its main provisions were first presented at a scientific seminar in Chicago in 1937. During the 1940s and 1950s. L. Bertalanffy continued to work on the development of general systems theory, which aims to formulate and develop principles applicable to all systems.

Thus, L. Bertalanffy gave the first impetus to the development of a new systemic direction in science in general and management science in particular.

Cybernetics and the development of information theory... In 1948, the American mathematician Norbert Wiener published a book called Cybernetics.
According to A.I.Berg's definition, cybernetics is the science of optimal control of complex dynamical systems.

A. N. Kolmogorov proposed another definition: cybernetics is the science of systems that perceive, store, process and use information.

The subject of cybernetics is the study of systems. Cybernetics studies the problems of the formation and transmission of control actions to achieve a given state of a system of arbitrary nature, that is, to achieve a certain level of its organization.

Cybernetics of N. Wiener is associated with such advances in the development of system concepts as typification of models of systems, identification of the special value of feedbacks in a system, emphasizing the principle of optimality in control and synthesis of systems, awareness of information as a universal property of matter and the possibility of its quantitative description, development of modeling methodology in general, and especially the idea of a mathematical experiment with the help of a computer.

Simultaneously with the research of N. Wiener, the information theory... Its subject was the coding, transmission and decryption of messages, channel capacity and mathematical study communication.

An attempt to combine the ideas of L. Bertalanffy, N. Wiener's cybernetics and information theory into a single system was made Kenneth Boulding... At the same time, he assigns a special place to the theory of general systems, which, in his opinion, "is aimed at creating a framework (structure) on which certain disciplines and objects must be strung in the appropriate order."

The needs of practice almost simultaneously with the formation of systems theory led to the emergence of a direction called the study of operations. This direction arose in connection with military tasks, but thanks to the developed mathematical apparatus based on optimization methods, mathematical programming and mathematical statistics, it has become quite widespread in other applied areas, in economic challenges, when solving problems of organization of production and management of enterprises.

In 1948, in the work of the RAND corporation, engaged in the development of military doctrines, the problems of analysis and forecasting of the development of the US military potential, the development of outer space, the so-called system analysis first appeared. The first method of systems analysis was the PATTERN method, the creator of which is C. Davis. Currently, the system analysis technique is considered the most constructive of the areas of systems research.

In the 60s. XX century in the formulation and study of complex problems of design and control, the term "systems engineering", proposed in 1962 by Fyodor Evgenievich Temnikov, gained considerable popularity. It was used mainly in applications of systemic methods only to technical areas, and for other areas the term "systemology" was proposed (in 1965 by IB Novik).

Thus, by the 60s. XX century Through the efforts of scientists from different fields of science, a philosophical basis and the necessary theoretical and methodological tools for system studies were formed, which became the basis for the development of a systematic approach to management.

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Systems theory and systems analysis: textbook. manual for distance learning. URL: http://fpi-kubagro.ru/teoriya-sistem-i-sistemnyj-analiz/10 (date of access: 05/14/2015).

Kezin A.I., History of management doctrines. Kiev: VIRA-R, 2000.S. 227.

Synergy (from the Greek σύνἔργος - joint, coordinated) - the summing effect of the interaction of two or more factors, characterized by the fact that their action significantly exceeds the simple sum of the actions of individual components.

Knorring V.I. Theory, practice and art of management. Moscow: Norma, 2001. URL: http://www.i-u.ru (date of access: 13.12.2009).

Classics of Management: Translated from English. / ed. M. Warner. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.S. 137.

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Cit. Quoted from: Kezin A.I., History of management doctrines. Kiev: VIRA-R, 2000.S. 228.

Tutorial output:

Management history: tutorial/ E. P. Kostenko, E. V. Mikhalkina; South Federal University. - Rostov-on-Don: Yuzhny Publishing House federal university, 2014 .-- 606 p.

The systems approach is a direction of philosophy and methodology of scientific knowledge, which is based on the study of objects as systems.

The peculiarity of the systemic approach is that it is focused on disclosing the integrity of an object and the mechanisms that provide it, on identifying various types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The concept of "systems approach" (from the English - systems approach) began to be widely used in 1960 - 1970, although the very desire to consider the object of research as an integral system arose in ancient philosophy and science (Plato, Aristotle). The idea of the systemic organization of knowledge, which arose in ancient times, was formed in the Middle Ages and was most developed in German classical philosophy (Kant, Schelling). A classic example of a systemic study is Karl Marx's Capital. The principles embodied in it for the study of the organic whole (ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the unity of analysis and synthesis, logical and historical, the identification of different-quality connections and their interactions in the object, the synthesis of structural-functional and genetic ideas about the object, etc.) were the most important component dialectical-materialistic methodology of scientific knowledge. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution serves as a vivid example of the application of the systems approach in biology.

In the XX century. the systems approach occupies one of the leading places in scientific knowledge. This is primarily due to a change in the type of scientific and practical problems. In a number of fields of science, the central place is beginning to be occupied by the problems of studying the organization and functioning of complex self-developing objects, the boundaries and composition of which are not obvious and require special research in each individual case. The study of such objects - multilevel, hierarchical, self-organizing biological, psychological, social, technical - required the consideration of these objects as systems.

A number of scientific concepts arise, which are characterized by the use of the basic ideas of the systems approach. So, in the doctrine of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and noosphere scientific knowledge a new type of objects is proposed - global systems. AA Bogdanov and a number of other researchers begin to develop the theory of organization. The selection of a special class of systems - information and control systems - served as the foundation for the emergence of cybernetics. In biology, systemic ideas are used in environmental research, in the study of higher nervous activity, in the analysis of biological organization, in taxonomy. In economic science, the principles of the systems approach are used in the formulation and solution of problems of optimal economic planning, which require the construction of multicomponent models of social systems of different levels. In the practice of management, the ideas of the systems approach are crystallized in the methodological tools of system analysis.

Thus, the principles of the systems approach apply to almost all areas of scientific knowledge and practice. At the same time, the systematic development of these principles begins in the methodological terms. Initially, methodological research was grouped around the problems of constructing a general theory of systems (the first program for its construction and the term itself were proposed by L. Bertalanffy). In the early 1920s. the young biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy began to study organisms as definite systems, summarizing his views in the book Modern Theory of Development (1929). He developed a systematic approach to the study of biological organisms. In the book "Robots, People and Consciousness" (1967), the scientist transferred the general theory of systems to the analysis of processes and phenomena of social life. In 1969 another book by Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory, was published. The researcher turns his systems theory into a general disciplinary science. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for the structural similarity of laws established in various disciplines, based on which it is possible to deduce system-wide laws.

However, the development of research in this direction has shown that the totality of problems in the methodology of systems research significantly exceeds the scope of the problems of general systems theory. To designate this broader sphere of methodological problems and use the term "systems approach", which since the 1970s. firmly entered scientific use (in the scientific literature different countries other terms are also used to denote this concept - "system analysis", "system methods", "system-structural approach", "general systems theory"; at the same time, a specific, narrower meaning is also assigned to the concepts of systems analysis and general systems theory; taking this into account, the term "systems approach" should be considered more accurate, moreover, it is the most common in the literature in Russian).

The following stages in the development of the systems approach in the XX century can be distinguished. (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1. The main stages in the development of a systems approach

Period	Researchers
	L. A. Bogdanov		General organizational science (tectology) - general theory of organization (disorganization), the science of universal types of structural transformation of systems
1930-1940s		L. von Bertalanffy	General systems theory (as a set of principles for studying systems and a set of individual empirically identified isomorphisms in the structure and functioning of heterogeneous system objects). System - a complex of interacting elements, a set of elements that are in certain relationships with each other and with the environment
			Development of cybernetics and design of automated control systems. Wiener discovered the laws of information interaction of elements in the process of managing the system
1960-1980s		M. Mesarovich, P. Glushkov	Concepts of the general theory of systems, provided with their own mathematical apparatus, for example, models of multilevel multipurpose systems

The systems approach does not exist in the form of a rigorous methodological concept, but rather a set of research principles. The systems approach is an approach in which the object under study is considered as a system, i.e. a set of interrelated elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), communication with the external environment, feedback. In accordance with the general theory of systems, an object is considered as a system and at the same time as an element of a larger system.

The study of an object from the standpoint of a systematic approach includes the following Aspects:

- system-element (identification of the elements that make up a given system);
- systemic-structural (the study of internal connections between the elements of the system);
- system-functional (identification of system functions);
- system-target (identifying the goals and sub-goals of the system);
- system-resource (analysis of the resources required for the functioning of the system);
- system-integration (determination of the set of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and different from the properties of its elements);
- system-communication (analysis of external relations of the system with the external environment and other systems);
- systemic-historical (studying the emergence of a system, stages of its development and prospects).

Thus, the systems approach is a methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for researching and constructing complex objects - systems of different types and classes.

You can find a twofold understanding of the systems approach: on the one hand, it is the consideration, analysis of existing systems, on the other hand, the creation, design, synthesis of systems to achieve goals.

As applied to organizations, the systems approach is most often understood as a complex study of an object as a whole from the standpoint of system analysis, i.e. clarification of a complex problem and its structuring into a series of problems solved using economic and mathematical methods, finding criteria for their solution, detailing goals, designing an effective organization to achieve goals.

System analysis is used as one of the most important methods in the systems approach, as an effective means of solving complex, usually not clearly formulated problems. Systems analysis can be considered a further development of the ideas of cybernetics: it explores the general laws related to complex systems that are studied by any science.

Systems engineering - applied science, which investigates the problems of real creation of complex control systems.

The system building process consists of six stages:

1) system analysis;
2) system programming, which includes the definition of current goals: scheduling and work plans;
3) system design - the actual design of the system, its subsystems and components to achieve optimal efficiency;
4) creation of software programs;
5) putting the system into operation and checking it;
6) system maintenance.

The quality of the organization of the system is usually expressed in the synergy effect. It manifests itself in the fact that the result of the functioning of the system as a whole is higher than the sum of the results of the same name for the individual elements that make up the totality. In practice, this means that from the same elements we can obtain systems of different or identical properties, but different efficiency, depending on how these elements are interconnected, i.e. how the system itself will be organized.

An organization, which in its most general abstract form is an organized whole, is the ultimate extension of any system. The concept of "organization" as an ordered state of the whole is identical to the concept of "system". The concept opposite to "system" is the concept of "non-system".

A system is nothing more than a static organization, i.e. some fixed on this moment state of order.

Considering an organization as a system allows you to systematize and classify organizations according to a number of common characteristics. So, according to the degree of complexity, nine levels of the hierarchy are distinguished:

1) the level of static organization, reflecting the static relationship between the elements of the whole;
2) the level of a simple dynamic system with preprogrammed mandatory movements;
3) the level of the information organization, or the level of the "thermostat";
4) self-preserving organization - an open system, or the level of a cell;
5) genetically public organization;
6) an organization of the "animal" type, characterized by the presence of mobility, purposeful behavior and awareness;
7) the level of the individual human organism - the "human" level;
8) social organization representing a variety of public institutions;
9) transcendental systems, i.e. organizations that exist in the form of various structures and relationships.

The use of a systematic approach to the study of an organization makes it possible to significantly expand the understanding of its essence and development trends, to reveal more deeply and comprehensively the content of the ongoing processes, to reveal the objective laws of the formation of this multidimensional system.

The systems approach, or the systemic method, is an explicit (explicitly, openly expressed) description of the procedures for determining objects as systems and methods of their specific systemic study (descriptions, explanations, predictions, etc.).

A systematic approach to the study of the properties of an organization allows us to establish its integrity, consistency and organization. With a systematic approach, the attention of researchers is directed to its composition, to the properties of elements that are manifested in interaction. Establishment in the system of stable interconnection of elements at all levels and steps, i.e. the establishment of the law of connections between elements, is the discovery of the structure of the system as the next step in the concretization of the whole.

The structure as the internal organization of the system, the reflection of its internal content is manifested in the ordering of the interrelationships of its parts. This allows you to express a number of essential aspects of the organization as a system. The structure of the system, expressing its essence, is manifested in the totality of the laws of a given area of phenomena.

The study of the structure of an organization is an important stage in the knowledge of the variety of connections that take place within the object under study. This is one of the aspects of consistency. The other side consists in identifying intra-organizational relations and relationships of the object under consideration with other components of the system more high level... In this regard, it is necessary, firstly, to consider the individual properties of the object under study in their relation to the object as a whole, and secondly, to reveal the laws of behavior.