What science classifies organisms. Biology as a science
1. Which of the following processes is characteristic only of animals?
1) the formation of organic substances from inorganic in the light
2) the perception of stimuli from the environment and their transformation into nerve impulses
3) the entry of substances into the body, their transformation and removal of the final waste products
4) the absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide during breathing
2. What property of organisms ensures the continuity of life on Earth?
1) metabolism
2) irritability
3) reproduction
4) variability
3.Specify a feature that is characteristic only of the animal kingdom.
1) breathe, feed, reproduce
2) consist of a variety of fabrics
3) have irritability
4) have nerve tissue
4. Russian biologist D.I. Ivanovsky, studying tobacco leaf disease, discovered
1) viruses
2) the simplest
3) bacteria
5. Development of an animal's organism from the moment of formation of a zygote to birth is studied by science
1) genetics
2) physiology
3) morphology
4) embryology
6.The structure and distribution of ancient ferns is studied by science
1) plant physiology
2) plant ecology
3) paleontology
4) selection
7. What science studies the diversity of organisms and unites them into groups on the basis of kinship?
1) morphology
2) taxonomy
3) ecology
4) physiology
8.To study the structure of polysaccharide molecules and their role in the cell, use the method
1) biochemical
2) electron microscopy
3) cytogenetic
4) light microscopy
9.The ability of the body to respond to environmental influences is called
1) playback
2) evolution
3) irritability
4) normal reaction
10. The genealogical method is used by science
1) morphology
2) biochemistry
3) genetics
4) embryology
11.The study of varietal and species diversity of plants is the task of science
1) paleontology
2) biogeography
3) ecology
4) breeding
12. What level of organization of the living is the main object of the study of cytology?
1) cellular
2) population-specific
3) biogeocenotic
4) biosphere
13. The metabolism is characteristic for
1) bodies of inanimate nature
2) bacteriophages
3) influenza viruses
4) algae
14. At what level of the organization does the implementation take place? hereditary information?
1) biosphere
2) ecosystem
3) population
4) organismic
15.A science that classifies organisms on the basis of their relationship -
1) ecology
2) taxonomy
3) morphology
4) paleontology
16.The highest level organizing life is
1) organism
2) ecosystem
3) biosphere
4) population
17. Gene mutations occur at the level of organization of living
1) organismic
2) population
3) species
4) molecular
18 science is making high-yielding polyploid plants
1) selection
2) genetics
3) physiology
4) botany
19. Science is engaged in breeding new highly productive strains of microorganisms
1) genetics
2) biochemistry
3) cytology
4) selection
20. What methods are used to study the structure and functions of the cell?
1) genetic engineering
2) microscopy
3) cytogenetic analysis
4) cell and tissue culture
5) centrifugation
6) hybridization
21. Methods for breeding new breeds of animals are being developed by science
1) genetics
2) microbiology
3) selection
4) animal physiology
22. Genetics has great importance for medicine, since she
1) establishes the reasons hereditary diseases
2) creates medicines for the treatment of patients
3) fighting epidemics
4) protects the environment from mutagen pollution
23. The main feature alive -
1) movement
2) weight gain
3) metabolism
4) transformation of substances
24. To study the structure of cell organelles allows the method
1) light microscopy
2) electron microscopy
3) centrifugation
4) tissue culture
25. The processes of ecological and geographic speciation are investigated by science
1) genetics
2) selection
3) about evolution
4) taxonomy
26. Science studies the impact of pollution on the environment
1) physiology
2) ecology
3) biogeography
4) selection
27. On what grounds do living organisms differ from bodies of inanimate nature?
1.the unity of the chemical composition (C, HO, N - 98%, form proteins, fats, carbohydrates and nucleic acids
2.cellular principle of organization (a cell is a structural and functional unit of a living thing. The exception is viruses that do not have cellular structure but not capable of reproducing outside the cage)
3.volatility
4.openness
5.metabolism (respiration, nutrition, excretion)
6. irritability (taxis in protozoa, tropisms and nastia in plants, reflexes in animals)
7.Self-regulation
8.heredity (the ability to transmit traits from ancestors to descendants)
9.variability (the ability to acquire new traits)
10. Growth (quantitative changes)
11. development (qualitative changes). Ontogenesis is an individual development. Phylogenesis - historical development
12.rhythmicity (photoperiodism)
13. discreteness (the ability to consist of separate parts, interconnected with each other and forming a single whole)
28. In cytology, the method is used
1) hybridological analysis
3) electron microscopy
4) twin
29. Red clover, occupying a certain area, represents the level of organization of wildlife
1) organismic
2) biocenotic
3) biosphere
4) population-specific
30. Embryology is a science that studies
1) fossil remains of organisms
2) causes of mutations
3) laws of heredity
4) embryonic development of organisms
31. What science studies the structure and functions of cells in organisms of different kingdoms of living nature?
1) ecology
2) genetics
3) selection
4) cytology
31.The main task of taxonomy is to study
1) the stages of the historical development of organisms
2) the relationship of organisms and the environment
3) the adaptability of organisms to living conditions
4) organisms and their grouping based on kinship
33. At what level of organization of living things is the circulation of substances carried out in nature?
1) cellular
2) organismic
3) population-specific
4) biosphere
34. An increase in body mass and size in human ontogenesis -
1) reproduction
2) development
3) growth
4) evolution
35. For living objects of nature, in contrast to inanimate bodies, it is characteristic
1) weight reduction
2) movement in space
3) breathing
4) dissolution of substances in water
36. To identify changes occurring in a living cell during mitosis, the method is used
1) microscopy
2) gene transplant
3) constructing genes
4) centrifugation
37. Fossil remains of organisms are studied by science
1) biogeography
2) embryology
3) comparative anatomy
4) paleontology
38. The science of the diversity of organisms and their distribution among related groups -
1) cytology
2) selection
3) taxonomy
4) biogeography
39. Which microscope can be seen internal structure chloroplasts?
1) school
2) luminous
3) binocular
4) electronic
40. One of the signs of the difference between living and non-living is the ability to
1) resizing
2) self-replicating
3) destruction
41. The study of the structure of the smallest organelles of the cell and large molecules became possible after the invention of 1) a hand-held magnifier
2) electron microscope
3) tripod magnifier
4) light microscope
42. The science that studies the similarities and differences of the embryos of vertebrates -
1) biotechnology
2) genetics
3) anatomy
4) embryology
43 the twin method is used in science
1) selection
2) genetics
3) physiology
4) cytology
44. The formation of new types of organisms occurs at the level of organization of living
1) organismic
2) population-specific
3) biogeocenotic
4) biosphere
45. What science deals with the problems of the relationship between organisms and their environment?
1) paleontology
2) embryology
3) ecology
4) selection
46. What level of organization of living things are characterized by chromosomal mutations?
1) organismic
2) species
3) cellular
4) population
47.In a light microscope you can see
1) cell division
2) protein biosynthesis
3) ribosomes
4) ATP molecules
48.The primary, secondary, tertiary structures of a protein are studied at the level of organization of a living
1) tissue
2) molecular
3) organismic
4) cellular
49. The causes of combinative variability are studied
1) genetics
2) paleontologists
3) environmentalists
4) embryologists
50. What research method is used in cytology?
1) hybridological
2) centrifugation
3) genealogical
4) inbreeding
51. What is the characteristic of a living virus?
1) irritability
2) excitability
3) metabolism
4) playback
52. Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism in humans are investigated using the method
1) cytogenetic
2) genealogical
3) experimental
4) biochemical
53. Features of the processes of ontogenesis are studied by science
1) taxonomy
2) selection
3) embryology
4) paleontology
54 Use in cytology modern methods research allowed to study the structure and function
1) plant organism
2) animal organs
3) cell organelles
4) organ systems
55. What organelles were found in the cell using an electron microscope?
1) ribosomes
3) chloroplasts
4) vacuoles
56.The separation of organelles by centrifugation is based on their differences in
1) size and weight
2) structure and composition
3) functions performed
4) location in the cytoplasm
57. The creation of new individuals from combined cells is engaged in
1) cytology
2) microbiology
3) cell engineering
4) genetic engineering
58. Science that studies the role of mitochondria in metabolism -
1) genetics
2) selection
4) molecular biology
59. The initial stages of ontogenesis of vertebrates are studied by science
1) morphology
2) genetics
3) embryology
(Answers at the end of the test)
A1. What science classifies organisms based on their relationship?
1) ecology
2) taxonomy
3) morphology
4) paleontology
A2. What theory was formulated by the German scientists M. Schleiden and T. Schwann?
1) evolution
2) chromosomal
3) cellular
4) ontogenesis
A3. The storage carbohydrate in the animal cage is
1) starch
2) glycogen
4) cellulose
A4. How many chromosomes are in the germ cells of the fruit fly Drosophila, if somatic cells contains 8 chromosomes?
A5. The insertion of its nucleic acid into the DNA of the host cell is carried out
1) bacteriophages
2) chemotrophs
3) autotrophs
4) cyanobacteria
A6. Sexual reproduction organisms is evolutionarily more progressive, since it
1) contributes to their wide distribution in nature
2) provides a rapid increase in population
3) promotes the emergence of a wide variety of genotypes
4) maintains the genetic stability of the species
A7. What is the name of individuals that form one variety of gametes and do not give splitting signs in offspring?
1) mutant
2) heterotic
3) heterozygous
4) homozygous
A8. How are the genotypes of individuals designated during dihybrid crossing?
A9. All leaves of the same plant have the same genotype, but may differ in
1) the number of chromosomes
2) phenotype
3) gene pool
4) genetic code
A10. What bacteria improve nitrogen nutrition in plants?
1) fermentation
2) nodule
3) acetic acid
A11. An underground shoot differs from a root by the presence of
2) growth zones
3) vessels
A12. Plants of the angiosperm division, in contrast to gymnosperms,
1) have a root, stem, leaves
2) have a flower and a fruit
3) reproduce by seeds
4) release oxygen into the atmosphere during photosynthesis
A13. In birds, unlike reptiles,
1) inconsistent body temperature
2) a cover of the horny substance
3) constant body temperature
4) reproduction by eggs
A14. What group of tissues has the properties of excitability and contractility?
1) muscular
2) epithelial
3) nervous
4) connecting
A15. The main function of the kidneys in mammals and humans is to remove from the body
2) excess sugar
3) metabolic products
4) undisturbed residues
A16. Human phagocytes are capable of
1) capture foreign bodies
2) produce hemoglobin
3) participate in blood clotting
4) transfer antigens
A17. Bundles of long processes of neurons, covered with a connective tissue sheath and located outside the central nervous system, form
2) cerebellum
3) spinal cord
4) cerebral cortex
A18. What vitamin should be included in a person's diet in order not to get scurvy?
A19. What criterion of the species should be attributed to the area of distribution in the tundra of the reindeer?
1) environmental
2) genetic
3) morphological
4) geographical
A20. An example of an interspecies struggle for existence is the relationship between
1) an adult frog and a tadpole
2) the cabbage butterfly and its caterpillar
3) the songbird and the fieldberry
4) wolves of the same pack
A21. The layered arrangement of plants in the forest serves as an adaptation to
1) cross-pollination
2) wind protection
3) the use of light energy
4) reduce water evaporation
A22. Which of the factors of human evolution is of a social nature?
1) articulate speech
2) variability
3) natural selection
4) heredity
A23. What is the nature of the relationship between organisms of different species that need the same food resources?
1) predator - prey
3) competition
4) mutual assistance
A24. In the biogeocenosis of the flooded meadow, decomposers include
1) cereals, sedges
2) bacteria and fungi
3) murine rodents
4) herbivorous insects
A25. Can lead to global changes in the biosphere
1) an increase in the number of certain species
2) desertification of territories
3) heavy rainfall
4) replacement of one community by another
A26. What percentage of nucleotides with cytosine does DNA contain if the fraction of its adenine nucleotides is 10% of the total?
A27. Choose the correct sequence of information transmission in the process of protein synthesis in the cell.
1) DNA → messenger RNA → protein
2) DNA → transport RNA → protein
3) ribosomal RNA → transport RNA → protein
4) ribosomal RNA → DNA → transport RNA → protein
A28. With dihybrid crossing and independent inheritance of traits in parents with genotypes AABb and aabb, a splitting is observed in the offspring in the ratio
A29. In plant breeding, pure lines are obtained by
1) cross-pollination
2) self-pollination
3) experimental mutagenesis
4) interspecific hybridization
A30. Reptiles are considered real terrestrial vertebrates, since they
1) breathe atmospheric oxygen
2) breed on land
3) lay eggs
4) have lungs
A31. Carbohydrates in the human body are stored in
1) liver and muscles
2) subcutaneous tissue
3) pancreas
4) intestinal walls
A32. The saliva secretion that occurs when the receptors in the oral cavity are irritated is a reflex
1) conditional, requiring reinforcement
2) unconditional, inherited
3) arising during the life of a person and an animal
4) individual for each person
A33. Among the listed examples, aromorphosis is
1) flat body shape at the stingray
2) protective coloration in a grasshopper
3) four-chambered heart in birds
A34. The biosphere is an open ecosystem, as it
1) consists of many diverse ecosystems
2) is influenced by anthropogenic factors
3) includes all areas of the earth
4) constantly uses solar energy
The answer to the tasks of this part (B1-B8) is a sequence of letters or numbers.
In tasks B1-B3, choose three correct answers out of six, write down the selected numbers in the table.
IN 1. The biological significance of meiosis is
1) preventing the doubling of the number of chromosomes in the new generation
2) the formation of male and female gametes
3) the formation of somatic cells
4) creating opportunities for the emergence of new gene combinations
5) increasing the number of cells in the body
6) a multiple increase in the set of chromosomes
IN 2. What is the role of the pancreas in the human body?
1) participates in immune reactions
2) forms blood cells
3) is a gland of mixed secretion
4) forms hormones
5) secretes bile
6) secretes digestive enzymes
AT 3. The factors of evolution include
1) crossing over
2) mutation process
3) modification variability
4) insulation
5) variety of species
6) natural selection
When performing tasks B4-B6, establish a correspondence between the contents of the first and second columns. Enter the numbers of the selected answers in the table.
AT 4. Establish a correspondence between the plant trait and the department for which it is characteristic.
AT 5. Establish a correspondence between the structure and function of the human brain and its department.
AT 6. Establish a correspondence between the nature of the mutation and its type.
When performing tasks B7-B8, establish the correct sequence of biological processes, phenomena, practical actions. Write down the letters of the selected answers in the table.
AT 7. Establish the sequence of the processes occurring in the interphase cell.
A) mRNA is synthesized on one of the DNA strands
B) a section of the DNA molecule under the influence of enzymes is split into two chains
C) mRNA moves into the cytoplasm
D) protein synthesis occurs on mRNA, which serves as a matrix
AT 8. Set in which chronological order the main groups of plants appeared on Earth.
A) green algae
B) horsetail
C) seed ferns
D) rhinophytes
D) gymnosperms
Answer | Answer |
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Answer | Answer |
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Assignments with solutions
1. To formulate a hypothesis means
1. Collect available facts
2. Make a guess
3. Confirm the objectivity of the data received
4. Conduct an experiment
Explanation: hypothesis - guess or guess; a statement that presupposes a proof, in contrast to axioms, postulates that do not require proof. A hypothesis is considered scientific if it satisfies a scientific method, for example, Popper's criterion, that is, it can potentially be verified by a critical experiment. The correct answer is 2.
2. An example of the application of an experimental research method can be considered
1. Formulation of the position based on the facts obtained
2. Formation of a conditioned reflex to a call in a dog
3. Description in nature of a new kind of organisms
4. Comparison of two slides
Explanation: the application of the experimental method is very well illustrated by the example of Pavlov's experiments with a dog. The correct answer is 2.
3. What is the name of the science dealing with the study of heredity and variability of organisms?
1. Anatomy
2. Genetics
3. Cytology
4. Physiology
Explanation: anatomy studies the structure of an organism, cytology - the science of the cell, physiology - the science of processes, but genetics studies heredity and variability. The correct answer is 2.
4. What science classifies organisms on the basis of their relationship?
1. Ecology
2. Taxonomy
3. Morphology
4. Paleontology
Explanation: the classification of organisms on the basis of their relationship is a taxonomy. The correct answer is 2.
5. What method is used to study the movement of the common amoeba under a microscope?
1. Simulation
2. Observation
3. Comparison
4. Measurement
Explanation: when we look at the common amoeba under a microscope, we observe its movement, the method is called observation. The correct answer is 2.
6. Is it possible to determine the difference in heart rate during exercise and at rest by the method?
1. Observations
2. Experimental
3. Descriptive
4. Simulation
Explanation: to determine the difference in heart rate in these two states, you need to conduct an appropriate experiment. The correct answer is 2.
7. It is possible to accurately determine the degree of influence of fertilizers on plant growth by the method
1. Simulation
2. Comparisons
3. Observations
4. Experiment
Explanation: in this example, for example, it is possible to determine whether or not the fertilizers will affect the plants only by the method of experiment. The correct answer is 4.
8. The merit of V.I. Vernadsky is that he
1. Formulated the doctrine of the biosphere
2. Created the doctrine of brain reflexes
3. Opened viruses
4. Developed the basics of taxonomy
Explanation: IN AND. Vernadsky received recognition after formulating the doctrine of the biosphere (named after him) The correct answer is 1.
9. What science studies the impact of pollution on the environment?
1. Anatomy 2. Genetics 3. Botany 4. Ecology
Explanation: ecology studies not only the impact of pollution on the environment, but also the interaction of organisms with each other and with environment. The correct answer is 4.
10. The regularities of the transmission of hereditary traits are being studied
1. Genetics
2. Taxonomy
3. Anthropology
4. Biochemistry
Explanation: the patterns of transmission, as well as the manifestation of hereditary traits, are studied by genetics. The correct answer is 1.
Self-help assignments
1.The science that studies the laws of heredity and variability is called
1. Physiology
2. Cytology
3. Taxonomy
4. Genetics
Answer: 4
2. Cytology is the science of
1. The structure of plants
2. The structure of organic substances
3. Body functions
4. The structure and functions of the cell
Answer: 4
3. The mechanisms of protein biosynthesis in the body have been discovered
1. Anatomists
2. Physiologists
3. Biochemists
4. Environmentalists
Answer: 3
4. Creator evolutionary teaching was
1.I.I. Mechnikov
2.L. Pasteur
3. Charles Darwin
4. I.P. Pavlov
Answer: 4
5. Science is engaged in the study of fossil remains of organisms
1. Paleontology
2. Geology
3. Archeology
4. Mycology
Answer: 1
6. Creation of diagrams, drawings, objects similar to natural, refers to the methods
1. Experimental
2. Observations
3. Theoretical
4. Simulation
Answer: 4
7. The main function of the theory is
1. Experimental confirmation of the facts
2. Predicting the appearance of certain facts
3. Putting hypotheses
4. Description of observations
Answer: 2
8. About whom of the famous scientists could they say: "No doctor has saved the lives of such a number of people as this person"? O
1. I.P. Pavlovo
2. E. Jennere
3. K. Galene
4. A. Vesalius
Answer: 2 (developed the world's first vaccine - against smallpox)
9. The merit of I.I. Mechnikov is that he discovered
1. The phenomenon of phagocytosis
2. Protein structure
3. DNA structure
4. Parietal digestion
Answer: 1
10. To find out how the composition of the air changes during breathing, you can by
1. Observations
2. Descriptions
3. Experiment
4. Measurements
Answer: 3
11. An example of the application of an experimental research method is
1. Building a flower model
2. Study of the conditions for seed germination in different conditions
3. Measuring plant growth over time
4. Description of a new plant species
Answer: 2
12. The subject of study of ichthyologists are
1. Ichthyosaurs
2. Amphibians
3. Reptiles
4. Fish
Answer: 4
13. A gastroenterologist is a doctor who treats organ diseases
1. Breath
2. Highlights
3. Digestion
4. Blood circulation
Answer: 3
14. The theory of immunity was created and developed
1.I. Mechnikov and L. Pasteur
2. I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov
3.G. Mendel and T. Morgan
4. M. Schleiden and T. Schwann
Answer: 1
15. Established the structure and created a model of the DNA molecule
1.Ch. Darwin and A. Wallace
2.D. Watson and F. Crick
3. M. Schleiden and T. Schwann
4.G. Mendel and T. Morgan
Answer: 2
16. The cell theory was created
1. A.I. Oparin and J. Haldane
2.M.Shleiden and T. Schwann
3.R. Hooke and A. Levenguk
4. M. Lomonosov and Ch. Darwin
Answer: 2
17. The doctrine of the second signaling system in humans created
1. I.M. Sechenov
2. I.P. Pavlov
3. W. Harvey
4. A. Vesalius
Answer: 2
18. The study of migrations in birds and the identification of their wintering places is carried out using the method
1. Experimental
2. Biochemical
3. Crossings
4. Banding
Answer: 4
Tasks are taken from the book for preparation for the OGE for 2016, edited by V.S. Rokhlova, as well as the author G.I. Lerner.
1.doc
Library
materials
Biology as a Science. Methods of scientific knowledge,
the main levels of organization of wildlife.
1.1 Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of cognition of living nature. The role of biology in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world.
Biological disciplines.
Botany- plant science, zoology- about animals, mycology- about mushrooms, virology- about viruses, bacteriology- about bacteria. Everything is clear with these sciences, so we will not dwell on them. But we will deal with the following in more detail.
Anatomy- science studying structure organisms (individual organs, tissues). Plant anatomy studies the structure of plants, animal anatomy studies the structure of animals.
Physiology- science studying processes life activity, its functions. For example, the structure of the skeleton and muscles is studied by anatomy, and the mechanism of muscle contraction is studied by physiology. The most important method of physiology is experiment.
Cytology- the science of the cell. In the arsenal of this science there are a number of specific methods.
Microscopy. This method consists in "examining" a cell using a microscope. A light microscope allows you to see large organelles (the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, plastids in plants, a nucleus with a nucleolus, and something else), as well as the processes occurring in a cell during its division (condensation of chromosomes, their divergence, formation of daughter cells, conjugation of homologous chromosomes with meiosis). Smaller cell structures (eg, ribosomes) and viral particles can be examined with a high-resolution electron microscope.
Centrifugation(differential centrifugation). Using this method, it is possible to obtain fractions of individual organelles. For example, we wanted to work with mitochondria, so that all other parts of the cell did not interfere with us. So you need to get a separate fraction (or portion) of mitochondria. To do this, we grind the cells, turning them into a homogeneous mass (a kind of "porridge-malasha"), place the test tubes with this mass in a centrifuge and begin to spin. Under the influence of centrifugal force, the organelles begin to settle to the bottom of the tube. At first, the centrifuge does not rotate very quickly, so the heaviest parts (for example, nuclei and large fragments of cell membranes) settle first. As the speed of rotation increases, lighter structures (plastids, mitochondria), etc. begin to settle. As a result, the initially homogeneous mass is stratified, and in each layer certain cellular structures prevail, which can be separated and studied.
Tracer method based on the use of radioactive isotopes or isotopes that differ in mass from the usual. For example, you can use an oxygen isotope with a relative atomic mass of 18 (and not 16, as usual), carbon C14, phosphorus P32, nitrogen N 15 and others. Such atoms are called labeled because they can always be detected using the appropriate equipment. Labeled atoms are introduced into the composition of a substance, the substance enters the cell (organism), and then the location of the labeled atom in the composition of certain substances and structures is recorded. This method makes it possible to study various biochemical reactions in the body, the pathways of the conversion of substances during metabolism, etc.
Taxonomy- the science that classifies organisms on the basis of their relationship. Classification - the division of organisms into groups (species, genus, families, etc.) based on structural features, origin, development, etc. The peculiarity of modern taxonomy is that the classification is based on the establishment of kinship between organisms (or groups of organisms) ...
Ecology- a science that studies the relationship of an organism with the environment. The objects of the study of ecology are the organismic and supraorganic levels of the organization of life (population-specific, biogeocenotic, biospheric). The relationship between man and nature, environmental protection and rational use of natural resources are separate areas of ecology.
Cell engineering- a branch of science dealing with the production of hybrid cells. For example (without going into details), they took a cage from one sheep, from which the nucleus was previously removed, and from another sheep, on the contrary, they took only the nucleus from the cage. They connected the first with the second and got a cage, from which after a while the well-known Dolly was born, absolutely identical to the sheep from which the nucleus was borrowed.
Genetic Engineering- a branch of science dealing with the production of hybrid DNA or RNA molecules. If cellular engineering works at the cell level, then gene engineering works at the molecular level. In this case, specialists "transplant" the genes of one organism to another. GMOs (genetically modified organisms) are the result of genetic engineering.
Selection- a science dealing with the development of new and improvement of existing breeds of domestic animals, varieties of cultivated plants and strains of bacteria and fungi. There are a number of methods in the breeder's arsenal.
Artificial selection- a method based on the selection by a breeder of individuals with traits of interest to a person and obtaining offspring from them.
Hybridization- crossing of organisms of different varieties, breeds. Allows to increase the genetic diversity of the starting material for selection.
Artificial mutagenesis- method of processing breeding material mutagenic factors(radiation, poisons) in order to obtain mutations.
Genetics- the science of the laws of heredity and variability. The main method of genetics, developed by G. Mendel, is hybridological- consists in crossing individuals differing in certain characteristics and studying these characteristics in the resulting offspring. However, to study the patterns of inheritance of traits in humans, this method is unacceptable, therefore, a number of others are used.
Genealogical method consists in the analysis of pedigrees. Based on this method, it is possible to identify the features of inheritance of a particular trait (dominant or recessive, sex-linked or not).
Twin method consists in studying the influence of the environment on the formation of signs in twins. First of all, scientists are interested in identical (identical) twins with the same genotype. Studying the differences between them, scientists draw conclusions about the influence of the genotype and environment on the formation of a trait.
Cytogenetic method includes the study of the chromosome set (karyotype) using a microscope. Those. specialists examine chromosomes through a microscope and compare them with a normal set. If there are deviations in the karyotype, and there are deviations in the phenotype, then they can be linked. For example, this was how a link was established between the presence of an extra 21st chromosome and the origin of Down syndrome.
Biochemical method... Some metabolic disorders are associated with the peculiarities of the genotype, therefore, having found such violations, it is possible to draw a conclusion about the genotype of a particular person. Examples of such disorders include phenylketonuria and diabetes mellitus.
Bionics- a direction in science, looking for opportunities to apply the principles of organization, properties and structures of living nature in technical devices.
Biotechnology- a discipline that studies the possibilities of using organisms or their metabolic products for solving technological problems. Bacteria and fungi are commonly used in biotechnological processes. Currently, highly productive strains of bacteria and fungi produce insulin, growth hormone, and antibiotics necessary in medicine. In a similar way, feed additives for farm animals are produced. Production fermented milk products, cheeses, winemaking - is also based on the use of various microorganisms.
Paleontology- a science that studies the living world of the past on the basis of discovered fossil remains (prints, fossils, etc.).
Content elements tested on the exam:
1.2 Level organization and evolution. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismic, population-specific, biogeocenotic, biosphere. Biological systems. General signs of biological systems: cellular structure, chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, movement, growth and development, reproduction, evolution.
Levels of life organization.
Live nature is a collection of biological systems of different levels. Less complex systems are part of more complex systems, so it is customary to talk about the levels of organization of life. Common to all levels of organization of living nature is that each level is an open (ie, exchanging matter and energy with the environment) self-regulating system.
Molecular level represents various molecules and their complexes that are part of living organisms. The most important role among them is played by nucleic acids and proteins, since it is the interaction of these molecules that ensures the storage and transmission of hereditary information. The interaction of various molecules, their transformation in the body is the essence of the metabolic process.
Cell level... The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of the body. The body consists of cells, the growth of the body occurs due to an increase in the number of cells through their division, the functions of the body are carried out due to the work of its cells.
Organism level Is a separate individual, a biological individual. An organism can be unicellular or multicellular, but in any case it is a single whole.
Population-species level... Each species is represented in nature by separate populations, i.e. relatively isolated groups of individuals. A single individual of a species has a limited duration, and the population is in a sense immortal (unless, of course, the species is completely extinct). Therefore, it is at the population-species level that evolutionary processes take place.
Biogeocenotic level represented by biogeocenoses. Biogeocenosis - the totality of a community of living organisms and its habitat, i.e. a certain area the earth's surface with a whole range of abiotic factors.
Biosphere level- the highest level of organization of life, including all ecosystems of the Earth. The biosphere is the area of distribution of life on the planet. At the biosphere level, global biogeochemical cycles and energy flows are carried out.
Population-specific, biogeocenotic and biosphere levels are supraorganic.
Properties of the living.
Among all the properties of living organisms, we will focus only on the most important ones.
Metabolism (metabolism)- the most important properties of living things. The entire set of metabolic processes in the body can be divided into two large processes: biosynthesis (assimilation, anabolism, plastic metabolism) and decay (dissimilation, catabolism, energy metabolism). In the course of metabolism, the body is provided with energy and building materials.
Unity of chemical composition... Among the chemical elements in living organisms, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen prevail. Besides. the most important feature of living organisms is the presence of proteins and nucleic acids.
Cellular structure... All organisms are made up of cells. Only viruses have a non-cellular structure, but they also show signs of living only when they enter the host cell.
Irritability- the body's ability to respond to external or internal influences.
Self-reproduction... All living organisms are capable of reproduction, i.e. reproduction of their own kind. The reproduction of organisms occurs in accordance with the genetic program recorded in the DNA molecules.
Heredity and variability... Heredity is a property of organisms, consisting in the ability to transmit their characteristics to descendants. Heredity ensures the continuity of life. Variability is the ability of organisms to acquire traits that differ from their parental ones. Hereditary variation is an important factor in evolution.
Growth and development... Growth - quantitative changes (for example, weight gain), development - qualitative changes (for example, formation of organ systems, flowering and fruiting). Development is characteristic both for an individual (individual development - ontogeny) and for all living nature as a whole (historical development - evolution).
Self-regulation... Self-regulation is the ability of organisms to maintain the constancy of their chemical composition and vital processes - homeostasis.
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Cell theory. Variety of cells.
Content elements tested on the exam:
2.1. Modern cell theory, its main provisions, role in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world. Development of knowledge about the cell. The cellular structure of organisms is the basis of the unity of the organic world, proof of the kinship of living nature.
Development of knowledge about the cell.
R. Hooke saw the cells for the first time, examining the cork under a microscope.
A. Van Levenguk discovered microorganisms (protozoa).
R. Brown discovered a nucleus in the cells.
T. Schwann and M. Schleiden formulated the main provisions of the cell theory, but the question of the origin of cells remained unclear.
R. Virkhov discovered the process of cell division and formulated the principle “cell from cell”.
Modern provisions of cell theory can be briefly presented as follows (it can be conveyed in other words, but the essence remains the same):
1) A cell is a structural, functional and genetic unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells.
2) The cells of all organisms are similar in chemical composition, structure and life processes.
3) New cells appear as a result of the division of mother cells.
4) In multicellular organisms, cells specialize in certain functions and form tissues.
The cellular structure of organisms and the similarity in the structure of their cells prove the unity of the origin of the organic world and the relationship of different forms of life on Earth.
Content elements tested on the exam:
2.2. Variety of cells. Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Comparative characteristics cells of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi.
Variety of cells.
Despite the fundamental similarity, the cells of different organisms also have differences, on the basis of which all organisms are divided into large groups. The super kingdom of prokaryotes (prenuclear) includes various groups of bacteria. All of them do not have a formed nucleus and membrane organelles, and their genetic material is contained in one circular DNA located directly in the cytoplasm. All plants, fungi and animals are nuclear organisms - eukaryotes.
Comparative characteristics of cells
bacteria, fungi, plants and animals.
Sign
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Bacteria
(all groups)
Plants
Mushrooms
Animals
Core
There is no core.
DNA one, circular
The core is there.
DNA is linear, "assembled" into chromosomes
Cell wall
There is,
from murein and pectin
Yes, from
cellulose
Yes, from a chitin-like substance
No, there is a glycocalyx on the surface of the plasma membrane
Membrane organelles (EPS, Golgi apparatus, plastids, vacuoles)
No
There is
Yes, except for plastids and large vacuoles with cell sap
Spare
carbohydrate
Starch
Glycogen
Ribosomes
Yes, but smaller than that of eukaryotes
Yes, larger
Cytoplasm
There is (how can it be without her)
Plasma membrane
There is (how can it be without her)
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Cell: chemical composition, structure, functions of organelles.
Content elements tested on the exam:
2.3 The chemical composition of the cell. Macro and microelements. The relationship between the structure and functions of inorganic and organic substances (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, ATP) that make up the cell. The role of chemicals in the cell and the human body.
Chemical elements that make up organisms.
Speaking about the chemical composition of the cell, it should be remembered that we can talk either about chemical elements, or about chemicals... Let's start with the chemical elements.
The composition of living bodies includes the same chemical elements that form inanimate bodies. This speaks of the unity of living and nonliving matter. However, in living bodies, the content of certain elements is noticeably different.
Let's name the main elements and their meaning.
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) make up 98% of the mass of a living organism. The first three elements are part of all organic substances in the body. Nitrogen (hereinafter, the elements are meant) is a part of proteins and nucleic acids.
Sulfur ( S) is a part of some amino acids, and therefore a part of proteins.
Iodine ( I) is necessary for the normal functioning of the thyroid gland, because is part of her hormones.
Phosphorus ( P) is an essential element of ATP molecules and nucleic acids. And also, in the form of phosphates, it is part of the bone tissue.
Iron is a part of blood hemoglobin and is involved in the transport of gases.
Magnesium ( Mg) is the central atom in the chlorophyll molecule.
Calcium ( Ca), as part of insoluble compounds, participates in the formation of supporting (bone tissue) and protective (mollusk shells) structures.
Potassium ( K) and sodium (Na) in the form of ions are of great importance for maintaining the constancy of the composition of the internal environment, and also participate in the formation nerve impulse in nerve cells.
Cell chemicals.
Carbohydrates.
The main function of carbohydrates is energy. In addition, they are part of the surface layer of the shell ( glycocalyx) of an animal cell and in the composition of the cell wall of bacteria, fungi and plants, performing a building (structural) function.
By structure, carbohydrates are divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Among monosaccharides, the most important are glucose (the main source of energy), ribose (part of RNA), deoxyribose (part of DNA). The main polysaccharides are cellulose and starch in plants, glycogen and chitin in animals and fungi. All polysaccharides are polymers of regular structure, i.e. consist of only one type of monomer. For example, glucose is the monomer of starch, glycogen and cellulose.
Lipids.
Lipids also perform an energetic function, and at the same time provide twice as much energy per 1 g of substance as carbohydrates. But their construction function is especially important, because it is the double layer of lipids (or, to be more precise, phospholipids) that is the basis of biological membranes. In addition, subcutaneous adipose tissue (in those who have it) performs the function of mechanical protection and thermoregulation.
Proteins.
Protein- biopolymers of irregular structure, the monomers of which are amino acids... The composition of proteins includes 20 types of amino acids, while the number of amino acids and the sequence of their connection in different protein molecules is different. As a result, proteins have a very diverse structure and, as a result, various properties and functions.
The levels of organization of a protein molecule (protein structure).
Structure
Structural features
What connections are supported
Associative row
Primary
Polypeptide chain, i.e. a certain number of amino acids linked in a chain. It is formed on ribosomes during translation.
Supported by strong covalent bonds, which in this case are called peptide bonds.
A stretched (i.e. straight) telephone cord (the one that connects the landline telephone handset to the device itself).
Secondary
Polypeptide chain twisted into a spiral or folded into an "accordion".
Supported by fragile but numerous hydrogen bonds.
The same cord only at rest. Notice how it coils.
Tertiary
It can have a spherical shape (globule), or a filament shape (fibril), or something like a tube, etc.
Supported by bonds between amino acid radicals. Basically, these bonds are weak (hydrophobic, hydrogen, ionic), but among them a special place is occupied by disulfide bridges - few in number, but strong bonds.
The same cord is only crumpled. Note that the spiral (a kind of secondary structure) has been preserved, but a new spatial configuration has been formed.
Quaternary
Several polypeptide chains combined into one complex.
Supported by the same connections as the tertiary structure.
Several telephone cords crumpled together.
Below is a classic drawing depicting the different levels of organization of the hemoglobin molecule. Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures are numbered 1-4, respectively.
Functions of proteins.
Building function proteins are one of the most important, since they are part of all cellular structures (membranes, organelles and cytoplasm). In fact, proteins are the main building blocks of the body. The growth and development of an organism without sufficient protein cannot be normal. That is why a growing organism must necessarily receive proteins from food.
Enzymatic function protein is equally important. Most of the chemical reactions taking place in the cell would not be possible without the participation of biological catalysts - enzymes. Almost all enzymes (enzymes) are proteins in nature. Each enzyme only accelerates one reaction (or one type of reaction). This expresses the specificity of the enzymes. In addition, enzymes operate in a fairly narrow temperature range. An increase in temperature leads to their denaturation and loss of catalytic activity. An example of a typical enzyme is catalase, which breaks down hydrogen peroxide formed during exchange into water and oxygen (2H 2 O 2 → 2H 2 O + O 2). The effect of catalase can be observed when treating a bleeding wound with peroxide. The evolved gas is oxygen. You can also use peroxide on chopped potatoes. The same will happen.
Transport function proteins is the transfer of various substances. Some proteins carry out transport throughout the whole organism. For example, the hemoglobin of the blood carries oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body. Other proteins built into cell membranes provide transport of various substances into and out of the cell. Typical example potassium-sodium pump is a complex protein complex that pumps sodium out of the cell and pumps potassium into it.
Motor function proteins should not be confused with transport. In this case it comes about the movement of an organism or its individual parts relative to each other. An example is the proteins that make up muscle tissue: actin and myosin. It is the interaction of these proteins that ensures muscle fiber contraction.
Protective function performed by many specific proteins. Antibodies produced by lymphocytes into the blood protect the body from pathogens. Special cellular proteins, interferons, provide antiviral protection. Plasma prothrombin is involved in blood clotting, protecting the body from blood loss.
Regulatory function are carried out by proteins, which are hormones. The typical protein hormone insulin regulates blood glucose. Another protein hormone is growth hormone.
Protein denaturation and renaturation.
The most important feature of most proteins is the instability of their structure under non-physiological conditions. With an increase in temperature, a change in the pH of the medium, exposure to solvents, etc. the bonds that support the spatial structure of the protein are destroyed. Is happening denaturation, i.e. violation of the natural structure of the protein. First of all, the Quaternary and Tertiary structures are destroyed. If the effect of an unfavorable factor does not stop or intensifies, then the secondary and even the primary structure is destroyed. The destruction of the primary structure - the breaking of bonds between amino acids - means the end of the existence of the protein molecule. If the primary structure is preserved, then under favorable conditions the protein can restore its spatial structure, i.e. will happen renaturation.
For example, when frying eggs under the influence of high temperature, the following changes occur with the egg white: it was liquid and transparent, it became hard and opaque. However, after cooling, the protein does not become transparent and liquid again. In this case, renaturation does not take place, because during frying, the primary structure of the protein was destroyed.
Nucleic acids.
Nucleic acids, like proteins, are polymers of irregular structure. Nucleic acid monomers are nucleotides... The schematic structure of a nucleotide is shown in Figure 2. As you can see, each nucleotide consists of three components: a nitrogenous base (polygon), a carbohydrate (pentagon), and a phosphoric acid residue (a circle).
Comparative characteristics of DNA and RNA
Sign
DNA
RNA
Monomers
deoxyribose thymine)
Nucleotides consisting of a phosphoric acid residue ribose and one of the nitrogenous bases (cytosine, guanine, adenine or uracil)
Structure
Double helix
Single chain
Functions
Storage and transmission of hereditary information.
Regulation of cell vital processes.
Protein biosynthesis (i.e., in fact, the process of implementation genetic information).
Types of RNA and their role in protein biosynthesis.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - transfers information about the primary structure of a protein from DNA to ribosomes.
Transport RNA (tRNA) - Delivers amino acids to ribosomes.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - is part of the ribosome, i.e. also participates in protein synthesis.
The structure of the DNA molecule.
The modern model of the structure of DNA was proposed by D. Watson and F. Crick. A DNA molecule consists of two chains of nucleotides, spirally twisted around each other. The nitrogenous bases are directed inside the molecule so that the thymine of the other chain is always opposite the adenine of one chain, and cytosine is located opposite the guanine. Adenine - thymine and guanine - cytosine are complementary, and the principle of their location in the DNA molecule is called the principle of complementarity. Two hydrogen bonds are formed between adenine and thymine, and three hydrogen bonds are formed between cytosine and guanine. Thus, two chains of nucleotides in a DNA molecule are connected by many fragile hydrogen bonds.
A consequence of the complementarity of the AT and G-C pairs is that the number of adenyl (A) nucleotides in DNA is always equal to the number of thymidyl (T) nucleotides. And in exactly the same way, the number of guanyl (G) and cytidyl (C) nucleotides will also be the same. For example, if DNA contains 10% of nucleotides with adenine, then nucleotides with thymine will also be 10%, and with guanine and cytosine, 40% each.
Content elements tested on the exam:
2.4 Cell structure. The interrelation of the structure and functions of the parts and organelles of the cell is the basis of its integrity.
The structure of the eukaryotic cell
Cellular
structure
Structure
Functions
Drawing
Plasma membrane
The basis is a double layer of lipids. Protein molecules are located on the outer and inner surfaces of the lipid bilayer and in its thickness.
1) Limits the contents of the cell, performs a protective function.
2) Carries out selective transport.
3) Provides communication of cells in a multicellular organism.
Core
Has a double membrane. Inside is chromatin(DNA with proteins), as well as one or more nucleoli(site of assembly of ribosome subunits). Communication with the cytoplasm occurs through nuclear pores.
1) Storage and transmission of hereditary information.
2) Control and management of cell vital processes.
Cytoplasm
The internal environment of the cell, including the liquid part, organelles and inclusions. Interconnects all cellular structures
Mitochondria
They have a double membrane. The inner membrane forms folds - crista, on which the enzyme complexes that synthesize ATP are located. Have their own ribosomes and circular DNA
Endoplasmic reticulum (EPS)
A network of tubules and cavities that permeate the entire cell. On the membrane rough EPS are located ribosomes. On the membrane smooth There are no EPSs.
Carries out the transport of substances, linking various organiodes. Rough EPS is also involved in protein synthesis, and smooth EPS is also involved in the synthesis of carbohydrates and lipids.
Golgi apparatus
System of flat tanks (tanks).
1) Accumulation, sorting, packaging and preparation of synthesized proteins from the cell for export.
2) Formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes
Vials filled with a variety of enzymes.
Intracellular digestion.
Ribosomes
Consist of two subunits formed by proteins and rRNA.
Protein synthesis.
Cell center
In animals and lower plants includes two centrioles formed by nine triplets of microtubules.
Participates in cell division and the formation of the cytoskeleton.
Movement organelles (cilia, flagella).
They represent a cylinder, the wall of which consists of nine pairs of microtubules. Two more are located in the center.
Traffic.
Plastids (found only in plants)
Chromoplasts (yellow-red) impart color to flowers and fruits, which attracts pollinators and distributors of fruits and seeds. Leukoplasts (colorless) accumulate starch. Chloroplasts (green) carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts
They have a double membrane. The inner membrane folds like stacks of coins - grains... A separate "coin" - thylakoid... They have circular DNA and ribosomes.
Transport across the plasma membrane.
Passive transport occurs without energy consumption (i.e. without ATP consumption). The main type is diffusion. Oxygen enters the cell by diffusion, and carbon dioxide is released.
Active transport comes with a cost of energy. Basic ways:
Transport using cell pumps. Special protein complexes built into the membrane transport some ions into the cell and pump out others. For example, a potassium-sodium pump pumps out Na + from the cell, and pumps in K +. ATP is consumed for its work.
Phagocytosis- absorption of solid particles by the cell. The cell membrane forms protrusions, which gradually close, and the absorbed particle appears in the cytoplasm.
Pinocytosis is the absorption of liquid droplets by a cell. It occurs similarly to phagocytosis.
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A cell is a genetic unit of a living thing. Cell division.
Content elements tested on the exam:
2.7. A cell is a genetic unit of a living thing. Chromosomes, their structure (shape and size) and functions. The number of chromosomes and their species constancy. Somatic and germ cells. Life cycle cells: interphase and mitosis. Mitosis is the division of somatic cells. Meiosis. Phases of mitosis and meiosis. The development of germ cells in plants and animals. Cell division is the basis for the growth, development and reproduction of organisms. The role of meiosis and mitosis.
Chromosomes.
Chromosome is a DNA molecule associated with special proteins. Each type of organism is characterized by a certain number of chromosomes, their shape and structure, i.e. a certain chromosome set - karyotype... The karyotype is the same and constant in individuals of the same species. The presence of different karyotypes is the reason for the genetic isolation of different species (i.e., the impossibility of crossing them to obtain fertile offspring).
Most organisms somatic, i.e. all except genital, cells contain double, or diploid, a set of chromosomes. With a diploid set, each chromosome has a pair, i.e. the same chromosome in shape, size and structure. Such paired chromosomes are called homologous... Sex cells, i.e. gametes contain haploid a set of chromosomes. Of each pair of homologous chromosomes, only one is represented in the gamete. For example, in humans, gametes (sperm and eggs) have 23 chromosomes, and all other cells in the body have 46 each.
Mitosis.
Mitosis- a method of somatic cell division, in which daughter cells receive the same chromosomal set as in the mother cell. Thus, the constancy of the number of chromosomes in cells is maintained during their multiple division. Therefore, mitosis is the basis for growth, development and asexual reproduction organisms. Only random mutations can be a source of variability during mitosis.
The interval between cell divisions is called interphase... In the interphase, the cell begins to prepare for division: it accumulates energy, synthesizes certain proteins. It is in the interphase that major event associated with cell division - doubling ( replication) DNA. After DNA duplication, each chromosome contains two identical chromatids, each of which contains one strand of DNA (see Fig. A4 .1). Then mitosis begins.
Phases of mitosis.
Mitosis phase
Current events
Drawing
Prophase
The nuclear membrane dissolves, the nucleus and nucleoli disappear.
Chromosomes spiralize (curl, condense) and become visible under a microscope, freely located in the cytoplasm.
The centrioles diverge to the poles of the cell, a division spindle is formed.
Metaphase
Chromosomes attach to the fission spindle filaments with their centromeres ( centromere- the part of the chromosome that connects chromatids) and line up in the equatorial plane of the cell.
Anaphase
Chromatids separate and diverge to opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase
Chromosomes are despiralized (unwound, decondensed) and become invisible.
The fission spindle is destroyed.
A nuclear envelope is formed around the chromosomes.
The cytoplasm of the cell is divided (in animals by constriction, in plants a new membrane is formed between daughter cells).
Two daughter cells are formed.
Meiosis.
Meiosis- a method of division, in which daughter cells receive half as many chromosomes as the mother cell had. In this way, gametes (sperm and eggs) of most organisms are formed.
Differences between meiosis and mitosis:
During meiosis, the cell divides twice, and the DNA is doubled only before the first division, so four haploid daughter cells are formed from one diploid mother cell.
In the prophase of the first division of meiosis, homologous chromosomes conjugate(approach, stick together) and exchange sections (i.e. crossing over).
As a result of crossing over, as well as as a result of accidental separation of chromosomes in the anaphase of the first and second divisions of meiosis, the four formed cells have a different genotype.
During meiosis, haploid gametes are formed. During fertilization, these haploid gametes merge and form a diploid zygote, from which a new organism then develops through mitosis. Thus, meiosis (the number of chromosomes is halved) and the fertilization process (the diploid set is restored) ensure the constancy of the number of chromosomes during sexual reproduction.
Phases of meiosis.
Meiosis phase
Current events
Drawing
Prophase I
The same happens as during mitosis. The only difference is in stock the process of conjugation of homologous chromosomes.
Metaphase I
Chromosomes are attached by centromeres to the spindle filaments and are aligned in the equatorial plane.
Chromosomes align in homologous pairs.
Anaphase I
Chromosomes (in this case, dichromatid) diverge to the poles of the cell.
Telophase I
The same happens as in the telophase of mitosis, but at the end of division, two cells are formed with a haploid set of double (dichromatid) chromosomes.
Prophase II
The resulting cells with a haploid set of double chromosomes divide again. In general, the second division of meiosis occurs in the same way as mitosis. The differences are only in the chromosome set. The figures show the second division of one of the formed cells.
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
The development of germ cells in animals.
The process of formation of germ cells (gametes) is called gametogenesis... Formation of male gametes (sperm) - spermatogenesis, the formation of female (oocytes) - ovogenesis... Male gametes are formed in the testes and female gametes in the ovaries.
In the process of gamete formation, several stages are distinguished, which are similar in spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Stages
gametogenesis
Current events
Spermatogenesis
Ovogenesis
Reproduction
Primary germ cells (i.e., they are not gametes yet) divide mitosis. The number of cells increases.
Height
Cells increase in size slightly
Cell size increases hundreds and thousands of times
Maturation
Meiosis occurs. Four haploid cells are formed, which later become sperm.
Meiosis occurs, four haploid cells are formed, of which only one later becomes an egg cell.
Formation
In male gametes, a flagellum is formed, the Golgi apparatus is converted into an acrosome.
Female gametes acquire additional membranes.
Gametogenesis schemes.
Spermatogenesis
Ovogenesis
1 - stage of reproduction, 2 - stage of growth, 3 - stage of maturation, 4 - stage of formation
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A variety of organisms. Viruses.
Content elements tested on the exam:
3.1. Variety of organisms: unicellular and multicellular; autotrophs, heterotrophs. Viruses are non-cellular life forms.
Single-celled organisms.
The body of a multicellular organism consists of many cells that specialize in performing certain functions and form tissues (with the exception of lower multicellular organisms).
Body unicellular organisms consists of a single cell, which is a complete organism and performs all its functions. Unicellular forms are found in all the kingdoms of organisms.
Kingdom
Examples of organisms
Drawing
Plants
Chlamydomonas
Chlorella
Animals
Infusoria slipper
Common amoeba
Euglena green
Mushrooms
Yeast
Bacteria
All kinds of bacteria
Autotrophs and heterotrophs.
According to the way of feeding, all organisms are divided into autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs- organisms capable of synthesizing organic matter from inorganic. The formation of organic matter occurs during photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Photosynthesis carried out by plants and cyanobacteria, therefore they are called phototrophs... In this case, the source of energy required for synthesis is sunlight. Chemosynthesis typical for some groups of bacteria (iron bacteria, sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, etc.). In this case, oxidation energy is used to form organic substances inorganic compounds.
Autotrophs perform the function of producers in ecosystems.
Heterotrophic organisms use ready-made organic compounds created by autotrophs. Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, and most bacteria. In ecosystems, heterotrophs are consumers or reducers. Among autotrophs, a group is distinguished saprophytes(saprophytic fungi, saprophytic bacteria) that use dead organic matter ( detritus).
There are also organisms that, depending on the conditions, use one or another method of nutrition. For example, euglena green in the light carries out photosynthesis, and when there is a lack of light, it absorbs ready-made organic substances from the environment. Such organisms are called mixotrophs.
Viruses.
Features of the structure and life:
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TRAINING
1 Classification of organisms on the basis of their relationship is a subject of science
1) botanists
2) physiology
3) taxonomy
4) genetics
2 The structure and number of chromosomes can be studied using the method
1) genealogical
2) biochemical
3) centrifugation
4) cytogenetic
3 Reproduction of new individuals from one or several cells is engaged in
1) genetic engineering
2) cell engineering
3) bionics
4) genetics
4 The relationship of organisms with the environment studies
1) ecology
2) taxonomy
3) physiology
4) morphology
5 The structure of polysaccharides and their role in the cell can be studied by
1) biochemical
2) cytogenetic
3) distant hybridization
4) light microscopy
6 Breeders are engaged in
1) the study of human impact on the environment
2) dividing organisms into groups based on their relationship
3) obtaining highly productive strains of microorganisms
4) the study of the laws of the evolution of living nature
7 The structure and distribution of ancient reptiles is studied by science
1) paleontology
2) animal physiology
2) animal anatomy
4) ecology
8 Methods for constructing cells based on their hybridization and reconstruction used in
1) bionics
2) paleontology
3) genetic engineering
4) cell engineering
9 The introduction of new genes into the genome of an organism is carried out by methods
1) simulation
2) centrifugation
3) cell engineering
4) genetic engineering
10 To study heredity and variability of a person, the method is used
1) hybridological
2) artificial mutagenesis
3) artificial selection
4) genealogical
11 The object of study of cytology is the standard of living
1) cellular
2) organismic
3) population-specific
4) biogeocenotic
12 The implementation of hereditary information occurs at the level
1) organismic
2) population-specific
3) biogeocenotic
4) biosphere
13 The highest level of organization of life is
1) organism
2) population
3) ecosystem
4) biosphere
14 Indicators of fertility, mortality and age composition are used in the study of living standards
1) organismic
2) population-specific
3) cellular
4) biosphere
15 What level of organization of life is not studied by ecology?
1) cellular
2) biosphere
3) population-specific
4) biogeocenotic
16 The constancy of the internal environment of the body is called
1) normal reaction
2) heredity
3) homeostasis
4) biorhythm
17 The body's ability to respond to environmental influences -
1) variability
2) irritability
3) reaction rate
4) homeostasis
18 The main sign of the living is
1) movement
2) metabolism
3) oxygen breathing
4) the presence of tissues
19 Metabolism is characteristic of
1) bacteriophage
2) tobacco mosaic virus
3) soil bacteria
4) minerals
20 Metabolism is absent in
1) unicellular algae
3) viruses
4) pathogenic bacteria
Training A2
A2.1. As evidenced by the similarity of the structure and vital activity of cells of various organisms
1) about adaptability to the environment
2) about evolution
3) about relationship
4) about the diversity of wildlife
A2.2. M. Schleiden and T. Schwann formulated
1) chromosomal theory heredity
2) cell theory
3) the main provisions of evolutionary doctrine
4) biogenetic law
A2.3. All eukaryotic cells have
1) cell wall
2) plastids
3) core
4) vacuoles with cell sap
A2.4. One of the provisions of the cell theory is the following statement.
1) A cell is a unit of structure, vital activity and development of an organism.
2) In the cells of prokaryotes, there is no nucleus and membrane organelles.
3) Heterotrophic nutrition is characteristic of animal cells.
4) Animal cells differ from plant cells by the absence of chloroplasts.
A2.5. Nutrients enter the cell by phagocytosis in
1) plants
2) bacteria
3) animals
4) mushrooms
A2.6. According to cell theory, the cells of all organisms
1) have a nucleus and a nucleolus
2) are similar in chemical composition
3) are the same in their functions
4) have the same organelles
A2.7. In the cells of all living organisms, metabolism and energy conversion take place, therefore the cell is a unit
1) reproduction of organisms
2) genetic information
3) the vital activity of organisms
4) the structure of organisms
A2.8. Prokaryotes include
1) protozoa
3) cyanobacteria
4) molds
A2.9. In the animal cage as a storage carbohydrate is deposited
1) chitin
2) starch
3) cellulose
4) glycogen
A2.10. In the process of metabolism, plant cells from the environment enter
1) nucleic acids
2) carbohydrates and proteins
3) carbon dioxide and water
4) lipids
TRAINING A3
A3.1 Chemical element, which is part of proteins and nucleic acids, is
1) sulfur
2) nitrogen
3) chlorine
4) magnesium
A3.2 As a storage carbohydrate, glycogen is used in cells
1) elodea
2) dogs
3) influenza virus
4) potatoes
A3.3 Unlike deoxyribose, ribose is part of
1) mRNA
2) DNA
3) cellulose
4) starch
A3.4 Fats, like carbohydrates, perform functions
1) information and regulatory
2) construction and energy
3) catalytic and energy
4) construction and catalytic
A3.5 Lipids are the main structural component
1) ribosomes
2) chromosomes
3) biological membranes
4) cell center
A3.6 Due to what property do lipids form the basis of the plasma membrane?
1) the ability to change the spatial structure
2) insolubility in water
3) the ability to self-duplicate
4) the presence of catalytic activity
A3.7 ATP includes
1) adenine, ribose, three phosphoric acid residues
2) adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
3) different kinds amino acids
4) carbohydrates and lipids
A3.8 Denaturation is reversible unless the bonds are broken
1) peptide
2) hydrogen
3) hydrophobic
4) ionic
A3.9 Three-dimensional spatial configuration of a protein molecule in the form of a globule is a structure
1) primary
2) secondary
3) tertiary
4) quaternary
A3.10 The secondary structure of a protein is
1) multiple polypeptide chains
2) amino acid sequence
3) a polypeptide chain twisted into a spiral
4) coil packed in a ball
A 
3.11 The pictured hemoglobin protein structure is maintained
1) hydrogen bonds between -NH and -CO groups
2) peptide bonds between amino acids
3) bonds between amino acid radicals
4) links between different polypeptide chains
A3.12 The composition of the DNA nucleotide may include
1) ribose, thymine and phosphoric acid residue
2) ribose, uracil and phosphoric acid residue
3) deoxyribose, uracil and phosphoric acid residue
4) deoxyribose, thymine and phosphoric acid residue
A3.13 The matrix for the synthesis of the primary structure of the protein is the molecule
1) tRNA
2) mRNA
3) rRNA
4) ATP
A3.14 Transport RNA
1) are a matrix for protein synthesis
2) deliver amino acids to ribosomes
3) transport glucose through cell membrane
4) carry oxygen
A3.15 Chemical reactions occurring in lysosomes refer to reactions
1) plastic exchange
3) chemosynthesis
4) oxidative phosphorylation
A3.16 The plasma membrane carries out selective transport of substances due to its
1) dynamism
2) stability
3) semi-permeability
4) strength
A3.17 Ribosomes are involved in
1) accumulation nutrients
2) plastic exchange
3) transport of amino acids
4) removal of decay products from the cell
A3.18 The exchange of substances between the cell and the environment is regulated
1) plasma membrane
2) nuclear envelope
3) cell center
4) cytoplasm
A3.19 The connection between different organelles of the cell is carried out
1) Golgi apparatus
2) fission spindle
3) mitochondrial DNA
4) endoplasmic reticulum
A 
3.20 The organoid depicted in the figure performs the function
1) cellular respiration
2) intracellular transport
3) intracellular digestion
4) storing nutrients
TRAINING A4
A4.1 As a result of oogenesis from one progenitor cell,
1) one egg
2) two eggs
3
) four eggs
4) eight eggs
A4.2 The process depicted in the figure (marked with an arrow) is
1) the condition for the preservation of the diploid number of chromosomes during mitosis
2) one of the stages of the fertilization process
3) a factor that ensures the protection of chromosomes from adverse effects
4) a factor providing the recombination of parental genes in meiosis
A4.3 In the prophase of the first division of meiosis, as well as in the prophase of mitosis,
1) DNA doubling
2) crossing over
3) destruction of the nuclear envelope
4) the divergence of daughter chromosomes to the poles of the cell
A4.4 The sperm is not characterized by the presence of
1) supply of nutrients
2) plasma membrane
3) mitochondria
4) haploid nucleus
A4.5 As a result of meiosis, each daughter cell
1) becomes diploid
2) completely similar to the mother
3) has the same chromosome set as the maternal
4) receives half of the genome of the mother cell
A4.6 Reason for diversity of offspring during sexual reproduction can not serve
1) crossing over
2) accidental fusion of gametes during fertilization
3) random divergence of chromosomes in the anaphase of the first division of meiosis
4) duplication of chromosomes before the onset of meiosis
A4.7 The constancy of the number of chromosomes in individuals of the same species is ensured
1) diploid organisms
2) haploid organisms
3) the processes of fertilization and meiosis
4) the process of cell division
A4.8 Male gametes are formed in
1) sporangia
2) ovaries
3) testes
4) ovules
A4.9 During ovogenesis and spermatogenesis,
1) accumulation of nutrients in gametes
2) fusion of gametes
3) halving the number of chromosomes in gametes
4) restoration of the diploid set of chromosomes in gametes
A4.10 Meiosis and mitosis are similar in that in both cases
1) division is preceded by DNA doubling
2
) double fission occurs
3) conjugation of homologous chromosomes occurs
4) diploid cells are formed
A4.11 The figure shows cells formed during the first division of meiosis. Each of them contains
1) diploid set of single chromosomes
2) diploid set of double chromosomes
3) haploid set of single chromosomes
4) haploid set of double chromosomes
A4.12 Crossing over is
1) exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes
2) clumping of homologous chromosomes
3) independent divergence of chromosomes
4) a kind of mitosis
A4.13 Chimpanzee somatic cells contain 48 chromosomes. As a result of meiosis, the male chimpanzee forms spermatozoa containing chromosomes
1) twice as much
2) half as much
3) four times less
4) as much as in somatic cells
A4.14 The biological meaning of a large number of spermatozoa in animals is
1) in increasing the efficiency of artificial selection
2) in improving the viability of fertilized eggs
3) in increasing the likelihood of fertilization
4) in an increase in the rate of development of the embryo
A4.15 In the course of meiosis, in contrast to mitosis, the following occurs:
1) condensation (spiralization) of chromosomes
2) conjugation of homologous chromosomes
3) the formation of diploid cells
4) destruction of the nuclear envelope in prophase
A4.16 In the anaphase of the first division of meiosis, chromosomes diverge to the poles of the cell, each of which contains
1) one chromatid
2) two chromatids
3) three chromatids
4) four chromatids
A4.17 Mammalian spermatozoa are formed as a result of
1) mitosis
2) meiosis
3) ontogenesis
4) crushing
A4.18 The figure on the left shows a cell in an early prophase state. In the figure on the right, the same cell is in the state
1) telophase of the first division of meiosis
2) telophase of the second division of meiosis
3) telophase of mitosis
4) metaphase of mitosis
A4.19 Common to mitosis and meiosis is
1) the formation of haploid cells
2) the formation of diploid cells
3) DNA doubling before the start of division
4) conjugation of homologous chromosomes
A4.20 Chimpanzee liver cells contain 48 chromosomes. How many chromosomes are there in brain cells?
1) 12
2) 24
3) 48
4) 96
TRAINING A5
1) organic substances created by them in the process of photosynthesis
2) organic substances created by them in the process of chemosynthesis
3) ready-made organic matter of dead bodies
4) ready-made organic substances of living bodies
A5.2 Organisms capable of synthesizing organic substances from inorganic ones using the oxidation energy of inorganic compounds are called
1) chemotrophs
2) phototrophs
4) heterotrophs
A5.3 Nitrifying bacteria are
1) phototrophs
2) chemotrophs
3) heterotrophs
А5.4 Synthesis of organic substances from inorganic ones due to solar energy is carried out
1) phototrophs
2) heterotrophs
4) chemotrophs
A5.5 Energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy in cells
1) plants
2) animals
3) mushrooms
A5.6 Most animals by way of feeding are
1) phototrophs
2) heterotrophs
3) chemotrophs
4) autotrophs
A5.7 Formation of organic compounds from inorganic ones occurs in cells
1) frog skin
2) boletus caps
3) potato leaf
4) nodule bacteria
A5.8 Autotrophic organisms include
1) chlorella
2) mucor
3) amoeba
4) ciliate shoe
A5.9 Which of the organisms shown in the figure can create organic matter from inorganic?
1) 1
2) 2
3) 3
4) 4
A5.10 Nodule bacteria living on the roots of leguminous plants receive ready-made organic substances from them, supplying nitrogen compounds to the plant in return. Nodule bacteria are
3) autotrophs
4) heterotrophs
A5.11 Non-cellular life forms include
1) root nodule bacteria
3) cyanobacteria
4) bacteriophages
A5.12 Among the listed organisms, it does not have a cellular structure.
1) ciliate shoe
2) influenza virus
3) Escherichia coli
4) chlamydomonas
A5.13 Of the many properties of living organisms, viruses are characterized by the presence
1) metabolism
2) irritability
3) heredity
4) cellular structure
A5.14 Viruses exhibit the properties of a living only
1) in the cells of other organisms
2) in the external environment
3) when interacting with other viruses
4) under favorable conditions external environment
A5.15 A viral disease is not
1) flu
2) AIDS
3) smallpox
4) tuberculosis
A5.16 Viruses occupy an intermediate position between
1) prokaryotes and eukaryotes
2) bodies of animate and inanimate nature
3) plants and animals
4) fungi and bacteria
A5.17 A feature of viruses is that they
1) can cause diseases of animals and plants
2) do not have a cellular structure
3) do not have a formalized core
4) carry out a very active metabolism
A5.18 Synthesis of viral proteins
1) does not require energy consumption
2) does not require the participation of enzymes
3) occurs only in the host cell
4) occurs in the extracellular environment
A5.19 Build their own nucleic acid in the host cell DNA
3) bacteriophages
4) bacteria saprophytes
The diversity of life and the science of taxonomy
OPTION 1
A1. All living organisms are composed of
1) cells
3) intercellular substance
4) organ systems
A2. The cell exists as an independent organism
1) leaf peels
2) bacterial
3) muscle fiber
4) root cap
AZ. A living organism is
1) the union of living cells
2) a set of integumentary and conducting tissues
3) one organ system
4) a coordinated system of cells, tissues, organs
A4. Similar in structure and physiological characteristics individuals form
1) organism
2) biosphere
3) view
4) forest community
A5. The community of animals and plants - organisms that live together in a meadow and interact with each other, are called
1) population
2) biocenosis
3) biosphere
A6. The soil included in the biosphere is
1) living matter
2) inert substance
3) bioinert substance
4) inorganic substance
A7. The process of creating varieties of cultivated plants by man is called
1) artificial selection
2) natural selection
3) the struggle for existence
4) heredity
A8. As a result of natural selection in nature, they survive
1) only the simplest animals
2) individuals adapted to environmental conditions
3) all flowering plants
4) individuals useful to humans
A9. The classification, or distribution of organisms into groups on the basis of their similarity and relationship, is the responsibility of biological science.
1) taxonomy
2) anatomy
3) ecology
4) cytology
A10. The smallest systematic unit of classification of living organisms is considered to be
2) view
4) kingdom
A11. Organisms have a non-cellular structure
2) bacteria
3) viruses
4) animals
B1.
A. There are species in which the body consists of one cell.
B. The bacterium is one of the most complex cells.
1) Only A is true
2) Only B is true
3) Both judgments are correct
4) Both judgments are wrong
B2. Are the following statements true?
A. Natural selection of individuals in nature leads to the formation of new species.
B. The struggle for existence occurs only between animals.
1) Only A is true
2) Only B is true
3) Both judgments are correct
4) Both judgments are wrong
BZ. Are the following statements true?
A. Closely related animal species are combined into a genus.
B. In total, there are two kingdoms of living nature: plants and animals.
1) Only A is true
2) Only B is true
3) Both judgments are correct
4) Both judgments are wrong
B4. Pick three true statements. The levels of organization of living matter that are involved in the formation of the organism of a multicellular animal are
1) cellular
2) species
3) fabric
4) organ
5) biocenotic
6) biosphere
B5. Establish a sequence of levels of organization of living matter, starting with the cell.
2) organism
4) biosphere
6) biocenosis
Answer: 1-3-2-5-6-4
B6. Establish a sequence of systematic categories, starting with the smallest.
2) kingdom
Answer: 4-1-3-2
OPTION 2
In each task, choose one correct answer from the four suggested.
A1. The cell is a separate organism in
1) the simplest animal
2) flowering plant
3) cap mushroom
4) an amphibian animal
A2. Cells, the structure and functions of which are similar, form
1) the body of the frog
2) tree stem
3) the conductive tissue of the plant
4) internal organs of fish
AZ. It cannot exist independently in nature
1) bacterial cell
2) the simplest animal
3) fish fin
4) unicellular algae
A4. A group of individuals of the same species occupying a certain territory is
2) population
3) animals of the forest
4) flood meadow plants
A5. The shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms, is
1) population
2) biocenosis
3) biosphere
4) atmosphere
A6. Mushrooms are the substance of the biosphere
1) live
3) bio-inert
4) organic
A7. On the basis of hereditary variability, a person creates
1) types of invertebrates
2) pet breeds
3) types of flowering plants
4) organs of vertebrates
A8. In nature, in the process of the struggle for existence, there is
1) artificial selection
2) natural selection
3) the formation of breeds of domestic animals
4) the formation of varieties of cultivated plants
A9. The first natural classification of species was created by
1) K. Linnaeus
2) Charles Darwin
3) Aristotle
4) Theophrastus
A10. A set of individuals similar in structure, occupying common area, freely interbreeding with each other and giving fertile offspring, are called
2) view
4th grade
A11. All plants inhabiting the Earth are combined into a systematic group
1) family
4) kingdom
B1. Are the following statements true?
A. The cell of a unicellular animal is capable of carrying out all vital processes.
B. The whole organism of an animal is a collection of separate organs.
1) Only A is true
2) Only B is true
3) Both judgments are correct
4) Both judgments are wrong
B2. Are the following statements true?
A. The struggle for existence is one of the driving forces of evolution.
B. Individual hereditary variability is inherent in all living organisms.
1) Only A is true
2) Only B is true
3) Both judgments are correct
4) Both judgments are wrong
BZ. Are the following statements true?
A. The modern taxonomy of organisms is based on the commonality of their structure and origin.
B. In taxonomy, it is customary to distinguish between four kingdoms of living nature.
1) Only A is true
2) Only B is true
3) Both judgments are correct
4) Both judgments are wrong
B4. Pick three true statements. Biosphere as living shell Land includes
1) living matter
2) bioinert substance
5) inert substance
6) magma in the bowels of the volcano
B5. Establish a sequence of levels of organization of living matter, starting with the biosphere.
