Expand the content of the subject Physiology as a science. Funv driving in physiology
Subject Physiology, its content is to study the general and private mechanisms of activity of the holistic organism and all its bodies and systems.
Finite a task Physiology is such a deep knowledge of the functions of the body, which would ensure the possibility of active impact on them in the desired direction.
According to I.P. Pavlova, medicine, just enriched continuously, day after day, new physiological facts, will finally, someday, what should it be ideally, i.e. The ability to repair the spoiled mechanism of the human body on the basis of the exact knowledge of being applied knowledge of physiology. It is not by chance that physiology first began to develop as a medical science. By definition K. Bernard, physiology is a scientific rod on which all sciences hold; In essence, in medicine there is only one science: a science of life, or physiology. At the present stage, physiology puts the following tasks: studying the function:
- a healthy organism as a whole;
- various systems, organs, fabrics, cells; studying mechanisms:
- interaction of various organs and systems in a holistic organism;
- regulation of the functioning of organs and systems;
- the interactions of the body with the environment.
According to I.P. Pavlova, the task of physiology is to understand the work of the human body, determine the significance of each part of it, to understand how these parts are connected, as they interact and, as a result of their interaction, the gross result is obtained - the overall work of the body.
The very first , Used in physiology, there were observation and conclusion that, however, did not lose their importance and at the present stage. But the physiologist cannot be satisfied only by observation, as it responds only to the question, what's happening in organism. It is important to find out also, how and why Physiological processes occur. For this necessary experiments, experiments, those. Impacts that are created artificially by the researcher.
Experiments are acute (vivisection, or lasside) or chronic; Their main advantages and disadvantages are presented in Table. one.
Studies performed on a person are usually carried out in sin by options to estimate the various parties to the functioning of the body:
- in the state of physiological rest - the norm of operation;
- the reaction to optimal loads is the reaction rate;
- reactions to maximum loads - evaluation of reserve capabilities.
At the same time, the physiological norm is considered the biological optimum of vital processes.
Table 1. Comparing acute and chronic experiment
The main stages of the development of physiology as science associated with the change in the methods used:
- the pre-experimental period (ancient and middle ages), when the main methods were observations and conclusions, which often led to erroneous conclusions (the heart - the body of the soul, the arteries are mixed by the Spirit, and on the veins - blood);
- 1628. W. Garvey. "The doctrine of the movement of heart and blood in the body" - the introduction of acute experiments in physiological research;
- 1883 I.P. Pavlov. "Centrifugal nerves of the heart" - the introduction of a chronic experiment technique;
- the current stage is the integration of studies on a molecular cellular and systemic (organized) level, which allows combining ideas about cell processes and regulation at the level of a whole body.
Basic principles of physiology:
- the body is a single system that combines various organs in their complex interaction among themselves;
- the principle of structurality (integrity) - physiological processes can be carried out with the anatomical and functional integrity of all elements providing these processes;
- "The body without an external environment supporting its existence is impossible. Therefore, the scientific definition of the body should include an environment affecting it "(I.M. Sechenov, 1861);
- "All physiological mechanisms, therefore, they have been different, have only one goal - preservation of constancy of living conditions in the inner phase" (K. Bernard, 1878), or homeostasis (by Cannon);
- the principle of determinism is any activity of the body and its organs and systems is causally due to;
- adaptation is a set of mechanisms that ensure the adaptation of the body to the ever-changing conditions of the external environment;
- the integrity of the body and its connection with the external environment provided by neuro-humoral mechanisms;
- homeostasis and adaptation are the main mechanisms for ensuring life;
- the principle of reliability of biological systems: the body and its systems have a strength reserve, which is ensured by the following components:
- the redundancy of the functioning elements (for example, 25% of the pulmonary tissue is enough to carry out external respiration);
- reservation of the function (from 1 million nephrons existing in the kidney, simultaneously functions only some of them, the rest remain in reserve);
- the frequency of functioning of all elements (for example, opening and closing, i.e. flicker, capillaries); Duplication of functions (the heart pump has helpers in the form of peripheral hearts - skeletal muscles, the reduction of which pushes blood on venous vessels).
Human and animal physiology
Physiology - Science on the life functions of the body and its structures, the mechanisms of their implementation and regularities of regulation.
In very general The definition of physiology is such: this is the science of nature, the essence of life processes. The name physiology comes from the Greek words Physis - Nature and Logos - doctrine.
Physiology studies manifestations of life functions, ranging from the molecular level and ending with the vital activity of a holistic organism, including its behavioral reactions, consciousness and thinking. It considers the sources of energy and the role of various substances in vitality, the mechanisms of interconnection of cells, combining them in tissue, organs, physiological systems and a holistic organism, as well as methods of interaction between the body with a habitat, its reaction to the effects of this environment, mechanisms of adaptation to adverse conditions and maintain health.
The term "physiology" as used in the broad sense denotes a huge amount of knowledge about the essence of life processes. Since these processes are largely different in plant and animal organisms, they allocate plant physiology and physiology of man and animals.
Physiology and animals are also divided. Along with the fact that vertebrates and humans have many similarities in the functioning of internal organs, there are huge differences between them, primarily in the nature and level of mental functions. This is the main difference is reflected in the name Homo Sapiens - a man thinking. The volume of the subject of the study led to the fact that in physiology began to allocate its parts as special educational disciplines: cellular cellular, heart, blood, blood circulation, breathing, nervous system (neurophysiology), sensory systems, etc. Some sections of the physiology studied in the universities of the biological and medical profile as separate academic disciplines are given below:
- age physiology studying age features of human life, patterns of formation, development and fuses of the body functions;
- physiology Considers the impact of human labor activities on life processes, develops methods and means of working, contributing to the maintenance of human disability at a high level;
- physiology Aviation and Space studies the reaction of the human body to the impact of atmospheric and space flight factors in order to develop means of ensuring the livelihood and human health under conditions of low atmospheric pressure and space;
- environmental physiology identifies the features of the influence of climatic geographic conditions and a specific habitat on the body and how to improve the quality of adaptation to adverse environmental impacts;
- physiology evolutionary and comparative Considers the patterns of evolutionary development of physiological processes, mechanisms, regulations, as well as their similarities and differences in organisms located at different levels of phylogenesis.
In educational institutions of the medical profile, only some of the materials from the above specialized courses are considered in the united course of physiology. Medical educational institutions are focused on learning the course human physiology (The general name physiology is often used in them).
From a single science, human physiology in a number of countries (former USSR, post-Soviet republics, some European countries) was allocated separate subject pathological physiology - Science, which studies the general patterns of occurrence, flow and outcome of pathological processes, diseases. In contrast, the study of the life processes of a healthy organism began to call normal physiology. In the highest medical schools of Belarus, these items are studied separately at the departments of normal and pathological physiology. In some countries, they are combined entitled medical physiology.
Physiology has a close relationship with other fundamental theoretical medical sciences: anatomy, histology, biochemistry. Physiology seems to unite these sciences, uses their knowledge and creates a community - the foundation of medical and biological knowledge, without which it is impossible to master the medical work.
For example, today the most important problem Medicine is the treatment and prevention of diseases of the cardiovascular system. What knowledge gives physiology to solve this problem? In the Heart Physiology section, the main function of the heart as a pump and blood pressure regulator is studied; The mechanisms for the implementation of this function are found: the processes of automatic excitation generation, conducting it according to specialized structures, the mechanism of reduction of the heart and expulsion of blood into the vascular system. Especially much attention is paid to the study of the mechanisms for the regulation of the heart, adapting it to the changing needs of blood flow in various organs. Biophysical and molecular mechanisms for controlling excitability, conductivity and reduction of the heart muscle are studied. Based on this data, modern biochemistry and pharmacology synthesize medicinal substances that ensure the possibility of treating heart impairment. The subject of physiology is also the development and study of methods for researching functions and heart status. From the above materials it becomes obvious that without only physiology, not only treatment, but also the diagnosis of diseases is impossible.
The very important task of physiology is also to ensure the assimilation of knowledge about the relationships of life processes, organs and systems, the formation of a holistic reaction of the body on various influences and general principles Regulation of such reactions. All this should lay on the basis of the "functional thinking" of the future physician, its ability on the basis of individual symptoms to mentally model possible relationships and mechanisms that cause the appearance of these symptoms to find the root cause and methods of eliminating pathological processes.
It is also important to also teach future doctors of observation and research of indicators of physiological functions, instill the skills of performing diagnostic and medical manipulations.
Before the subject of human physiology, it is also a challenge to determine the reserves of physiological systems, assessing the level of human health and the development of methods for increasing its resistance to the action of adverse factors that have a place in the work sphere surrounding natural and household medium.
Concept and types of physiology
Physiology (from Greek. Physis - Nature, Logos - doctrine) - Science on the life functions of the body and its structures, mechanisms for the implementation of these functions and the laws of their regulation.
Physiology of animals - biological science studying the livelihoods of the body that make up its organs and tissues in relationship with the external environment.
The subject of physiology is the processes of the life of the body and its individual bodies due to individual development and adaptation to environmental conditions. The problems under study include: the patterns of biological processes at different structural levels, the formation of physiological functions in different age periods, the mechanisms of interaction of individual systems of the organism with the environment, features of the mechanisms of regulation of life processes in various species, methods of targeted impact on certain physiological systems.
Under physiological function Understand the manifestation of the life of the cell (for example, a reduction in muscle cell), organ (for example, the formation of urine by the kidney), systems (for example, the formation and destruction of blood cells with a blood-made system).
Physiology studies manifestations of life functions at various levels of living organization: molecular, cellular, organ, systemic, and a holistic organism, including its behavioral reactions, consciousness and thinking. Physiological science gives answers to questions: What is the source of energy acquisition, what is the role of various substances in vitality, as cells interact and are combined into tissues, organs, physiological systems and a holistic organism. Physiology is studying the methods of interaction between the body with a habitat, its reaction of a change in the existence environment, mechanisms of adaptation to adverse conditions and conservation of health.
The term physiology used in the broad sense of the word indicates a huge amount of knowledge about the essence of life processes. Since these processes are largely different in plant and animal organisms, they allocate plant physiology and physiology of man and animals.
The physiology of man and animals is also divided. Along with the fact that vertebrates and humans have many similarities in the functioning of internal organs, there are huge differences between them, primarily in the nature and level of mental functions.
A huge amount of knowledge in various fields of physiological science led to the fact that in physiology began to allocate its parts as special learning disciplines: cell physiology, heart physiology, blood, blood circulation, breathing, nervous system (neurophysiology), physiology of sensory systems, etc. In institutions higher education biological profile as separate academic disciplines study age physiology; Labor physiology, sports; Aviation, cosmic, evolutionary physiology, etc.
Normal phytology - Science, which studies the basic patterns and mechanisms for regulating the functioning of the body as a whole and the individual components in cooperation with the environment, the organization of life processes at various structural and functional levels. The main task of physiology is to penetrate the body's life logic.
General physiology - section of discipline, which studies the fundamental patterns of the response of the body to the impact of the medium, its main processes and mechanisms.
Private physiology - Section that studies patterns and mechanisms for the functioning of individual systems, organs and tissues of the body.
Physiology cells - section that studies the basic patterns of the functioning of the cell.
Comparative and Evolutionary Physiology - Section that explores the peculiarities of the functioning of various species and the same species at different stages of individual development.
Ecological physiology - Section that studies the features of the functioning of the organism in various physical geographic areas, in different time periods, the physiological basis for adaptation to natural factors.
Physiology of employment - section that studies the patterns of functioning of the body when performing physical and other work.
Sports physiology - Section that studies the patterns of functioning of the body in the process of occupying various types of physical culture at amateur or professional level.
Pathological physiology - Science on the general laws of the emergence, development and flow of pathogenic processes in the body.
Physiology (Greek Physis - Nature) is a science that studies the functions of the human body, its organs and systems, as well as the mechanisms for the regulation of these functions.
Together with the anatomy, physiology is the main section of biology.
Modern physiology is a complex complex of common and special scientific disciplines, such as:
- general physiology
- human physiology is normal and pathological,
- age physiology,
- animal physiology
- psychophysiology and others.
Physiology studies the processes of life flowing in the body at all its structural levels:
- cell
- fabric
- organ
- systemic
- hardware
- organisman.
It is closely related to the disciplines of the morphological profile: anatomy, cytology, histology, embryology, since the structure and function mutually determine each other. Physiology uses biochemistry and biophysics data to study the functional changes occurring in the body and the mechanism of their regulation. Physiology also relies on general biology and evolutionary doctrine, as a basis for understanding common patterns.
For psychologists professionals, the study of physiology has an important theoretical and practical value. Their work cannot be full, if they are not good to know the functional features of the nervous system and the regularities of the highest nervous activity man.
Physiology as science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and techniques physical education. In the process of developing physiological science, various private sections were distinguished from the general physiology: the physiology of labor, the physiology of sports, aerospace physiology, the physiology of underwater labor, age physiology, psychophysiology, etc.
General physiology is the theoretical basis of the physiology of sports. It describes the basic patterns of the organism of people of different age and gender, various functional states, mechanisms for the work of individual organs and systems of the body and their interaction.
Its practical importance consists of a scientific substantiation of age-related stages of the development of the human body, the individual characteristics of individuals, mechanisms of manifestation of their physical and mental abilities, features of control and the possibilities of managing the functional state of the body. Physiology reveals the consequences of harmful habits in humans, justifies the prevention of functional disorders and maintaining health.
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Education
Physiology is the science of how organs and systems of living organisms function.
What does science physiology studies? More than any other biological science, it studies biological processes on the elementary level in order to explain how each individual organ works and the entire body as a whole.
The concept of "physiology"
As one famous physiologist Ernest Starling, physiology today is a medicine of tomorrow.
Human physiology is the science of mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of a person. This is a science that serves as the basis for modern medicine. As a discipline, it is related to areas such as medicine and healthcare, and creates the basis for understanding how the human body adapts to stress, diseases and physical activity.
Modern studies in human physiology contribute to the emergence of new ways to ensure and improve the quality of life, the development of new medical treatment methods.
The basic principle, which is the basis for the study of human physiology, is to maintain homeostasis through the functioning of complex control systems covering all levels of hierarchies of human structure and functions (cells, tissues, organs and organ systems).
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Physiology of man
Human physiology as science is engaged in the study of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of a person in good health, its organs and cells from which they consist.
The main level of attention of physiology is the functional level of all organs and systems. Ultimately, science gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe complex functions of the body as a whole.
Anatomy and physiology are closely related areas of research, anatomy studies forms, and physiology - functions. What does the science of human physiology studies? This biological discipline is engaged in the study of how the body is functioning in a normal state, and also explores the possible dysfunctions of the body and various diseases.
What does science physiology studies?
Physiology gives answers to questions about how the body works, which happens when a person is born and develops, how the organism systems are adapted under stress conditions, such as physical exercises or extreme environmental conditions, and how the organism functions change in painful states.
Physiology affects the functions at all levels, from the nerves to the muscles, from the brain - to hormones, from molecules and cells to organs and systems.
Systems of the human body
Human physiology as science studies the functions of the organs of the human body. The physique includes several systems that work together for the normal functioning of the entire body.
Some systems are interconnected among themselves, and one or more elements of one system can be part or serve another.
Mix 10 major body systems:
1) Cardiovascular system is responsible for pumping blood through veins and arteries. Blood should be in the body, constantly producing fuel and gas for organs, skin and muscles.
2) The gastrointestinal tract is responsible for processing food, its digestion and transform it into energy for the body.
3) The reproductive system is responsible for reproduction.
4) The endocrine system consists of all key glands responsible for the development of secretions.
5) The covering system is the so-called "container" for the body, to protect the internal organs.
Its main body, the skin is covered with a large number of sensors that transmit external sensory signals into the brain.
6) Musculoskeletal system: Skeleton and muscles are responsible for the overall structure and shape of the human body.
7) The respiratory system is represented by the nose, trachea and lungs and is responsible for breathing.
8) The urinary system helps the body get rid of unwanted waste.
9) Nervous System: Network Network connects the brain with the rest of the body.
This system is responsible for human senses: vision, smell, taste, touch and rumor.
10) The immune system protects or tries to protect the body from illness and illness. If foreign bodies penetrate into the body, the system begins to produce antibodies to protect the organism and the destruction of unwanted guests.
Who and for what you need to know the physiology of a person?
What studies the science of human physiology can be a fascinating theme for doctors and surgeons.
In addition to medicine, other areas of knowledge are also addressed. Human physiology data is important for sports professionals, such as coach and physiotherapist.
In addition, within the framework of world practice, medicine apply different kinds Therapies, for example, a massage, where it is also important to know how the body is arranged so that the treatment has been made as efficiently and brought only the benefit, and not harm.
The role of microorganisms
Microorganisms play a key role in nature.
They make possible processing of materials and energy, they can be used as cellular "factories" for the production of antibiotics, enzymes and food products, they can also cause infectious diseases in humans (for example, infection with a food), animals and plants. Their existence directly depends on the ability to adapt in a changeable environment, the presence of nutrients and light, the pH factor also plays an important role, such as pressure, temperature and many others.
Physiology microorganisms
The basis of the vital activity of microorganisms and all other living beings is the metabolism metabolism (metabolism).
When studying such discipline as physiology of microorganisms, metabolism plays an important role. This is a construction process chemical compounds In the cell and their destruction in the process of operation to obtain the necessary energy and building elements.
Metabolism includes anabolism (assimilation) and catabolism (dissymilation).
Physiology of microorganisms is studying the processes of growth, development, nutrition, methods for producing energy for the implementation of these processes, as well as their interaction with the environment.
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Sections of biology.
1. Anatomy - Examine internal structure living organisms
2. Physiology - studies the processes of organisms
3. Histology - section of biology studying the structure, livelihood and development fabricsliving organisms
Morphology- Science on the structure and shape of organisms, features of the external structure
5. Microbiology- The subject of study is microorganisms (mostly viruses, bacteria, mushrooms, algae, simplest) and their biological signs and relationships with other organisms.
Mycology - Science of mushrooms
7. Bryology- science about moss
8. Ethology - animal behavior
9. Ichthyology - Science about fish
10. Orstology - Science about birds
11. Zoology - Science of animals
12. Ecology -science on the relationship between organisms among themselves and with environmental factors
Cytology - Science about cells
14. Evolutionary doctrine - science learning patterns historical Development Organic World
15. Systematics- Science, which studies the relationships of organisms
Paleontology - Science about the organisms that existed in past geological periods and preserved in the form of fossil remains, as well as traces of their livelihoods (the remains of extinct organisms)
Biophysics - Explore biological structures and functions of organisms by physical methods
18. Biochemistry - Explores the basics of life processes and phenomena by chemical methods on biological objects
Biotechnology - studying the possibility of using microorganisms as raw materials
20. Hygiene - Section of medicine that studies the impact of living and labor conditions on human health and developing measures aimed at preventing diseases, ensuring optimal existence conditions, health promotion and extension of life.
Genetics- Science of the laws of heredity and variability.
22. Psychology- Science, which studies the patterns of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and mental activity of humans and groups of people.
check yourself
What is the name of the science studying the patterns of historical development of the organic world?
1) Anatomy
2) Evolutionary Teaching
3) Genetics
4) Ecology
Science Citology has been developed due to the creation
1) evolutionary teaching
2) cell theory
3) reflex theory
4) gene theory
Systematics is a science studying
1) Functions of organisms in nature
2) related bonds of organisms
3) the lifestyle of organisms
4) the external structure of organisms
What science studies the process of photosynthesis?
1) Genetics
2) Physiology
3) Ecology
4) Systematics
The regularities of the transfer of hereditary signs is studying
1) Genetics
2) Anthropology
3) Ecology
4) Molecular Biology
What science is the fossil residues of extinct organisms?
1) Paleontology
2) Genetics
3) Embryology
4) Systematics
What term translated from Greek means "knowledge of the soul"?
1) Anatomy
2) Physiology
3) Hygiene
4) Psychology
What practical science develops methods for preserving and improving human health?
1) Anatomy
2) Anthropology
3) Veterinary
4) Hygiene
When breeding plants on the household plot, you most likely use the knowledge gained from the field
1) Medicine
2) evolutionary teaching
3) Agrotechniki
4) molecular biology
What of the PE-ROM-Len-But-Go Izu-Come Science "Physiology"?
1) Insect Clear
2) Si-Ste-Ma-ku-ko-ko-sem-beed plants
3) PRO-CESS-S DC-DB-Ri-Cle-Show-thieves
4) Stroy-Esta Rest Ko-Neu-No-Stay Frogs
What of the PE-ROM-LEN-NO-go is the science of "cytology"?
1) Si-Ste-Ma Ti-Ku Chorus-Doubt
2) Stroy-Esta Clear
3) Chi-Mi-Che-Ski Respiratory
4) Mi-Fo-Lo-Lu-Lo-Cho-Neu-ni-eta animals
Patterns of Per-Dae-Chi on-trace-s-follow-up studies
1) Genetics
2) Systematics
3) Anthropology
4) Biochemistry
1) Paleontology
2) etyology
3) Physiology
4) Genetics
Which of the ne-re-number of sciences is not from-no-sie to biological?
1) Anthropology
2) Zoology
3) Cryptology
4) Botany
Which of the pea-re-numbers below the sciences is a stroke of the Clear-current of the PE-CH-E-human?
1) Ge non-Ti
2) EM-Brio-Lo-Gia
3) Cytology
4) Physiology
Which of the pert-lines below the sciences is a stroke of a man of man?
1) Qi-Lo-Gia
2) ge-non-ty
3) Physiology
4) Embrianis
The Ri-Song depicted frag-cop of the EN-Tse-Fa Lo Gram is a man.
Ras-shif-ro-to submit her pos-lyrics in the area
1) Anatomy
2) physiology
3) Genetics
4) Hygiene
What science is Izu-E-Nie and Ras-Prof.
1) CE lecture
2) Eco-Lo-gia
3) Physiology
4) Paleontology
What is the science of Isu-tea-and-my-from-no-neck of alive or-ha-mives and their habitat?
1) FE-no-lo-gia
2) F-Zo-Lo Gia
3) Systematics
4) Ecology
Levels of living matter
Molecular -represented by molecules.
Any live system manifests itself at the level of functioning of complex organic compounds, which differ in large molecules (biopolymers).
Cell -posted by cells. The cell is a structural and functional unit, as well as a unit for the development of living organisms.
Organizable -the multicellular body is a holistic system of organs for execution different functions, single-celled organism is a holistic live system that is capable of self-existence.
Popular - species - A combination of organisms of the same type, combined by a common habitat.
It is here that the simplest evolutionary transformations occur.
Ecosystem (biogeocenotic) - A combination of organisms of different types and factors of their habitat, united by the exchange of substances and energy into a single natural complex.
Biosphere - System of higher order.
At this level, there are circulation of substances and the conversion of energy associated with the vital activity of all living organisms living on our planet.
Check yourself.
What level of life organization is reflected in this photo?
1) molecular genetic
2) organoid cellular
3) Biogeocetic
4) population-species
What level of life organization is reflected in this picture?
1) molecular genetic
2) organoid cellular
3) Organism
4) Biogenotic
What the level of life organization is reflected on the engraving I.
Shishkin "Creek in the Forest"?
1) biogeocetic
2) population-species
3) biosphere
4) Organoid cellular
What level of livelihood is the main object of studying cytology?
1) biogeocetic
2) population-species
3) cellular
4) biosphere
Methods of biology
Scientific method -a combination of techniques and operations used in constructing a scientific knowledge system.
Observation -intentional, targeted perception of objects and processes in order to aware of its essential properties.
The Blue De-de-Blue method lies in the OS-no-be descriptive method.
Descriptive method -description of objects and phenomena. It consists in collecting the actual material and describing it.
Comparison -comparison of organisms and their parts, finding the traits of similarities and differences.
Historical method -comparison of observation results with previously obtained results.
Experiment -a targeted study of phenomena in accurately established conditions, allowing to reproduce and observe these phenomena.
Active impact on the object of study.
Simulation -using abstract models, schemes, descriptions that replace real objects and processes.
Genealogical method - It is the analysis of pedigree and allows you to determine the type of inheritance (dominant or recessive, autosomal or adhesive with floor).
Based on the information obtained, the probability of manifestation of the studied attribute is predicted.
PA-LE-ON-LO-GI-CHENS - You, Jav-les, IS-co-pa-e-ours, pro-Mesh-exact forms, Breed-Sta-Nov-lem-Lo-Ge-NE-Ti-Che Rows and OB-A-RU-Ear of the up-to-Va-tel-ethmic forms.
One of the OS-new methods, which is-ry-half-use in cytology is method of St. Mick-Key - Ras-Smart Ri-Vaou under a microscope.
Scientific knowledge:
Observing over the object or phenomenon is carried out - on the basis of the data obtained, the hypothesis (assumption) is put forward to the scientific experiment - the hypothesis being checked during the hypothesis may be called the theory of Lee.
Theory - Teaching, Si Ste-Ma ideas or principles.
It is a combination of general provisions, about painting science or its section.
Observed fact - This is an opi-sane of what can be on-blue-to-give under non-ration conditions.
Conditions of conducting on-blue de-decorator - opi-sane at which conditions can be on-blue-to-give the statement described in the pen.
Check yourself.
What is the Bio-Lo-Lo-Chest IS-FE-QU-VAST Woman depicted on the car-ti-non-Henri ma-tes-sa "woman in front of aquarium"?
1) Determine the fi-zy-well-specific water in the aquarium
2) Compare CO-becoming water in ak-va-rh-mind with water in the river
3) Determine the Vi-Dog Co-becoming Obi-Tha-lei Aquarium
4) describe the form of aquarium
The fact of the existence of seasonal molting in animals was installed
1) microcopying method
2) by observation
3) experimental method
4) hybridological method
To accurately establish the degree of fertilizer's effect on plant growth in the method
1) Experiment
2) Observations
3) modeling
4) Analysis
What method used I.
P. Pavlov To establish the reflex nature of the selection of gastric juice?
1) Description
2) Observation
3) Experiment
4) Modeling
The scientist suggested that some insects are like branches of plants, because this similarity saves them from predators.
With greater accuracy, it can confirm or refute this assumption by the method
1) Measurements
2) descriptions
3) comparisons
4) Experiment
An example of the application of the experimental research method can be considered
1) Comparison of two micro
2) blood pressure measurement in a patient
3) formation of conditional reflex on the call
4) description of the new type of organisms
Scientist wants to find out the patterns of inheritance of the color of the eyes in children in several generations of one family.
What kind of research does it take advantage of?
1) Experimental
2) genealogic
3) observations
4) hybridological
What method takes advantage of a scientist-botany when establishing kinship between rhodes sowing (1) and corn sugar (2)?
1) Abstraction
2) Comparison
3) modeling
4) Experimental
Creating schemes, drawings, objects similar to natural, refer to the group of methods
1) Simulation
2) Measurements
3) observations
4) Experimental
The use of ka-ko-u-u-ni-go-yes-yes Il-Lyu-Strey-ru is the plot of the car-ti-rho-lands-goh hu-do-na i
Wall "Pulse", Na-Pi-san in the se-re-di-not XVII century.?
1) Modeling
2) Measurement
3) Experiment
4) Abstraction
Which of the above can be from my own Para-Le-Ot-Lo-Lo-Come methods?
1) sexual in the art of amphibians
2) the evolution of mammals
3) thin structure-Tu-Ru or-ha-but-and-dove cells
4) the dependence of the speed of re-action on temperature
Which of the above can be izu with a one-minded observation?
1) the dependence of the speed of the re-action on temperature
2) thin structure-Tu-Ru or-ha-but-and-dove cells
3) sexual sexual
4) the evolution of mammals
What method would you es-use-zo-va-whether for Izu-Che-de-de-de-de-de-one?
1) Microscopy.
2) hybridization
3) Opening
4) observation
Which method would you use the use-e-zo-va-vehicle of plant cells?
1) hybridization
2) Opening
3) Microscopy.
4) Experiment
What is the i-house of the Best-Paul-Zo-Val-Sia I.P.
Pavlov, so that the re-flex-torment is a re-du-du-du-du-lu-but-ny juice?
1) Observation
2) Modeling
3) Experiment
4) Description
What is the IS-up-to-Way method at least a girl depicted in the picture?
1) Ex-PE-Ri-Ment
2) on Blue De-Nee
3) Comparison
How did the Best-Paul-Ut-UT-SIA-zoologist with the set-new genus of the genus between the lake la-gush-koy (1) and green toas (2)?
1) AB-PO-RO-Va
2) Ex-PE-ROM-MAN-TALH
3) modeling
4) Comparison
The system of the most common knowledge in a certain OBA science is
2) Experiment
4) Hypothesis
Formulate a hypothesis means
1) collect available facts
2) put forward the assumption
3) Confirm the objectivity of the data
4) conduct an experiment
The specialty of a scientist dealing with the treatment of domestic animals is called
1) Agronom
2) Zootechnik
3) breeder
4) veterinarian
The specialty of the scientist studying the structure and function of cells is called
1) cytologist
2) Embryologist
4) breeder
What device allows you to determine the blood sugar content in humans?
1) Dynamometer
2) spirometer
3) Phontendoscope
4) Glucometer
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Physiology is the science of the body's livelihoods as a whole, its interaction with the external environment and the dynamics of vital processes.
In the course of its development, physiology has passed several stages:
empirical, anatomical functional, functional.
At each stage, two directions (approach) - analytical and systemic and systemic occurred in the study of the physiological process or phenomenon.
Analytical The direction is characterized by the study of a particular process that occurs in a living object (organ, tissue or cell) as an independent, t.
e. Out of communication with other processes in the object being studied. This direction gives a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms of this process.
Systemic The direction aims to study the specific process in relation to its relationship with others who occur at the level of the body as a whole.
For physiology as science, both ZGI directions are necessary. At various stages of the development of physiology, the ratio of these areas changed: in the early stages of the development of physiology, the analytical direction prevailed, at the later system.
For modern stage It is characteristic of the further deepening of the analytical approach (the study of processes on cellular, sub-bottle and molecular levels). At the same time, it became the usual correlation of these processes with the processes of a whole body. The opening of systemic patterns in the activities of living organisms has shown that in order to fulfill certain functions, the selective combination of its individual bodies and their systems, which ensures the achievement of a useful adaptive result.
Such associations were named P. K. Anokhin functional systems.
Functional system Call a set of central and peripheral formations of the body whose activities are aimed at achieving a useful adaptive result.
This set of peripheral and central structures, their processes and mechanisms that function as a whole, develops dynamically, the functional association of various organs and their systems (i.e. the integration of functions) is carried out due to their ability to interact.
This interaction is due to the presence of connections in the body - correlation. Distinguish four types of correlations.
1. Physical correlation - is implemented through Mechanical, electrical, optical, sound, electromagnetic, thermal and other processes (for example, abbreviations of the muscle attached to the bone, or filling in the blood of the cavities of the heart, leading to the stretching of their walls, etc.
2. Humoral correlation It is carried out through the liquid mediums of the body using various biologically active substances. Features of this type of correlation:
- also takes place in all organisms;
- It has a diffuse (generalized) character, t.
e. Through the liquid medium, the substance can reach all organs and tissues;
- relative autonomy;
- relative specificity due to the selective sensitivity of target cells to biologically active substances, including hormones and drugs;
- slow development of its action;
- inertness.
3. Nervous correlation carried out by means of the nervous system, has the following features:
- greater speed of development;
- Communication accuracy;
- High specificity - a strictly defined number of components required at the moment participate in the reaction.
Nerch-humoral correlation. In the process of evolution, there was an unification of the nervous and humoral species of correlations in a neuro-humoral form, when the emergency involvement in the process of action of organs by nervous correlation is complemented and cried with humoral factors.
Nervous and humoral correlations play a leading role in the combination (integration) of the components (components) of the organism into a single whole - the body.
At the same time, they seem to complement each other with their own characteristics. Humoral communication is generalized. It is simultaneously implemented throughout the body.
Nervous bond is of aimed in nature, that is, it is most selective - is implemented in each particular case primarily at the level of certain components of the body.
To achieve a useful adaptive result, the relationship between the authorities should be determined, aimed, t.
e. Organs must interact among themselves according to certain patterns. Such interaction in physiology is carried out regulation. Regulation is such a process of changing activities in a certain direction. There are four types of regulation by type correlation: mechanical, humoral, nervous, nervous-humoral.
Regulation of functions - the basis for ensuring the constancy of the inner environment of the body and its adaptation to the changing conditions of existence. The study of the patterns of maintaining the constancy of the inner medium showed that it is carried out according to the principle of self-regulation by forming functional systems.
Under self-regulation Understand this type of regulation when the deviation of the adjustable parameter is an incentive for its recovery.
To implement the principle of self-regulation, the following components of the functional systems are necessary:
- Adjustable parameter (regulation object, constant).
- control devices that follow the deviation of this parameter under the influence of external and internal factors.
- Regulation devices that provide aimed at the activities of the organs on which the recovery of the rejected parameter detonates.
- Action devices - organs and system systems, a change in the activity of which in accordance with regulatory influences, lead to the restoration of the initial value of the parameter.
- Reverse affamentation - carries information to regulatory devices for achieving or disadvantaged useful results, on returning or non-reflection of the rejected parameter to normal.
The central link of any functional system, its cupported factor is an result. The result constantly experiencing the effects of external and internal factors that can lead to changes in its value, t.
e. To deviating from the constant level, which is immediately captured by the controls of the control, which are represented by various body receptors.
Information on the status of the result from receptors comes by nervous and humoral paths into regulation devices (nervous centers).
In regulation devices, an evaluated information on the status of the useful result and the formation of the corresponding commands to the actuators (effectors), the change in the activity of which leads to a useful result, i.e., to return the rejected parameter to the constant level (Fig. 1). The theory of functional systems is an important tool in understanding the patterns of the formation of a type of adaptive activity of the body and its violations.
In case of human disease, the analysis of the components of the functional system, impaired activities will help the doctor most effectively search for the causes of the disease, localization and nature of the function of the function, outline the ways to compensate for the disturbed function.
1. General scheme functional system.
1 - regulating parameter, system-forming factor, useful adaptive result
2 - Control devices (receptors)
3 - metabolic processes
4 — afferent nervous path
5 - Gumoral Path
6 - regulation devices, central nervous system
7 - Reaction devices
8 - Hormomal Regulation
9 - Behavior
10 - reverse affamentation
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Physiology as a science. Item, tasks, methods, history of physiology
Physiology (physical - nature) is a science of normal processes of the life of the body that make up its physiological systems, individual organs, tissues, cells and subcellular structures, mechanisms for regulating these processes and the effect on the function of the body of natural factors of the external environment.
Based on this, in general, the subject of physiology is a healthy body. Tasks of physiology are included in its definition. The main method of physiology is an experiment on animals. 2 main varieties of experiments or experiments are allocated:
1. Easy experience or vivissection (learning). Surgical intervention is performed in the process, the functions of an open or isolated organ. After that, the animal survival does not achieve. The duration of the acute experiment from several tens of minutes to several hours (example).
2.xronical experience. In the process of chronic experiments, there is an operational intervention for obtaining accessibility to the authority. Then the healing of operating wounds is achieved and only after that proceed to research. The duration of chronic experiments can be for many years (example).
Sometimes a subacute experiment is distinguished (example).
At the same time, information on the mechanisms of functioning of the human body are required for medicine. Therefore, I.P. Pavlov wrote: "Experimental data can be applied to a person only with caution, constantly checking the actuality of similarities with the activities of these bodies in humans and animals." Therefore, without setting special observations and experiments on a person, the study of his physiology is meaningless. Therefore, they allocate special physiological science - Humiology, human physiology has a subject, tasks, methods and history. The subject of human physiology is a healthy human body.
Her tasks:
1. The test mechanisms of the functioning of cells, tissues, organs, human body systems in general
2. Studying the mechanisms for regulating the functions of organs and systems of the body.
3. Identify the reactions of the human body and its systems to change the external and internal environment.
Since physiology as a whole experimental science, the main method of human physiology is also an experiment. However, experiments on a person are indigenous differ from animal experiences. First, the overwhelming majority of studies on a person are produced using non-invasive methods, i.e. Without interference with organs and fabrics (Example ECG, EEG, EMG, blood tests, etc.). Secondly, experiments on a person are spent only when they do not harm health and with the consent of the subject. Sometimes sharp experiments are conducted on a person in the clinic when the tasks of diagnostics are required (example). However, it should be noted that without these classical physiology, the emergence and development of human physiology would be impossible (monuments of frog and dog). Still I.P. Pavlov, estimating the role of physiology for medicine, wrote: "Physiology and medicine understood in the rough sense are not separable, knowledge of physiology needs a doctor of any specialty." And also that "medicine is only enriched constantly every day, new physiological facts, finally, in finally, how it should be ideally, i.e. the ability to repair the spoiled man's mechanism and be applied knowledge of physiology" (examples from the clinic) . Another famous Russian physiologist prof. V.Ya. Danilevsky noted: "The more accurate and the signs of the norm for the body and mental life of a person will be fully determined, the more correct will be the diagnosis of the doctor for its pathological deviations."
Physiology, being a fundamental biological science, is closely related to other fundamental and biological sciences. In particular, without knowing the laws of physics, an explanation of bioelectric phenomena, light and sound and susceptible mechanisms is impossible. Without the use of these chemistry, a description of the metabolic processes, digestion, respiration, etc. is impossible, therefore, on the borders of these sciences with physiology, subsidiaries of biophysics and biochemistry.
Since the structure and function are inseparable, and it is the function that determines the formation of the structure, physiology is closely related to the morphological sciences: cytology, histology, anatomy.
As a result of the study of the action of various chemicals on the body from physiology, pharmacology and toxicology were separated into independent sciences. The accumulation of data on violations of the mechanisms of functioning of the body under various diseases served as the basis for the occurrence of pathological physiology.
Allocate general and private physiology. General physiology is studying the basic patterns of the body's life, mechanisms of such basic processes as metabolism and energy, reproduction, excitation processes, etc. Private physiology explores the functions of specific cells, tissues, organs and physiological systems. Therefore, it highlighted such sections as physiology of muscle tissue, heart, kidneys, digestion, breathing, etc. In addition, sections having a specific subject of research or special approaches in the study of functions are distinguished in physiology. These include evolutionary physiology (explanation), comparative physiology, age physiology.
Physiology has a number of application partitions. This, for example, physiology of farm animals. The following application sections are allocated in human physiology:
1. Expanding physiology. It studies the age characteristics of the functions of the body.
2.physiology of labor.
3. Clanical physiology. This is a science that uses physiological techniques and approaches to diagnose and analyze pathological deviations.
4. Aviation and Space Physiology.
5. Physiology of sports.
Human physiology is closely connected with such clinical disciplinesas therapy, surgery, obstetrics, endocrinology, psychiatry, ophthalmology, etc. For example, these sciences are used to diagnose numerous techniques developed by physiologists. The deviations of the normal parameters of the body are the basis for the detection of pathology.
Some sections of human physiology are the base for psychology. This is the physiology of the central nervous system, the highest nervous activity, sensory systems, psychophysiology.
The history of physiology is described in detail in the editorial textbook. Tkachenko
Mechanisms for regulation of the body functions
Principles of self-regulation of the body. The concept of homeostasis
And Gomeokiese
The ability to self-regulation is the basic property of living systems it is necessary to create optimal conditions for the interaction of all elements that make up the body, ensuring its integrity. Allocate four basic principles of self-regulation:
1. The principle of non-equilibrium or gradient. The biological essence of life lies in the ability of living organisms to maintain a dynamic non-equilibrium condition, relative to the environment. For example, the temperature of the heat-floral body is higher or below the environment. The cage is more potassium cations, and outside it sodium, etc. Maintaining the required level of asymmetry relative to the environment ensures regulation processes.
2. Plotship of closetness control circuit. Each living system does not simply respond to irritation, but also evaluates the correspondence of the response to the current irritation. Those. The stronger irritation, the greater the response and vice versa. This self-regulation is carried out due to reverse positive and negative feedback in the nervous and humoral regulation systems. Those. Contour regulation is closed in the ring. An example of such a connection is the neuron of return affaentation in motor reflex arcs.
3. Prodictive prediction. Biological systems are able to foresee the results of responses based on past experience. An example is avoiding pain irritation after the previous ones.
4. The principle of integrity. For the normal functioning of the living system requires its structural integrity.
The doctrine of homeostasis was developed by K. Bernarr. In 1878, he formulated a hypothesis about the relative constancy of the internal environment of living organisms. In 1929, V. Cannon showed that the body's ability to maintain homeostasis is a consequence of regulating systems in the body. He also proposed the term "homeostasis". Constancy of the inner environment of the body (blood, lymphs, tissue fluid, cytoplasm) and the stability of physiological functions is the result of the action of homeostatic mechanisms. In case of violation of homeostasis, for example, cellular, rebirth or death of cells occurs. Cellular, fabric, organ and other forms of homeostasis are regulated and coordinated by humoral, nervous regulation, as well as the level of metabolism.
The parameters of homeostasis are dynamic and within certain limits are changed under the influence of the external environmental factors (for example, blood pH, the content of respiratory gases and glucose in it, etc.). This is due to the fact that living systems do not simply balance external influences, but actively counteract them. The ability to maintain the constancy of the inner medium with changes in the external, the main property of distinguishing living organisms from inanimate nature. Therefore, they are very independent of the external environment. The higher the organization of a living being, the more it is independently an external environment (example).
The complex of processes that provide homeostasis is called homeokine. It is carried out by all the fabrics, organs and systems of the body. but the greatest value Have functional systems.
K l E T about to
And potentials of action.
The first step in studying the causes of cell excitability made in its work "Theory of Membrane Equilibrium" in 1924, English physiologist Donann. It theoretically found that the potential difference inside the cell and outside it, i.e. Potential of peace or MP, close to potential equilibrium potential. This potential formed on a semi-permeable membrane separating solutions with a different concentration of potassium ions, one of which contains major impermeal anions. His calculations clarified Nernst. It brought the equation of diffusion potential. For potassium it will be equal to:
EK \u003d 58 lg -------- \u003d 58 lg ----- \u003d - 75 mV,
such is the theoretically calculated MP value.
Experimentally mechanisms for the occurrence of potential difference between extracellular liquid and cytoplasm, as well as cell excitation set in 1939 in Cambridge Hodgkin and Huxley. They investigated the giant nerve fiber (axon) squid and found that the intracellular neuron fluid contains 400 mm potassium, 50 mm sodium, 100 mm chlorine and very little calcium. In the extracellular fluid contained only 10 mm potassium, 440 mm sodium, 560 mm chlorine and 10 mm calcium. Thus, inside the cells there is an excess of potassium, and outside their sodium and calcium. This is due to the fact that ion channels regulating the permeability of the membrane for sodium ions, potassium, calcium and chlorine are built into the cell membrane.
All ion channels are divided into the following groups:
1. By selectivity:
a) selective, i.e. Specific. These channels are permeable for strictly defined ions.
b). Maloslevical, nonspecific, not having a certain ion selectivity. There are a small amount in the membrane.
2. By the nature of the missed ions:
a) Kaliva
b) sodium
c) calcium
d) chlorous
3. Inactivation speed, i.e. Closing:
a) rapidly activating, i.e. Right passing into a closed state. They provide a rapidly growing reduction of MP and the same fast recovery.
b) slow inactive. Their opening causes a slow decrease in MP and its slow recovery.
4. By opening mechanisms:
a) potential-dependent, i.e. Those open at a certain level of the potential of the membrane.
b) Hemo-dependent, opening when exposed to chemoreceptors membrane cells of physiologically active substances (neurotransmitters, hormones, etc.).
It is currently established that ion channels have the following structure:
1. Selective filter located at the mouth of the channel. It provides passing through a channel of strictly defined ions.
2. Activation gates that are opened at a certain level of membrane potential or the action of the corresponding phane. Activation gates of potential-dependent channels have a sensor that opens them at a certain level of MP.
3.Inactivation gates that provide the channel closing and stopping the channels on the channel at a certain level of MP. (Fig.)
Nonspecific ion channels do not have a gate.
Selective ion channels can be in three states, which are determined by the position of activation (M) and inactivational (H) gates (Fig.):
1.Work, when activation closed, and inactivational open.
2. Activated, and those and other gates are open.
3. Inactivated, activation gates are open, and inactivational closed.
The total conductivity for one or another ion is determined by the number of at the same time open corresponding channels. At rest, only potassium channels are opened, providing maintaining a certain membrane potential and sodium closed. Therefore, the membrane is selectively permeable for potassium and very little for sodium and calcium ions, due to the existing nonspecific channels. The ratio of permeability of the membrane for potassium and sodium at rest is 1: 0.04. Potassium ions enroll in cytoplasm and accumulate in it. When their quantity reaches a certain limit, they begin to go out through the concentration gradient through open potassium channels from the cell. However, they cannot go away from the outer surface of the cell membrane. There they hold them the electrical field of negatively charged anions located on the inner surface. This is sulfate, phosphate and anion nitrate, anionic amino acid groups, for which the membrane is not permeable. Therefore, positively charged potassium cations accumulate on the outer surface of the membrane, and on the internal negatively charged anions. There is a transmembrane potential difference. Fig.
The yield of potassium ions from the cell occurs until the potential with a positive sign outside does not balance the concentration gradient of potassium directed from the cell. Those. The potassium ion membranes accumulated on the outside of the membrane will not push the same ions inside. A certain potential of the membrane occurs, the level of which is determined by the conductivity of the membrane for potassium ions and sodium at rest. On average, the magnitude of the potential of rest is close to the potential equilibrium potential of Nernst. For example, MP nerve cells It is 55-70 mV, cross-striped - 90-100 mV, smooth muscles - 40-60 mV, glandular cells - 20-45 mV. The smaller real value of MP cells is explained by the fact that its value reduces sodium ions for which the membrane is slightly permeable and they can enter the cytoplasm. On the other hand, the negative chlorine ions entering the cell somewhat increase the MP.
Since the membrane at rest is slightly permeable for sodium ions, a mechanism for the removal of these ions from the cell is necessary. This is due to the fact that the gradual accumulation of sodium in the cell would lead to the neutralization of the membrane potential and the disappearance of excitability. This mechanism is called a sodium-potassium pump. It provides maintenance of potassium concentration differences and sodium on both sides of the membrane. The sodium-potassium pump is a sodium-potassium ATF-AZA enzyme. Its protein molecules are built into the membrane. It breaks the ATP and uses the released energy for counter-grade removal of sodium from the cell and pump potassium into it. For one cycle, each sodium-potassium ATP-AZ molecule displays 3 sodium ions and introduces 2 potassium ions. Since there is less than positively charged ions into the cell than it is derived from it, sodium-potassium ATP-AZA by 5-10 mV increases the membrane potential.
The membrane has the following mechanisms of transmembrane transport of ions and other substances:
1. Active transport. It is carried out with aTF ENERGY. This group of transport systems includes a sodium-potassium pump, calcium pump, chlorine pump.
2.Passive transport. The movement of ions is carried out according to a concentration gradient without energy costs. For example, the inlet of potassium into the cage and the output from it in the potassium channels.
3. Refreshrated transport. Anti-grade transfer of ions without energy costs. For example, thus occurs sodium-sodium, sodium calcium, potassium -kalium ion exchange. It occurs due to the difference in the concentration of other ions.
The membrane potential is registered using a microelectrode method. To do this, through the membrane, a thin, with a diameter of less than 1 micron, a glass microelectror, \u200b\u200bis introduced into the cytoplasm of the cell. It is filled with saline. The second electrode is placed in the fluid, washing cells. From the electrodes, the signal enters the amplifier of biopotentials, and from it to the oscilloscope and the recorder (Fig.).
Further research of Hodgkin and Huxley showed that when the axon is excited, the squid arises a rapid fluctuation of the membrane potential, which on the oscilloscope screen had a peak form (Spike). They called this fluctuation by the potential of action (PD). Since the electric current for excitable membranes is an adequate irritant, the PD can be caused by placing the negative electrode for the outer surface of the membrane, and the internal positive and anode. This will reduce the charge size of the membrane - its depolarization. Under the action of low intact current, passive depolarization occurs, i.e. Caechechoton occurs (Fig.). If the current is increased to a certain limit, then at the end of the period of its exposure to the Caelectron Plateau, a small spontaneous rise will appear - a local or local answer. It is a consequence of opening a small part of sodium channels under the cathode. When the current force of the MP is reduced to a critical level of depolarization (KUD), which begins the generation of the action potential. It is located for neurons at about 50 mV.
The following phases are distinguished on the potential curve:
1.Lock response (local depolarization) preceding the development of PD.
2. Phase depolarization. During this phase, MP quickly decreases and reaches zero. The level of depolarization is growing above 0. Therefore, the membrane acquires the opposite charge - inside it becomes positive, and the outside is negative. The membrane charge change phenomenon is called a membrane potential reversion. The duration of this phase at nerve and muscle cells 1-2 ms.
3. Phase repolarization. It begins when a certain level of MP (approximately +20 mV) is reached. The membrane potential begins to quickly return to the rest potential. Phase duration 3-5 ms.
4. Fabd of trace depolarization or trace negative potential. The period when the return of MP to the rest potential is temporarily delayed. It lasts 15-30 ms.
5. False of trace hyperpolarization or trace positive potential. In this phase, MP for a while becomes higher than the source level of PP. Its duration 250-300 ms.
The amplitude of the potential of the operation of skeletal muscles on average 120-130 mV, neurons 80-90 mV, smooth muscle cells 40-50 mV. When the neurons of the PD neurons occur in the initial segment of the axon - Axon Holloch.
The occurrence of PD is due to the change in the ion permeability of the membrane during excitation. During the local response, slow sodium channels open, and the rapid remains closed, temporary spontaneous depolarization occurs. When MP reaches a critical level, the closed activation gates of sodium channels open and sodium ions are avalanche-like in the cell, causing increasing depolarization. This phase opens and quick and slow sodium channels. Those. The sodium permeability of the membrane increases sharply. Moreover, the value of the critical level of depolarization depends on the sensitivity of the activation, which is higher, the lower the KUD and vice versa.
When depolarization is approaching the equilibrium potential for sodium ions (+20 mV). The power of the sodium concentration gradient is significantly reduced. At the same time, the process of inactivating rapid sodium channels and a decrease in sodium conductivity of the membrane begins. Depolarization stops. The output of potassium ions is sharply intensified, i.e. Changing output. In some cells, this is due to the activation of special channels of potassium output. This current directed from the cell serves to quickly displace MP to the level of rest potential. Those. The phase of repolarization begins. Ascending MP leads to closure and activation gates of sodium channels, which further reduces the sodium permeability of the membrane and accelerates repolarization.
The occurrence of the phase of trace depolarization is explained by the fact that a small part of the slow sodium channels remains open.
Track hyperpolarization is associated with elevated, after PD, potassium conductivity of the membrane and the fact that the sodium-potassium pump is more actively working, which entered the cell during sodium ions.
Changing the conductivity of rapid sodium and potassium channels can be influenced by the generation of PD, and consequently on the excitation of cells. With a complete blockade of sodium channels, for example, the poison of the Tetrodont fish - Tetrodotoxin, the cell becomes non-professional. It is used in the clinic. Local anesthetics such as Novocaine, Dicain, Lidocaine brakes the transition of sodium channels of nerve fibers in the open state. Therefore, the carrying out of nerve impulses by sensitive nerves ceases, the anesthesia (anesthesia) of the organ occurs. In the blockade of potassium channels it is hampered by the yoy of potassium ions from the cytoplasm to the outer surface of the membrane, i.e. Restoration of MP. Therefore, the phase of repolarization is extended. This effect of potassium channel blockers is also used in clinical practice. For example, one of them is quinidine, lengthening the cardiomyocyte repolarization phase, replete cardiac abbreviations and normalizes the heart rhythm.
It should also be noted that the higher the rate of propagation of the PD on the cell membrane, tissue, the higher its conductivity.
Music physiology
In the body there are 3 types of muscles: skeletal or cross-striped, smooth and cordial. Skeletal muscles ensure the movement of the body in space, maintaining the pose of the body due to the tone of the muscles of the limbs and the body. Smooth muscles are necessary for the peristalsis of the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, the urinary system, the regulation of the tone of vessels, bronchi, etc. Cardiac muscle serves to reduce the heart and blood pumping. All muscles have excitability, conductivity and a reduction, and cardiac and many smooth muscles automatically - ability to spontaneous contractions.
Muscle fatigue
Fatigue is a temporary decrease in muscle performance as a result of work. The fatigue of an isolated muscle can be caused by its rhythmic irritation. As a result, the reduction force is progressively decreased (Fig.) The higher the frequency, the power of irritation, the magnitude of the load is the faster the fatigue develops. When fatigue significantly changes the curve of solitary reduction. The duration of the latent period, the shortening period increases, and especially the relaxation period, but the amplitude is reduced (Fig.). The stronger the fatigue of the muscle, the greater the duration of these periods. In some cases, complete relaxation does not occur. The contracture is developing. This is a state of a long-term involuntary muscle contraction. Work and fatigue muscles are investigated by ergography.
In the last century, on the basis of experiments with insulated muscles, 3 theories of muscle fatigue were proposed.
1. Schiffei: fatigue is a consequence of the depletion of energy reserves in the muscle.
2. Pflugher: fatigue is due to accumulation in the muscle of the exchange products.
3. Theory of Fervorn: fatigue is explained by the disadvantage of oxygen in the muscle.
Indeed, these factors contribute to fatigue in experiments on insulated muscles. The Resintez ATP is disturbed, milk and peer-grade acid accumulates, the oxygen content is not enough. However, in the body, intensively working muscles, the necessary oxygen, nutrients are obtained, are exempt from metabolites by strengthening general and regional blood circulation. Therefore, other theories of fatigue were proposed. In particular, a certain role in fatter belongs to neuromuscular synapses. Troying in synapse develops due to the exhaustion of the reserves of the neurotransmitter. However, the main role in the fatigue of the engine device belongs to the Motor CNS Motor Centers. In the last century I.M. Schechenov found that if the muscle troop of one hand comes, then their performance is restored faster when working in the other hand or legs. He believed that this is due to the switching of excitation processes from some motor centers to others. Rest with the inclusion of other muscular groups, he called active. Currently, the motorcycle tensile is associated with the braking of the corresponding nerve centers, as a result of metabolic processes in neurons, deterioration of the synthesis of neurotransmitters, and the inhibition of synaptic transmission.
Motor units
The main morpho functional element of the neuromuscular apparatus of skeletal muscles is a motor unit (de). It includes a spinal cord motioneeron with its axon innervored muscular fibers. Inside the muscle, this axon forms several end twigs. Each such twig forms contact - neuro-muscular synaps on a separate muscle fiber. The nerve impulses coming from the motoryeron cause a reduction in a certain group of muscle fibers. Motor units of small muscles exercising thin movements (eye muscles, brushes), contain a small amount of muscle fibers. In their large hundreds of times more. All de depending on the functional features are divided into 3 groups:
I. Slow tireless. They are formed by the "red" muscle fibers, in which less than myofibrils. The reduction rate and strength of these fibers are relatively small, but they are little tired. Therefore, they are referred to tonic. Regulation of abbreviations of such fibers is carried out by a small number of motioneons whose axons have little end sprigs. Example - Cambalo-like muscle.
IIB Fast, easily tired. Muscular fibers contain many myofibrils and are called "white". Quickly cut and develop greater strength, but quickly tires. Therefore, they are called phase. Motioneons of these de the largest, have a fat axon with numerous end branches. They generate a big frequency nerve impulses. Muscles eye.
IIa. Fast, resistant to fatigue. Occupy an intermediate position.
Physiology of smooth muscles
Smooth muscles are available in the walls of most digestive organs, vessels, output ducts of various glands, urinary system. They are involuntary and provide peristaltics of digestive organs and urinary system, maintaining the tone of vessels. Unlike skeletal, smooth muscles are formed by cells more often than the spindle-shaped and small sizes that do not have transverse allocations. The latter is due to the fact that the contracting device does not have an ordered structure. Myofibrillas consist of subtle strains of actin, which go in different directions and attaching to different sites of Sarchatimmas. Alone protofibrils are located next to Aktinov. Elements of sarcoplasmic reticulum do not form a system of tubes. Separate muscle cells are combined with low electrical resistance contacts with low electrical resistance, which ensures the distribution of excitation throughout the smooth muscle structure. The excitability and conductivity of smooth muscles are lower than skeletal.
The membrane potential is 40-60 mV, since the MMC membrane has a relatively high permeability for sodium ions. Moreover, many smooth muscles MP is not constant. It periodically decreases and returns to the initial level again. Such oscillations are called slow waves (MV). When the vertex slow waves reaches a critical level of depolarization, the potentials accompanied by abbreviations (Fig) begin to be generated on it. MV and PD are held on smooth muscles at a speed of only 5 to 50 cm / s. Such smooth muscles are called spontaneously active, i.e. They possess automation. For example, due to such activity, the intestinal peristalistic occurs. Drivers of the rhythm of intestinal peristaltics are located in the initial departments of the respective guts.
The generation of PD in the MMC is due to the input of calcium ions in them. Electromechanical conjugation mechanisms are also different. The reduction develops at the expense of calcium included in the cell during PD, mediates the connection of calcium with shortening Miofibrils the most important cell protein - calmodulin.
The reduction curve is also different. Latent period, shortening period, and especially relaxation is much longer than in skeletal muscles. The reduction lasts a few seconds. Smooth muscles, in contrast to skeletal, peculiar phenomenon of plastic tone. This ability is in a long time in a state of reduction without significant energy consumption and fatigue. Thanks to this property, the form of internal organs and the tone of the vessels is maintained. In addition, smooth muscle cells themselves are tensile receptors. When they are tension, PD begin to be generated, which leads to a reduction in MMC. This phenomenon is called a myogenic mechanism for regulating contractile activity.
Excitation transmission
Synaptic gear
N e r in n about y with and with t e m
Properties of nervous centers
The nervous center (NC) is called the totality of neurons in various parts of the central nervous system, providing the regulation of any function of the body. For example, a bulbary respiratory center.
For excitation through nervous centers, the following features are characterized:
1. One-sided. It comes from afferent, through inserting to the efferent neuron. This is due to the presence of inter-line synapses.
2. Central delay. Excitation. Those. On the NC, the excitation is much slower than on the nerve fiber. This is explained by the synaptic delay. Since most synapses in the central link of the reflex arc, there is the rate of the smallest. Based on this, the time of reflex, this time from the start of the exposure to the stimulus before the response appears. The longer the central delay, the more the time of the reflex. At the same time, it depends on the strength of the stimulus. What it is more, the time the reflex is shorter and vice versa. This is due to the phenomenon of the sum of excitation in synapses. In addition, it is determined by the functional state of the CNS. For example, under the ultimate NC, the duration of the reflex reaction increases.
3. Spatial and temporal summation. Temporary summary occurs, as in synapses due to the fact that the larger the nerve impulses are received, the more the neurotransmitter is released in them, the higher the amplitude of the VSP. Therefore, the reflex reaction may occur into several consecutive subjorative irritations. The spatial sum is observed when impulses from several neurons receptors are coming to the nerve center. Under the action of the sub-step incentives that arise postsynaptic potentials are summed up and a propagating PD is generated in the neuron membrane.
4. Transformation of the excitation rhythm is a change in the frequency of nerve pulses when passing through a nervous center. Frequency can be reduced or increased. For example, the increasing transformation (increasing frequency) is due to the dispersion and animation of the excitation in neurons. The first phenomenon arises as a result of the separation of nerve impulses into several neurons whose axons are then forming synapses on one neuron (Fig.). The second, generation of several nerve impulses in the development of an exciting postsynaptic potential on the membrane of one neuron. The downstream transformation is explained by the sum of several VSP and the occurrence of one PD in neuron.
5. Posttathanic potentiation is the strengthening of the reflex reaction as a result of long-term excitation of the center neurons. Under the influence of many episodes of nerve impulses passing with a large frequency through synapses,. A large amount of neurotransmitter is distinguished in inter-line synapses. This leads to a progressive increase in the amplitude of the exciting postsynaptic potential and long-term (several hours) with the excitation of neurons.
6. Feature, this is the delay of the end of the reflex response after the termination of the stimulus. Associated with the circulation of nerve pulses according to closed chains of neurons.
7. Tone of nerve centers - a state of constant increased activity. It is due to a constant flow of nervous pulses from peripheral receptors, which influence the neurons of metabolic products and other humoral factors. For example, the manifestation of the tone of the corresponding centers is the tone of a certain muscle group.
8. Automatic or spontaneous activity of nervous centers. Periodic or constant generation of neurons of nerve impulses, which arise in them spontaneously, i.e. In the absence of signals from other neurons or receptors. Due to vibrations of metabolism processes in neurons and the effect of humoral factors.
9. Plasticity of nerve centers. This is their ability to change the functional properties. At the same time, the Center acquires the ability to perform new features or restore old after damage. At the heart of plasticity N.TS. Lies the plasticity of synapses and neurons membranes, which can change their molecular structure.
10. Low physiological lability and fast fatigue. N.TS. Conduct pulses only limited frequency. Their fatal is explained by the uncertainty of synapses and the deterioration of neuron metabolism.
Brake in Ts.S.
The phenomenon of central braking was found to I.M. Sechenov in 1862. He removed the hemisphere of the brain at the frog and determined the time of the spinal reflex to irritating the paw with sulfuric acid. Then on Talamus, i.e. The visual bumps imposed a crystalline salt and discovered that the reflex time was significantly increased. This testified to the braking of the reflex. Sechenov concluded that overlying N.TS. With its excitation, the underlying. Braking in the central nervous system prevents the development of excitation or weakens the flowing excitement. An example of braking can be the cessation of a reflex reaction, against the background of the other than the stronger stimulus.
Initially, unitary-chemical braking theory was proposed. She was based on the principle of Dale: one neuron is one mediator. According to it, braking is provided by the same neurons and synapses as the excitement. Subsequently, the correctness of the binary-chemical theory was proved. In accordance with the latter, braking is ensured by special brake neurons, which are inserted. These are the ranshow spinal cord cells and neurons Purkinier intermediate. Braking in the CNS is necessary to integrate neurons into a single nervous center.
The CNS allocates the following braking mechanisms.
Physiology like science.
Definition, tasks and subject of physiology.
Physiology - this is a science of functions and processes occurring in the body, the mechanisms of their regulation, which provide human and animal life in their interaction with the environment. Physiology is theoretical basis of all medicine.
Objectives of physiology:
1) study of the functions and physiological acts of the holistic organism and its elements (organs of organs, organs, tissues, cells);
2) study of the function regulation mechanisms;
3) the study of the environmental impact on the body, as well as the mechanism of the body's adaptation to the environment;
4) study of the relationship and interaction of organs and systems of organs.
Subject of physiology - This is a normal healthy body functioning in the conditions of the norm.
Physiological norm - This is the biological optimum of the vital activity of the body.
Norm - This is the limits of the optimum functions of a living biological system.
Periods of development of physiology.
1 period - dopavlovsky. Daily roots in antiquity and lasts until 1883. During this period, physiology is formed as science. In 1826, the English scientist GaVEA describes a large circle of blood circulation; The birth of scientific physiology.
Features 1 period:
1) The method of observation and acute experiment prevails in science;
2) the functions of the organs are studied in isolated, their relationship is not taken into account and interaction with each other analytical direction ;
3) does not take into account the impact of the environment on the body;
4) The value of the nervous system in the regulation of functions is not considered.
2 period - Pavlovsky. Starting since 1883 and continues at our day. In 1883, Pavlov protects the doctoral dessertation on the topic "Centrifugal nerves of the heart." At this stage, the basic principles of Pavlovsk physiology were formed.
Features 2 periods:
2) the functions of the organs are studied in relationships and in cooperation with each other synthetic direction ;
3) the influence of the environment is studied;
4) got the distribution principle nervism -Stathenation of the influence of the nervous system on the functions of a significant amount of organs and tissues.
Methods of research of physiology.
There are 2 main methods:
1) monitoring method;
2) Experimental method.
Observation method It is a collection and description of the facts. This method takes place in cellular and experimer physiology.
Experiment method Examines the process or phenomenon in strictly specified conditions. Used in experimental physiology. The experiment happens acute and chronic .
Acute experiment (experience) has certain disadvantages. It is carried out under the conditions of vivisection (tissue exercise), but can be carried out under anesthesia. Accompanied by the destruction of tissues, blood loss, pain. It is carried out briefly and, as a rule, the influence of other bodies is not taken into account. The example is the study of central braking in the experience of Sechenov.
Chronic experiment (experience) He is a source of objective knowledge of physiology. Has a number of advantages compared to acute experiment:
1) is carried out after the preliminary training of the animal;
2) allows you to study the function of the organ in a long period of time;
3) allows you to study the functions and mechanisms of regulation with other bodies;
4) Animal comes out of the operation period, is carried out after healing the wound and recovery of the animal. Examples of a chronic experiment are experiments from Pavlov. For example: the study of the functions of the salivary gland the dogs with the imposition of fistula on the output duct of the proportional salivary gland.
Basic Physiological Concepts and Terms
Function- This is the strictly specialist activity of high-differentized elements of the body (systems of organs, tissues, cells). Vida functions:
1) Physiological (digestion, breathing, isolation) -binds with the work of physiological systems of the body and psychological - due to the highest sections of the CNS and are associated with the process of consciousness and thinking.
2) somatic-controlled by the somatic nervous system with the participation of skeletal muscles and vegetative-with the participation of internal organs and are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
Physiological Act- This is a complex physical phenomenon caused by the agreed work of various functions of the body's elements.
1) nervous (nervous impulse-\u003e fiber);
2) humoral (liquid) transfer of humoral factors through liquid mediums of the body.
Physiological features of excitable tissues.
The concept of peace and activity. And characteristic.
All excitable fabrics are in 2 states:
2) activity or active status.
Rest- This is the condition of the tissue, in which the irritant does not act on it. The permanent level of metabolic processes and the lack of functional manifestation of this tissue. Peace is relativeSince the fabric lives, has a relatively permanent level of metabolism and minimum energy costs. Absolute peace- This is a condition that occurs after the death of the fabric or cell and accompanied by irreversible changes in the structure of the tissue.
Anxiety or active condition It occurs under the action of an irritant. Protects the change in the rate of exchange reactions is absorbed or energy is distinguished, physical properties and fabric functions are changed.
Forms of an urgent or active condition:
1) the excitation process;
2) braking process.
Excitation- This is an active physiological process, which is a response of tissue to the action of the stimulus and characterized by the manifestation of the function of this tissue and the release of energy.
the excitation process is manifested in the form of 2 groups:
1) nonspecific signs;
2) Specific features.
Nonspecific signs of excitation process- This features are inherent in all excitable tissues. Nonspecific signs- This complex physico-chemical, biochemical processes occurring in tissues.
1) increase the rate of exchange reactions;
2) increasing gas exchange;
3) increase the temperature of the fabric;
5) change in the movement of ions through the cell membrane;
6) Recharge cell membrane and generation of the potential of action.
Specific features Inherent in certain excitable tissues. Nonspecific characteristic is the result of physicochemical, biochemical processes occurring in tissues. Specific features require a certain morphological substrate and represent the function of this tissue. The electrical fabric is excited in the form of generation and conducts a nervous impulse. Independence fabric develops a reduction. .
The process of braking- This is a physiological fabric, which is a response of the tissue to the stimulus, but manifested in the form of weakening or oppression of the function of this tissue. The braking process cannot be compared with the fatigue and the oppression of the fabric. It is due to complex physicochemical processes in tissue and changing the ion permeability of the cell membrane.
Know the features of the functioning of the body, each of its part, structure, be able to explore and predict changes and pathology is an important task for professionals in the field of medicine. There is a whole science that studies just such issues. It is called physiology. This is the science of those processes that accompany the normal life of the body. It has arisen enough long ago, even hippocrates first showed interest in the functioning of living systems. Today there are a variety of methods for studying physiology that help to fully understand certain mechanisms and features of the body.
The general concept of physiology
Start by S. general concept. Physiology is the science of living beings, its relationship with external environmental conditions, their influence on and normal functioning of organs and their systems. In general, the main thought of this science is to identify the deep mechanisms of the existence of a living, understand how its self-regulation and all other processes occur.
The object of physiology is only a living organism, because it is so possible to identify all the laws of interest to people in its structure and functioning. The tasks of the discipline are clearly traced in the definition itself.
Thus, the subject, tasks and methods of physiology are three components of science. Many scientists at all times tried to delve into the essence of the human, changes occurring in the body, including human, changes. However, it was completely possible only with the invention of modern instruments and devices, that is, the full development of science received only since the XX century.
It did not prevent her to become one of the leading among biological sciences. Physiology, anatomy and medicine are three closely interrelated disciplines that are foundation for each other. Therefore, the methods of anatomy and physiology in some cases are similar to each other.
Sections of physiology
By itself, this science has several subsidiaries. So, allocate physiology:
- common;
- comparative;
- private.
General is engaged in the study of life processes in general. That is, considers the patterns of the flow of those reactions that are manifestations of life. For example, nutrition, respiration, isolation, regulation, sleep and wake-up shift and other. This section also includes such a section as cell physiology, which is engaged in a detailed study of all its life manifestations.
Comparative physiology compares the processes of vital activity of one or different types of organisms in the process of ontogenesis. As a result, a whole branch is also formed - evolutionary physiology.
Private engaged in narrower specific studies. So, you can select several options for disciplines included in this group.
- Human physiology, methods of study which we will look at a little later.
- Physiology of individual groups of living organisms (insects, birds, mammals, reptiles, and so on).
- Individual organs and tissues.
- Organism systems (physiology of digestion, blood circulation, breathing and other).
Especially widespread development has recently been researching a person from the point of view of this science. After all, his body has the most complex structure. The human physiology methods are quite diverse and effective to identify all the essence necessary for understanding. Allocate:
- age physiology;
- nutrition;
- labor;
- sport;
- cosmic;
- pathological;
- clinical.
Cumulative data of these disciplines help to arrange all the unbarrible processes occurring inside the person and find access to the management of them.
in physiology
These are somewhat several. There are historically established, which were used in antiquity. Today, new, based on the latest scientific achievements in the field of technology, electronics, and the study of electromagnetic emissions are formed.
The following methods of physiology are distinguished.
- Extirpation - One of the most ancient ways to explore. It was to remove a particular body in a living being with further observation of the body's response and fixation of the results.
- Fistive method. Its base is in the introduction of inward organs having a cavity, pipes from metal or plastic and fixation in this way biological fluids. Amendments are obtained. chemical nature Substances, that is, the secretory function of the body is investigated.
- Catheterization method - Introduction by thin tubes into organs and vessels of special drugs causing changes in operation. This is how the work of the heart, blood vessels, the glands of the external and internal secretion (not all) is studied.
- Denervation method. Used to study the relationship between nerves and working bodies. This uses a method of irritation with further fixation of the results.
- Methods of studying physiology based on the use of tools and equipment. This includes impairment of the organs and tissues of macro and trace elements, registration of nerve impulses, exposure to radiation, removing the testimony of the heart and brain and so on.
Some research methods in physiology we will look at the further further. They are most frequently used and important.
Observation
These methods of physiology were used in ancient Egypt, Rome, China, Ancient East. Already then there were researchers interested in changes occurring in living organisms. For example, in Egypt, in the mummification of pharaohs and their families, an opening of the corpses was opened and the changes in the internal environment were recorded. Assessed such indicators as:
- color and quality of biological fluids and masses;
- coloring organs;
- the color of the eye sclera;
- quality and color of sputum;
- skin swelling, its turgor and structure.
These characteristics were compared with those in healthy people and had certain conclusions. It was possible to even establish in some cases the cause of the death of man.
Today, observation has not lost its relevance, especially when it comes to psychophysiology. The behavior of a person, its emotions, temperament, external manifestations of trembling, sweating - all these signs serve as certain bells to the study. They give to understand the relationship between the structure and the outdoor manifestation of certain indicators, physiological functions, processes in the body.
The human temperament doctrine was created by Pavlov's scientist based on the study of braking and initiation processes, which externally manifested themselves to various emotional color in behavior and reaction to certain events, words, actions. He proved that the basis of choleric, sanguistic, melancholic and phlegmatic manifestations is nervous processes associated with mental activity of the brain, its reactions.
These findings were repeatedly confirmed by various scientists and psychologists, researchers. Therefore, such methods of human physiology as observation and experiment, which will be discussed further, were relevant, important and effective.
Experiment
Experimental methods of study of physiology are fundamental and historically the most ancient and popular. Indeed, how else to know if not to see? Therefore, along with observation, various kinds of tests were conducted, most often on animals. It was they who gave a practically one hundred percent result in research, allowed to obtain the most reliable data.
There are experimental methods of research of anatomy and physiology, reduced to two main groups.
Thus, the main methods of physiology were operating, actual in some cases to this day. Although, of course, modern technical innovations gradually fully displacing interference directly into the body from human. Now it is possible to obtain the necessary information by completely different, less painful, more accurate and suitable and for humans.
Graphic registration
Human physiology methods are based on the use of a certain equipment. Among such devices, the following are important.
- Electrocardiograph. The device used to fix cardiac bioelectric potentials. As a result, an electrocardiogram, which a specialist who knows the specialist decrypts and concludes a condition about the health status of the heart and blood system, is released from the device. To date, this device saved the lives of millions of people. After all, timely detection of the problem is the key to successful treatment.
- Microelectrody. The smallest structures that can be implanted directly into the cell and fix the membrane biopotential. Today it is one of the most important achievements in electronics, which concerns the physiological studies of the human body. These electrodes can even be introduced into the human brain, which allows to observe and fix psychosomatic changes in health and livelihoods.
- Radionuclide methods of physiology - Used to obtain quantitative characteristics of physiological processes.
- A variety of sensors that emit electromagnetic waves. The reverse response in the form of an electrical pulse is fixed by a special instrument - the oscilloscope - and then transmitted to process the computer. There is already a detailed processing of the information received and defined conclusions are formed. So you can establish the chemical concentration of certain ions, the pressure, temperature, movement, and other parameters).
In this way, modern methods Sciences of physiology based on the use of devices are the most accurate, painless and scientifically informative of all we have discussed above.
Chemical and biochemical methods
And physiology are not only similar to each other. They are also connected with other sciences. So, there is biological physiology, biochemistry, as well as physical physiology. These sciences are studying the processes inside the body from their point of view, that is, with a chemical, physical and biological.
Thus, with the help of these methods, the influence of a substance (mediator, hormone, enzyme) is established on the processes occurring in the body. Chemistry helps to establish the properties of this compound, physics reveals it that can affect the body. Physiology requires exposure to exposure not only to a specific process, but also at all on the body, body and on the set of external conditions. All together these science are combined under the general name of biological chemistry.
Methods of pathological physiology
The subject and methods of physiology are closely connected and interdependent on each other with the concepts. However, the normal science studying a healthy living organism is not all. There is also a pathophysiology, or pathological, which explores violation of life processes, their flow, the effect on the body as a whole and each of its organs and so on. Therefore, this discipline appears its own complex of methods, with which it is possible to study the designated issues.
What are the methods of physiology?
- Modeling. It is divided into two groups: on a live object of research and in vitro, that is, an artificial physical system. To create any model of the pathogenic process, a computer or mathematical calculations on paper use. Also often use conventional logical conclusions for this. The model is usually built on the basis of the resulting theoretical data on any question.
- Theoretical analysis. Based on the data obtained under laboratory studies of the material (living object), the theory is built. It includes alleged answers to the questions: "What with a patient? How does the pathological process occurs? What is his condition and scale of influence? What struggle measures are appropriate in this case For termination? "
- Clinical researches. Mandatory method without which the existence of everyone else is impossible. After all, theoretical knowledge appear precisely on the basis of the results of the patient's clinic. For this method A number of concomitant techniques are used:
Only on the basis of the material obtained when using all methods, the doctor may diagnose and assign a course of treatment.
Physiology of plants
This is a science of vital activity (functioning) of vegetable organisms. We are talking All forms of life: from unicellular to higher, including algae. The objectives of the physiologists of plants are the following:
- consider and identify the mechanisms of plant functioning;
- create theoretical basis the possibilities of the implementation of photosynthesis in artificial conditions;
- build a model reflecting the essence of the methodology for obtaining elevated crops of important crops.
Of course, the tasks are not all simple. After all, plants are real living organisms in which hundreds of biochemical reactions occur every second, as in humans. The physiologist should be examined every one of them. Plants breathe, feed on, carry out the process of photosynthesis, multiply, grow and develop - these are normal types of vital activity for any living beings. The study of all listed processes is the task of physiologists.
Solve the problem of the implementation of photosynthesis in artificial conditions means to give people the opportunity to access a huge potential power source. After all, then hunger in the world will disappear, the quality of life of people will increase significantly. But until this problem has failed to solve, although many issues in the field of photochemical side of the process have already been solved.
Methods of this science
Plant physiology is closely bordered by the following modern sciences:
- biotechnology;
- molecular biology;
- genetic engineering;
- biophysics;
- cell engineering.
Naturally, this is reflected in the methods, with which the studies of plant organisms are conducted. Thus, methods of plant physiology are as follows.
- Cultivation.
- Methods of light and electronic spectroscopy.
- Electrochemical.
- Optical acoustic.
- Chromatographic.
- Spectrophotometric.
Obviously, they are all aimed at measuring numerical indicators: productivity, mass, growth, development, plastic results energy exchange. What makes it possible to solve such methods? Very important agricultural tasks, such as:
- selection of plants;
- obtaining heterosexis forms;
- introduction;
- acclimatization;
- zoning varieties;
- artificial irrigation;
- plants growing plants.
Thus, plant physiology is another fundamental biological science that plays an important role in human life.
