Carl Linnaeus

To systematize a huge number of descriptions of animals and plants, some kind of unit of taxonomy was required. Such a unit, common to all living things, Linnaeus took the form. Linnaeus called the species a group of individuals similar to each other, like children of the same parents and their children. The species consists of many similar individuals that produce fertile offspring. The entire organic world consists of different types plants and animals.

Linnaeus began to name species in Latin, which was at that time the international language of science. Thus, Linnaeus solved a difficult problem: after all, when the names were given in different languages, the same species could be described under many names.

A very important merit of Linnaeus was the introduction into practice of double names of species (binary nomenclature). He proposed to name each species in two words. The first is the name of the genus, which includes closely related species. For example, lion, tiger, domestic cat belong to the genus Felis (Cat). The second word is the name of the species itself (respectively, Felis leo, Felis tigris, Felis domestica).

Human(whom he christened "Homo sapiens," Homo sapiens) Linnaeus quite boldly for his time placed in the class of mammals and a detachment of primates along with monkeys. He did it 120 years before Charles Darwin. He did not believe that humans descended from other primates, but saw great similarities in their structure.

Linnaeus's plant and animal system was largely artificial, it did not reflect the course of the historical development of the world. Linnaeus was aware of this flaw in his system and believed that future naturalists should create natural system plants and animals, which should take into account all the characteristics of organisms, and not one or two signs. The science of that time did not have the knowledge necessary for this.

Linnaeus believed that the species of plants and animals do not change; they have retained their characteristics "from the moment of creation." According to Linnaeus, every modern species is the offspring of an originally created parental pair. Each species reproduces, but retains, in his opinion, all the features of this ancestor couple unchanged.

As a good observer, Linnaeus could not help but see the contradiction between the ideas about the complete immutability of plants and animals with what is observed in nature. He allowed the formation of varieties within a species due to the influence on organisms of climate change and other external conditions.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Jean Baptiste Lamarck, a French researcher, became the first biologist who tried to create a coherent and holistic theory of the evolution of the living world. Not appreciated by his contemporaries, half a century later, his theory became the subject of heated discussions, which have not stopped in our time.

The most an important work of Lamarck was the book "Philosophy of Zoology", published in 1809, in which he outlined his theory of the evolution of the living world. The basis of Lamarck's views was the provision that matter and the laws of its development were created by the creator. Lamarck analyzed the similarities and differences between living and nonliving matter and listed them. The most important of these differences is the ability to respond to external stimuli. In his opinion, the reason for life lies not in the living body itself, but outside it.

Lamarck introduced the concept of gradation - an internal "striving for improvement" inherent in all living things; the action of this factor of evolution determines the development of living nature, a gradual but steady increase in the organization of living beings - from the simplest to the most perfect. The result of the graduation is the simultaneous existence in nature of organisms of varying degrees of complexity, as if forming a hierarchical ladder of beings. Considering the gradation to be a reflection of the main trend in the development of nature, Lamarck tried to give this process a materialistic interpretation: in a number of cases, he associated the complication of organization with the action of fluids entering the body from external environment.

Another factor of evolution is the constant influence of the external environment, leading to a violation of the correct gradation and causing the formation of the whole variety of organisms' adaptations to the surrounding conditions. Environmental change is the main cause of speciation; as long as the environment is unchanged, the species remain constant; if there is a shift in it, the views change.

Life, according to Lamarck, can spontaneously arise on Earth and continues to emerge at the present time. In the 17th century, there were ideas that darkness and grain were needed for the spontaneous generation of mice, and rotten meat for the spontaneous generation of worms. Lamarck suggests that unicellular organisms are capable of spontaneous generation, and all animals and plants with a higher organization appeared as a result of the long-term development of living organisms.

Lamarck introduces two laws of the development of living nature:"Law of Exercise and Non-Exercise of Bodies" and "Law of Inheritance of Acquired Traits".

The first law can be called the law of variability, in which Lamarck focuses on the fact that the degree of development of a particular organ depends on its function, the intensity of exercise, that young animals that are still developing are more capable of changing. The scientist opposes the metaphysical explanation of the form of animals as unchanging, created for a specific environment. At the same time, Lamarck overestimates the importance of function and considers that the exercise or non-exercise of the organ is an important factor in changing species.

The second law can be called the law of heredity; it should be noted that Lamarck associates the inheritance of individual changes with the duration of the influence of the conditions that cause these changes, and as a result of their reproduction, their intensification in a number of generations. It is necessary to emphasize the fact that Lamarck was one of the first to analyze heredity as an important factor in evolution. At the same time, it should be noted that Lamarck's position on the inheritance of all characters acquired during life was erroneous: further research showed that only hereditary changes are of decisive importance in evolution.

Lamarck extends the provisions of these two laws to the problem of the origin of breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants, and also uses them to explain the animal origin of man. Human Origins.

evolution organism darwin lamark

Jean Baptiste Lamarck is rightfully considered the founder of the evolutionary theory, which he expressed in his book "The Philosophy of Zoology", published in early XIX century.

Lamarck's theory is based on the idea of ​​gradation - an internal "striving for improvement" inherent in all living things; the action of this factor of evolution determines the development of living nature, a gradual but steady increase in the organization of living beings - from the simplest to the most perfect. The result of graduation is the simultaneous existence in nature of organisms of varying degrees of complexity, as if forming a hierarchical ladder of beings Creature ladder, widespread among naturalists and philosophers of the 18th century. the idea of ​​a hierarchical arrangement of bodies of nature, ranging from the simplest inorganic bodies (minerals) to the most complex living things. The idea of ​​complicating the forms of nature was expressed by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC NS. In the second half of the 18th century. the ladder of beings was built by C. Bonnet, placing angels, archangels, etc. above man. Bonnet's theological constructions were sharply criticized by the French materialists (D. Diderot, J. Robinet, etc.), as well as by Russian. materialist philosopher A.N. Radishchev. For the first time, JB Lamarck gave a historical explanation of the existence of living bodies of varying degrees of complexity; he considered the ladder of creatures as a result of the evolution of organisms (see Lamarckism) . Finally approved the development idea organic world from simple to complex C. Darwin .. The gradation is easily traced when comparing representatives of large systematic categories of organisms (for example, classes) and on organs of paramount importance.

The main factor in the variability of species, he considered the influence of the external environment, which violates the correctness of the gradation: “The increasing complexity of the organization is subjected here and there throughout the general row of animals to deviations caused by the influence of habitat conditions and learned habits.” The gradation, so to speak, “in pure form "manifests itself with the invariability, stability of the external environment; any change in the conditions of existence forces organisms to adapt to the new environment so as not to perish. This disrupts the uniform and steady change of organisms on the path of progress, and various evolutionary lines deviate to the side, linger at primitive levels of organization. This is how Lamarck explained the simultaneous existence on Earth of highly organized and simple groups, as well as the variety of forms of animals and plants.

Lamarck on the highest level in comparison with his predecessors, he developed the problem of unlimited variability (transformism) of living forms under the influence of living conditions: nutrition, climate, soil characteristics, moisture, temperature, etc. air environment(arrowhead, buttercup), in plants of wet and dry, low-lying and mountainous areas.

Based on the level of organization of living beings, Lamarck identified two forms of variability:

Direct, immediate variability of plants and lower animals under the influence of environmental conditions;

Indirect variability of higher animals that have developed nervous system, with the participation of which the impact of the conditions of existence is perceived, habits, means of self-preservation, protection are developed.

Lamarck formalizes his thoughts on the issues considered in the form of two laws:

First law. “In every animal that has not reached the limit of its development, a more frequent and longer use of an organ gradually strengthens this organ, develops and increases it and gives it strength commensurate with the duration of use, while the constant non-use of this or that organ gradually weakens it, leads to decline, continuously diminishes its ability and finally causes its disappearance. "

This law can be called the law of variability, in which Lamarck focuses on the fact that the degree of development of a particular organ depends on its function, the intensity of exercise, that young animals that are still developing are more capable of changing. The scientist opposes the metaphysical explanation of the form of animals as unchanging, created for a specific environment. At the same time, Lamarck overestimates the importance of function and considers that the exercise or non-exercise of the organ is an important factor in changing species.

The second law can be called the law of heredity.

Lamarck extends the provisions of these two laws to the problem of the origin of breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants. Lacking sufficient factual material, with a still low level of knowledge of this issue, Lamarck was unable to reach a correct understanding of the phenomena of variability.

Darwin's theory is opposite to Lamarck's theory, not only in its consistently materialistic conclusions, but also in its entire structure. It is a remarkable piece of scientific research, based on a huge amount of credible scientific facts, the analysis of which leads Darwin to a coherent system of proportionate conclusions.

Darwin collected ample evidence of the variability of animal and plant species. By the time of Darwin, the practice of breeders had created numerous breeds of various domestic animals and varieties of agricultural plants. Since the work of breeders leading to changes in the breed and varietal qualities of organisms was conscious and purposeful, and it was obvious that at least many of the breeds of domestic animals were created by this activity in a relatively recent time, Darwin turned to the study of the variability of organisms in the domesticated state.

First of all, the very fact of changes in animals and plants under the influence of domestication and selection was important, which, in fact, is already evidence of the changeability of species of organisms. “At the beginning of my research, wrote Charles Darwin in the introduction to his book On the Origin of Species,“ it seemed to me likely that a thorough study of domesticated animals and cultivated plants would provide the best opportunity to understand this obscure problem. And I was not wrong; in this and all the other confusing cases, I have invariably found that our knowledge of variation in domestication, though incomplete, is always the best and truest clue. I can afford to express my conviction of the exceptional value of such studies, despite the fact that naturalists usually neglected them. "

According to Darwin, the stimulus for the occurrence of these changes is the impact on organisms of new conditions to which they are subjected in the hands of man. At the same time, Darwin emphasized that the nature of the organism in the phenomena of variability is more important than the nature of conditions, since the same conditions often lead to different changes in different individuals, and similar changes in the latter can occur when completely different conditions... In this regard, Darwin identified two main forms of variability of organisms under the influence of changes in environmental conditions: indefinite and definite.

Changes can be recognized as definite if all or almost all of the offspring of individuals subjected to certain conditions change in the same way (this is how a number of shallow changes arise: growth depends on the amount of food, skin thickness and hairiness - from climate, etc.).

By indeterminate variability, Darwin understood those infinitely varied weak differences that distinguish individuals of the same species from each other and which could not be inherited either from their parents or from more distant ancestors. Darwin concludes that uncertain variability is a much more common result of changing conditions than specific variability and played a more important role in the formation of domestic animal breeds. In this case, changes in external conditions play the role of a stimulus that enhances uncertain variability, but does not in any way affect its specificity, i.e., the quality of changes.

An organism that has changed in any direction transmits to the offspring a tendency to change further in the same direction in the presence of the conditions that caused this change. This is the so-called continuing variability, which plays an important role in evolutionary transformations.

Finally, Darwin drew attention to the existence in organisms of certain correlations (correlations) between various structures, when one of which changes, the other naturally also changes - the correlative, or correlative, variability. Examples of such correlations are, according to Darwin, the deafness of white cats with blue eyes; toxicity for white sheep and pigs of some plants that are harmless to black individuals of the same breeds, etc.

Darwin collected numerous data indicating that the variability of various types of organisms in nature is very great, and its forms are fundamentally similar to the forms of variability of domestic animals and plants. Diverse and fluctuating differences between individuals of the same species form, as it were, a smooth transition to more stable differences between the varieties of this species; in turn, the latter, just as gradually, pass into clearer distinctions of even larger groups - subspecies, and the differences between subspecies - into quite definite interspecific differences. Thus, individual variability smoothly transforms into group differences. From this, Darwin concluded that individual differences between individuals are the basis for the emergence of varieties. Varieties, with the accumulation of differences between them, turn into subspecies, and those, in turn, into separate species. Consequently, a clearly defined variety can be seen as the first step towards the isolation of a new species (variety - "incipient species").

Darwin believed that there is no qualitative difference between a species and a variety - these are just different stages of the gradual accumulation of differences between groups of individuals of different sizes. More widespread species living in more diverse conditions are characterized by greater variability. In nature, as well as in the domesticated state, the main form of variability of organisms is indeterminate, which serves as a universal material for the process of speciation. It should be emphasized here that Darwin for the first time put in the focus of evolutionary theory not individual organisms (as was typical of his transformist predecessors, including Lamarck), but biological species, i.e., speaking modern language, populations of organisms.

Having considered Darwin's evolutionary views on the variability of organisms, we briefly list his main ideas:

1. Organisms, both tamed and wild, are characterized by hereditary variability. The most common and important form of variability is indeterminate. Changes in the external environment serve as a stimulus for the emergence of variability in organisms, but the nature of variability is determined by the specifics of the organism itself, and not by the direction of changes in external conditions, in contrast to Lamarck's view.

2. The focus of evolutionary theory should not be on individual organisms, but on biological species and intraspecific groups (populations).

The concept of Zh.B. Lamarck is considered unscientific today.

However, the significance of Lamarck's theory cannot be denied, since it was precisely the scientific polemic with the conclusions and concepts of the French naturalist that triggered the emergence of Charles Darwin's theory.

The conclusions of the English scientist were also subjected to further criticism and detailed revision, which was caused primarily by the fact that many factors, mechanisms and patterns of the evolutionary process unknown at the time of Darwin were identified and new ideas were formed that significantly differed from the classical theory of Darwin.

Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the modern theory of evolution is the development of the basic ideas of Darwin, which are still relevant and productive.

	SIGNS	C. LINNEY's evolutionary theory (metaphysician: nature was created by God and is unchangeable)	Evolutionary theory J.-B. LAMARK	Evolutionary theory CH. DARWIN 1809-1882
	Creation of the theory	In the XVIII century. K. Linnaeus created an artificial system of nature, in whichthe species was recognized as the smallest systematic unit ... He introducednomenclature of double species names (binary) in Latin, which made it possible to systematize the organisms of different kingdoms known by that time by taxonomic groups. In 1751 his book "Philosophy of Botany" was published, where he outlined the binomial (binary) nomenclature developed by him. Scientistdivided all living organisms known to him into groups, based on anatomical-morphological and partly physiological criteria(the work "System of Nature", described 10 thousand species of plants and 4.5 thousand species alive); in other words, its classification was artificial. Therefore, in this system, systematically distant organisms sometimes found themselves in one class, and related ones in different ones. K. Linnaeusfor the first time placed in one detachment a man and a great ape, but did not think that man was descended from monkeys.The species was singled out and recognized as a really existing unit of taxonomy. Realized the shortcomings of his system.	In 1794 - the term "Zoology of invertebrates" (the foundations of the taxonomy of invertebrates), 1802 - "Biology". In 1809 he proposedthe first holistic theory of evolution (book "Philosophy of Zoology"), was appreciated only after 50 years. Analyzed and listed the similarities and differences between living and nonliving matter. Basic position:matter and the laws of its development were created by the creator . The first factor of evolution – gradation of the internal "striving for improvement". How and why this desire arose, Lamarck did not explain and did not even consider this issue worthy of attention. The result of the graduation is the simultaneous existence in nature of organisms of different levels of complexity.The second factor of evolution – the constant influence of the external environment determines the formation of the whole variety of adaptations of living beings.The third factor of evolution – heredity. Evolution according to Lamarck was presented as a continuous forward movement from the lower forms of life to the higher ones (a ladder of creatures). To explain the varying degrees of structural complexity observed among modern species, he allowed the constant spontaneous generation of life: the ancestors of more highly organized forms were born earlier and therefore their descendants went further along the path of progress.2 laws: the law of exercise and non-exercise, the law of inheritance of acquired traits.	Proposed in 1859 by the English naturalist Charles Darwin Evolutionary doctrine Charles Darwin includes three major components: 1. Evidence for the historical development of the organic world 2. Statement on the driving forces of evolution 3. The idea of ​​the ways of evolutionary transformations.
	The emergence of life	K. Linnaeus shared metaphysical views on nature, seeing in it the original purposefulness, the wisdom of the Creator.	Life arose and arises through repeated spontaneous generation from inanimate nature (polyphilia).	Life arose, from the very beginning, formed by the creator in one or more forms (monophilia)
	Starting point of evolution	Primordial expediency, the wisdom of the Creator.	Matter and the laws of its development, created by the creator. Single-celled organisms are capable of spontaneous generation, and organisms with a higher organization appeared as a result of long-term development.	Congenital personality, variability
	The influence of the environment on the body	At the end of his life, he recognized that species can arise by crossing or by changing the environment.	The environment, having caused a change in habits, causes a change in the functional activity of the body (repositioning of organs). The functional activity of organs causes changes in their nutrition, as a result of which their size and shape change.	The environment (for example, hunger, etc.) causes massive death of organisms and the survival of the fittest. Natural selection occurs
	Variability	The species of plants and animals do not change, they have retained their characteristics from the moment of creation. While reproducing, they retain all the characteristics of the ancestral pair. Different species are not related by kinship.	Lamarck believed that changes arising under the influence of the environment can be inherited. He believed that increased exercise of organs leads to their enlargement, and failure to exercise leads to degeneration. So Lamarck explained the long nose of the anteater by the fact that his ancestors from generation to generation exercised their nose, sniffing in search of ants. He considered the reduction of eyes in moles to be a consequence of their failure to exercise in a number of generations. Neither Lamarck nor his followers asked the question, why, in fact, intensive exercise, the use of an organ must necessarily lead to its improvement, improvement, and not, for example, to wear, how do machine parts wear out?	Natural selection, supported by sexual selection, gives progressive and progressive variability in descending generations
	Formation of new species	"There are as many species as the Almighty created at the beginning of life"	The views are realnot exists , this is a purely speculative concept invented forin order to make it easier to consider in aggregate a larger number ofindividuals, since according to Lamarck, “in nature there is nowhat other than individuals. "Individual variability is continuous, therefore, the border between species can be drawn here and there - where it is more convenient. Hereditary variability leads to the formation of progressive and degrading series of organisms, in accordance with the nature of the habitat. Explained the origin of man from the highest "four-armed monkeys".	Increasing variability leads to divergence of characters and the formation of new species

Other scientists: J. Cuvier, J. de Saint-Hilaire, the first Russian evolutionists

The main features of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin

1. Evidence for evolution. Charles Darwin finds evidence of the evolutionary process in many areas of biology, of which the main provisions are laid down in three groups of scientifically substantiated facts.Paleontological data. Darwin provides evidence of numerous scientific facts showing that ancient forms of organisms are very different from modern ones, but as we approach modernity, there is an increase in the similarity of fossil forms. This indicates the sequence of evolutionary transformations of living forms. Embryological materials. Comparison of the embryos of modern animals that are very distant in their morphological similarity shows a great similarity between them. This can only be explained by the unity of origin and related relationships. Biogeographic materials. Comparison of the faunas of oceanic islands separated from the continents long ago, on the one hand, shows the commonality of their origin, and on the other hand, about significant changes in the structure of organisms, which indicate different directions of evolution, depending on the unequal conditions of existence.

2. Driving forces of evolution. Darwin attributed such phenomena to the factors of the evolutionary process asvariability, heredity and natural selection.

Among the phenomena of variability, he especially singled out definite and indefinite forms. Of themonly indefinite variability is capable of providing material for evolutionary transformations since it arises by chance, its manifestations are multidirectional, and they can also be inherited, i.e. persist for generations. Charles Darwin considered natural selection to be the main and guiding force in the evolution of organic forms. The theory of natural selection can be summarized as follows:

a. All species of animals and plants tend to increase their numbers. At the same time, the value of variability also increases, i.e. the number of individuals carrying small, i.e. relatively harmless to life, deviations in traits that are inherited. This leads to the appearance of a large number of individuals of different quality, with one or another trait. Living in the natural environment, they find themselves in a state of struggle for existence, both among themselves and between individuals of other species. In the harsh environmental conditions, some organisms survive better than others and leave offspring with more beneficial hereditary traits.

v. The process of accumulation of useful deviations as a result of such a selective average statistical survival of individuals in the course of the struggle, Darwin called the existence of natural selection. Nothing is created anew by natural selection. It takes place on the basis of existing devices. When environmental conditions remain relatively stable, natural selection maintains existing adaptations. When the conditions of existence change, the average values ​​of the survival of organisms change. Let's assume that the climate in the northern region has warmed sharply. Such phenomena have happened before and are possible in the future. At the same time, the mortality of individuals with thick fur may be higher than that of individuals with a genotype that gives less dense fur. Then, individuals with hereditary properties that give a lesser density of fur can accumulate in the population. The thinning of fur in warm environmental conditions can be assessed as the emergence of a new adaptation.

Natural selection is the main driving force behind evolution ... On its basis, in the course of the emergence of more and more adaptations of organisms, contributing to their better survival and reproduction, a process arisesdivergences (discrepancies in the characteristics of intraspecific groups, the emergence of new species and, on this basis, the identification of genera, families, classes and types). In the constructions of Charles Darwin, the concept of monophyletic evolution was formed, showing that all organisms on Earth have the same roots of origin. The unity of the whole world of living organisms on our planet is the result biological evolution based on natural selection.

3. Difficulties, which Charles Darwin experienced when creating his theory:1. Lack of scientifically developed theory of heredity. At the time of the writing of Darwin's book, nothing was known about the inheritance of traits. Mendel published his work in 1865, but at that time information spread very slowly, and very few understood the significance of Mendel's work. His work never reached Darwin. In his experiments, he observed similar phenomena. But he did not pay due attention to this. Therefore, Charles Darwin adhered to the then widespread ideas about that. That the traits of the parents are transmitted to the offspring in half (the theory of mixed inheritance). Because of this, there were complications with Jenkin's nightmare, forcing Darwin to partially allow for the inheritance of useful devices. He even had to invent a hypothesis of pangenesis (about the existence of gemmules that penetrate the germ cells and cause variability), which he himself soon abandoned.

2. A small amount of data confirming the work of selection in natural conditions. There was little such evidence in Darwin's writings. So he had to first prove the theory artificial selection, and then move on to the proof of the theory of natural selection. The theory of artificial selection was the cardinal issue of his evolutionary theory, which proves that human activity can quickly and effectively change the characteristics of animals and plants in the direction he needs.

4. Darwin on the sight. A consequence of the passage of natural selection is the emergence of adaptations that enable species to exist more efficiently in the environment. On the basis of adaptations, it becomes possible to distinguish between varieties, i.e. within a species, different groups of organisms appear, and then subspecies appear. Thus, instead of the old concept of an absolutely unchanging, stable and morphologically isolated species, Darwin put forward new ideas about a changing species. In his concept, he considered the view as if from two projections:

In a given period of time, he represents a species as a really existing natural unit. However, according to Charles Darwin, the species as a real natural unit possesses high degree variability, so that sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish not only the varieties within the species. But also one view from another. A number of transitional forms can be found between the two types. Therefore, Darwin believed that species are sharply expressed varieties, and varieties are nascent species.

A species in the course of a long historical period of time is a really evolving unit, which in its morphological development undergoes a series of adaptive transformations. In this case, the specific characters become even more variable and difficult to subdivide, because evolution is slow and gradual.

After the works of Charles Darwin, the evolutionary idea was first united by the concept of a really existing and developing species.

5 ... Evolutionary transformation paths Charles Darwin depicted in the form of a diagram showing the course of divergent evolution, i.e. evolution with divergence of signs. This scheme especially emphasizes the importance of random factors in evolution, on the basis of which a natural historical process leading to the progressive complication of organisms.

Introduction 2

1. Carl Linnaeus: taxonomy of flora and fauna 4

2. Transition from the idea of ​​transformation of species to the idea of ​​evolution. J.-B. Lamarck: the concept of the evolution of the organic world 7

3. Charles Darwin: the founder of the theory of evolution 11

3.1. The history of Darwin's theory of evolution 11

3.2. Basic principles of the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin 12

4. Formation synthetic theory evolution. The doctrine of N.I. Vavilov about the origin of cultivated plants 18

4.1. The twentieth century is the century of genetics. Creation of a synthetic theory of evolution 18

4.2. Nikolay Vavilov: Human Influence on Evolution 20

Conclusion 24

List of used literature 25

Introduction

Life on Earth ... The richness of its forms is amazing! Life has penetrated into the depths of the ocean, and beyond the Arctic Circle, climbed to the tops of the most high mountains and the rarefied layers of the atmosphere, where many types of microorganisms are found. Have life forms always been the way we see them today, or have they passed a long way of development over the centuries? - this is the question that arises for everyone who sees such a variety of living beings.

Since ancient times, people have answered it in different ways. According to the biblical book Genesis, “God created on the third day vegetable world: a herb that sows seed, a fruitful tree, bearing fruit after its kind, in which is its seed on the earth. " On the fifth day, "God created great fish and every living creature that creeps, which the water produced, after its kind, and every bird of feathers after its kind." On the sixth day, He created "the beasts of the earth after their kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creeps on the earth after its kind" (Gen. 1: 11,21,25).

The extreme complexity of the structure and the observed expediency of the behavior of living organisms have led many to believe that life is more than just a physical and chemical phenomenon. Living beings, in comparison with objects of inanimate nature, have a number of distinctive properties, thanks to which a very definite goal is achieved. In this regard, since ancient times, an idea arose: although living beings are material, living matter, apparently, is "animated" by some non-material factor. This point of view was held and adhered to by many people of different religious and philosophical beliefs. This point of view underlies vitalism - a trend in biology that recognizes the presence in organisms of an intangible supernatural force ("life force", "soul", etc.) that controls life phenomena.

The results of modern experiments show that the fundamental laws of nature (the laws of conservation of mass and energy) in living systems are fulfilled within the accuracy of the experiment. Numerous experiments show that in biological systems not a single law of physics and chemistry is violated. However, one should hastily draw a conclusion from this statement: living systems obey only the laws of physics and chemistry.

With a very high degree of caution, one can assert: the living is a material system endowed with the property of expediency. Of course, this statement does not pretend to be a complete exhaustive definition of living systems, and, of course, with the development of natural science and science as a whole, it will certainly be concretized, supplemented and, therefore, modified.

Since ancient times, there has been an idea of ​​the gradual modification of living forms. This idea was quite definitely expressed by the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles. And yet, for many centuries, the idea of ​​the immutability of the forms of the organic world remained dominant, and the reason for this, most likely, is that man, as Charles Darwin aptly put it, looked at the organic world, “like a savage looks at a ship, that is, how something beyond his understanding. "

The concept of evolution is used in different senses, but for the most part it is identified with development. Evolution (lat. Evolutio - deployment) is one of the forms of movement in nature and society - continuous, gradual quantitative change, in contrast to revolution. When considering the evolution of living nature, evolution was understood as a process of long, gradual, slow changes that ultimately lead to fundamental, qualitative changes, resulting in the emergence of new material systems, structures, forms and species. This is the meaning given to the concept of evolution in Darwin's theory and the hypotheses and theories that appeared after him.

This course work examines the basic ideas of K. Linnaeus, J.-B. Lamarck, C. Darwin, N. Vavilov, who made a great contribution to the development of evolutionary theory, which generalized the results of their discoveries in the field of heredity, variability and natural selection.

The purpose of writing term paper is the study of the problem of the existence of species and evolution in the works of K. Linnaeus, J.-B. Lamarck, Ch. Darwin, N. Vavilov. To achieve this goal, I solved the following tasks:

To give a characteristic of the artificial classification given by K. Linnaeus, to show its significance for the formation of the theory of evolution;

Consider the concept of the evolution of the organic world by J.-B. Lamarck in the process of transition from the idea of ​​species transformation to the idea of ​​evolution;

Highlight the basic principles of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, give brief description the history of this theory;

The ideas of the changeability of the organic world have been expressed since ancient times. Aristotle, Heraclitus, Democritus.

In the XVIII century ... K. Linnaeus created an artificial system of nature, in which the species was recognized as the smallest systematic unit. He introduced a nomenclature of double names of the form ( binary), which made it possible to systematize the organisms of different kingdoms known by that time by taxonomic groups.

The creator first evolutionary theory was Jean Baptiste Lamarck. It was he who recognized the gradual complication of organisms and the variability of species, thereby indirectly refuting the divine creation of life. However, Lamarck's assertions about the expediency and usefulness of any emerging adaptations in organisms, the recognition of their desire for progress as the driving force of evolution, were not confirmed by subsequent scientific research... Also, they did not find their confirmation of Lamarck's position on the heritability of characters acquired by an individual during her life and on the influence of organ exercises on their adaptive development.

The main problem that needed to be solved was the problem of the formation of new species adapted to the conditions environment... In other words, scientists needed to answer at least two questions: how do new species arise? How do adaptations to environmental conditions arise?

Evolutionary doctrine, which has received its development and is recognized by modern scientists, was created independently of each other Charles Robert Darwin and Alfred Wallace who put forward the idea of ​​natural selection based on the struggle for existence. This doctrine was named Darwinism , or science about historical development wildlife.

The main tenets of Darwinism:

- the evolutionary process is real, determined by the conditions of existence and manifests itself in the formation of new, adapted to these conditions, individuals, species and larger systematic taxa;

- the main evolutionary factors are hereditary variability and natural selection.

Natural selection plays the role of a directing factor in evolution (creative role).

Prerequisites for natural selection are:

excess reproductive potential,

hereditary variability,

changing conditions of existence.

Natural selection is a consequence of the struggle for existence which is subdivided into intraspecific, interspecific and control of environmental conditions.

By the results of natural selection are:

preservation of any adaptations that ensure the survival and reproduction of offspring; all adaptations are relative.

Divergence - the process of genetic and phenotypic divergence of groups of individuals for individual traits and the formation of new species - progressive evolution of the organic world.

Driving forces of evolution according to Darwin are: hereditary variability, struggle for existence, natural selection.

Thematic assignments

A1. The driving force behind Lamarck's evolution is

1) the desire of organisms to progress

2) divergence

3) natural selection

4) the struggle for existence

A2. The statement is erroneous

1) species are changeable and exist in nature as independent groups of organisms

2) related species have a historically common ancestor

3) all changes acquired by the body are beneficial and are preserved by natural selection

4) the evolutionary process is based on hereditary variability

A3. Evolutionary changes are entrenched in generations as a result

1) the appearance of recessive mutations

2) inheritance of characteristics acquired during life

3) struggle for existence

4) natural selection of phenotypes

A4. The merit of Charles Darwin lies in

1) recognition of the variability of species

2) establishing the principle of double species names

3) identifying the driving forces of evolution

4) the creation of the first evolutionary teaching

A5. According to Darwin, the reason for the formation of new species is

1) unlimited reproduction

3) mutational processes and divergence

2) the struggle for existence

4) direct influence of environmental conditions

A6. Natural selection is called

1) the struggle for existence between individuals of the population

2) the gradual emergence of differences between individuals of the population

3) survival and reproduction of the strongest individuals

4) survival and reproduction of individuals most adapted to environmental conditions

A7. Fighting for territory between two wolves in the same forest refers to

1) interspecies struggle

3) dealing with environmental conditions

2) intraspecific struggle

4) an inner desire for progress

A8. Recessive mutations undergo natural selection when

1) heterozygosity of an individual for a selected trait

2) homozygosity of an individual for this trait

3) their adaptive value for the individual

4) their harmfulness to the individual

A9. Indicate the genotype of the individual in which the gene a will be subjected to the action of natural selection

A10. C. Darwin created his doctrine in

IN 1. Select the provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin

1) acquired characteristics are inherited

2) hereditary variability serves as the material for evolution

3) any variability serves as material for evolution

4) the main result of evolution is the struggle for existence

5) speciation is based on divergence

6) both beneficial and harmful traits are exposed to the action of natural selection