To date, there are about 2.5 million diverse compounds of both natural origin and synthesized artificially man. All of them are very different, some of them are an indispensable participants in the biological processes occurring in living organisms. Different connections from each other properties of substances. Characteristics and what else allows you to identify one or another chemical molecule, Consider further.

What is a substance?

If you give the definition of this concept, you need to specify its relationship with physical bodies. After all, it is customary to be considered exactly what these bodies consist of. So, glass, iron, sulfur, wood is substances. Examples can be brought infinitely. It is easier to understand the following: the term under consideration indicates the entire variety of various combinations of molecules, as well as simple single-mattar particles.

Thus, water, alcohol, acid, alkalis, proteins, carbohydrates, salt, sugar, sand, clay, diamond, gases, and so on - this is all substances. Examples allow you to more clearly catch the essence of this concept.

The physical body is a product that is created by nature or a person based on various compounds. For example, a glass is a body that consists of glass, and a sheet of paper is a body that is a treated cellulose or wood.

Of course, all molecules are different. What underlies their differences is called their properties - physical, organoleptic and chemical. They are determined using special methods that each science has their own. These can be mathematical, analytical, experimental, instrumental methods, and many more very varied. For example, science chemistry uses for each substance, or rather, to identify it, its reagent. It is selected on the basis of the characteristics of the structure of the molecule and prediction of chemical properties. Then it is checked experimentally, it is approved and fixed in the theoretical database.

Classification of substances

Based on the division of compounds on groups, many different signs can be found. For example, an aggregate state. All of them can be on this factor of four types:

• plasma;
• liquid;
• crystalline substance (solid).

If you take the basis more "deep" sign, then all substances can be divided into:

• organic - based on chains and cycles from carbon and hydrogen atoms;
• inorganic - all others.

By elemental composition, which reflects the formulas of substances, they all happen:

• simple - from one type of chemical atom;
• complex - two and more different types of items.

In turn, simple are divided into metals and non-metals. Complex have many classes: salts, bases, acids, oxides, esters, hydrocarbons, alcohols, nucleic acids etc.

Different types of compound formulas

What is visual, that is, graphic, display connections? Of course, these are formulas of substances. They are different. Depending on the type of information, information about the molecule is also different. So, there are such options:

1. Empirical, or molecular. Reflects the quantitative and qualitative composition of the substance. It includes the symbols of the elements that are part of the elements and the index in the lower left corner of it, showing the amount of this atom in the composition of the molecule. For example, H 2 O, Na 2 SO 4, Al 2 (SO 4) 3.
2. Electron graphic. Such a formula shows the number of valence electrons in each element included in the compound. Therefore, some chemical and substances can be predicted by this option.
3. IN organic chemistry It is customary to use complete and abbreviated, they reflect the order of communication of atoms in molecules, in addition, clearly indicate the belonging of the substance to one or another class of compounds. And this makes it possible to accurately determine the specific type of molecule and predict all the interaction characteristic of it.

Therefore, chemical symbols and correctly composed formulas of the compounds are the most important part of working with all known substances. This is what every student chemistry should know.

Physical properties

A very important characteristic is the manifested physical properties of substances. What does it apply to this group?

1. Aggregate under different conditions, including standard.
2. Boiling, melting, freezing, evaporation.
3. Organoleptic characteristics: color, smell, taste.
4. Solubility in water and other solvents (organic, for example).
5. Density and fluidity, viscosity.
6. Electro- and thermal conductivity, heat capacity.
7. Electrical permeability.
8. Radioactivity.
9. Absorption and emission.
10. Inductance.

There is also a number of indicators that are very important for a complete list reflecting the properties of substances. However, they are between physical and chemical. It:

• type of crystal lattice;
• electricity;
• hardness and fragility;
• purpure and plasticity;
• evaporation or volatility;
• biological impact on living organisms (poisoning, suffocating, nerve, neutral, favorable, etc.).

Often these indicators are mentioned precisely when the chemical properties of substances are already considered. However, you can specify them in the physical section that the error will not be.

Chemical properties of substances

This group includes all possible types of interactions of the considered molecule with other simple and complex substances. That is, it is directly chemical reactions. For each type of connection, they are strictly specific. However, general group properties are distinguished for a whole class of substances.

For example, all acids are capable of reacting with metals according to their position in an electrochemical row of metals. Also, for all neutralization reactions with alkalis, interaction with insoluble bases. However, concentrated sulfur and nitric acids are special, since the products of their interaction with metals differ from the resulting reactions with other representatives of the class.

Chemical properties are a lot of each substance. Their number is determined by the activity activity, that is, the ability to react with other components. There are highly absorption, there are practically inert. This is a strictly individual indicator.

Simple substances

These include those that consist of one type of atoms, but their different amounts. For example, S 8, O 2, O 3, AU, N 2, P 4, CL 2, AR and others.

Chemical properties Simple substances are reduced to interaction with:

• metals;
• non-metals;
• water;
• acids;
• alkali and amphoteric hydroxides;
• organic compounds;
• salts;
• oxides;
• peroxides and anhydrides and other molecules.

Again, you should specify that this is a narrowly specific characteristic for each specific case. Therefore, the physical and chemical properties of simple substances are considered individually.

Sophisticated substances

This group includes such compounds whose molecules are formed by two and more different chemical elements. The amount of each of them may be different. For understanding, we give some simple examples:

• H 3 PO 4;
• K 3;
• Cu (OH) 2;
• Al 2 O 3 and others.

Since they all belong to different classes of substances, allocate general physical and chemical characteristics It is impossible for everyone. These are specific properties, peculiar and individual in each case.

Inorganic substances

They are currently numbered over 500 thousand. There are both simple and complex. In total, you can highlight a few basic that represent all their diversity.

1. Simple substances metals.
2. Oxides.
3. Simple substances Nemetalla.
4. Noble or inert gases.
5. Peroxides.
6. Anhydrides.
7. Volatile hydrogen compounds.
8. Hydrides.
9. Salt.
10. Acids.
11. Basis.
12. Amphoteric compounds.

Any representative of each classes has its own set of physicochemical properties that make it possible to distinguish it among other compounds and identify.

Properties of organic substances

Organizer is such a section of chemistry, which is engaged in the study of compounds other than inorganic and their properties. The basis of their structure is carbon atoms that can be connected to each other in various structures:

• linear and branched chains;
• cycles;
• aromatic rings;
• heterocycles.

Live organisms consist of just such compounds, because the basis of life is proteins, fats and carbohydrates. All of them are representatives therefore and their special properties. However, in any case, no matter what molecule this is speechAnyway, a certain set of physicochemical properties that we have already mentioned earlier will be characterized.

What is a living matter?

Alive is a substance from which the entire biomass of our planet is composed. That is, those organisms that make up life on it:

• bacteria and viruses;
• simplest;
• plants;
• animals;
• mushrooms;
• people.

Since the main part of the compounds in the living creature is organic, then it is necessary to be attributed to the group of living matter. However, not all. Only those without which the existence of representatives of a live biosphere is impossible. These are proteins, nucleic acids, hormones, vitamins, fats, carbohydrates, amino acids and others. The term "living substance" was introduced by Vernadsky, the founder of the teachings on the biosphere of the planet.

Livestral properties:

• possession of energy with the possibility of its transformation;
• self-regulation;
• arbitrary movement;
• alternation of generations;
• emergency diversity.

Crystals and metallic substances

Crystalline call all compounds having a certain type of structure of the spatial grid. There are compounds with a atomic, molecular or metal crystalline grille. Depending on the type, the properties of typical solid compounds that have a type of fine or large-dispersed crystals are different, various salts are different.

There are also simple substances with a similar structure, for example, diamond or graphite, precious and semi-precious stones, minerals, rocks. The basic properties of them:

• hardness;
• fragility;
• average melting and boiling points.

However, as always, each characteristic cannot approach everyone.

Substances exhibit metals, their alloys. For them, you can select a set of common characteristics:

• purpure and plasticity;
• high boiling temperatures, melting;
• electro- and thermal conductivity;
• metal shine.

Bases (hydroxides) - complex substances whose molecules in their composition have one or more hydroxy groups OH. Most often, the bases consist of a metal atom and OH group. For example, NaOH is sodium hydroxide, Ca (OH) 2 - calcium hydroxide, etc.

There is a base - ammonium hydroxide, in which the hydroxy group is attached not to the metal, but to the NH 4 + ion (ammonium cation). Ammonium hydroxide is formed by dissolving ammonia in water (water connection reaction to ammonia):

NH 3 + H 2 O \u003d NH 4 OH (ammonium hydroxide).

The valence of the Gyroxy Group - 1. The number of hydroxyl groups in the base molecule depends on the valence of the metal and is equal to it. For example, NaOH, Lioh, Al (OH) 3, Ca (OH) 2, FE (OH) 3, etc.

All bases - solids that have different coloring. Some bases are well soluble in water (Naoh, Koh et al.). However, most of them do not dissolve in water.

Water soluble bases are called alkalis. Solutions of alkalis "soap" slippery to the touch and rather caustic. Alkalissee includes alkaline and alkaline earth metal hydroxides (KOH, LIOH, RBOH, NaOH, CSOH, Ca (OH) 2, SR (OH) 2, Ba (OH) 2, etc.). The rest are insoluble.

Insoluble grounds- These are amphoteric hydroxides, which, when interacting with acids, act as bases, and with a pitch behave like acids.

Different bases differ in different ability to split the hydroxy group, therefore, they are divided into strong and weak grounds.

Strong bases B. aqueous solutions Easily give their hydroxy groups, and weak - no.

Chemical properties of the base

The chemical properties of the base are characterized by the ratio of them to acids, anhydrides of acids and salts.

1. Act on indicators. Indicators change their painting depending on the interaction with different chemicals. In neutral solutions - they have one color, in solutions of acids - another. When interacting with the grounds, they change their painting: the methyl orange indicator is painted in yellow, the lactium indicator is in blue, and the phenolphthalein becomes fuchsia.

2. Interact with acid oxides with The formation of salt and water:

2NAOH + SiO 2 → Na 2 SiO 3 + H 2 O.

3. react with acids, Forming salt and water. The reaction of the reaction of the base with acid is called the neutralization reaction, since after its termination, the medium becomes neutral:

2KOH + H 2 SO 4 → K 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O.

4. React with salts Arriving new salt and base:

2NaOH + Cuso 4 → Cu (OH) 2 + Na 2 SO 4.

5. Capable when heated, degraded into water and main oxide:

Cu (OH) 2 \u003d Cuo + H 2 O.

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Elementary particles of physical matter on our planet are atoms. In free form, they can exist only at very high temperatures. In normal conditions, elementary particles tend to unite with the help of chemical bonds: ionic, metal, covalent polar or non-polar. In this way, substances are formed, examples of which we will consider in our article.

Simple substances

The processes of interaction between atoms of the same chemical element ends with formation chemical substances, called simple. Thus, coal is formed only by carbon atoms, hydrogen gas - hydrogen atoms, and liquid mercury consists of mercury particles. The concept of a simple substance does not need to identify with the concept of a chemical element. For example, carbon dioxide consists not from the simple substances of carbon and oxygen, but from the elements of carbon and oxygen. Conditionally compounds consisting of atoms of the same element can be divided into metals and non-metals. Consider some examples of the chemical properties of such simple substances.

Metals

Based on the position of the metal element in the periodic system, the following groups can be distinguished: active metals, elements of the main subgroups of the third - eighth groups, metals of side subgroups of the fourth - seventh groups, as well as lanthanoids and actinoids. Metals are simple substances, examples of which we later give, have the following general properties: heat and electrical conductivity, metal gloss, plasticity and pitch. Such characteristics are inherent with iron, aluminum, copper and others. With an increase in the sequence number in periods, boiling temperatures, melting, as well as the hardness of metal elements increase. This is due to the compression of their atoms, that is, a decrease in the radius, as well as the accumulation of electrons. All metals are due to internal structure Crystal lattice of these connections. Below will consider chemical reactions, as well as we present examples of properties of substances related to metals.

Features of chemical reactions

All metals having a degree of oxidation 0 show only the properties of reducing agents. Alkaline and alkaline earth elements interact with water to form chemically aggressive bases - alkalis:

• 2NA + 2H 2 0 \u003d 2NAOH + H 2

Typical metals reaction - oxidation. As a result of compounds with oxygen atoms, oxide class substances arise:

• Zn + O 2 \u003d zno

These are binary compounds related to complex substances. Examples of the main oxides are sodium oxides Na 2 O, copper Cuo, CAO calcium. They are able to interact with acids, as a result, salt and water is found in the products:

• MGO + 2HCl \u003d MgCl 2 + H 2 O

The substances of acid classes, bases, salts belong to complex compounds and show a variety of chemical properties. For example, a neutralization reaction occurs between hydroxides and acids, leading to the appearance of salt and water. The composition of the salts will depend on the concentration of the reagents: so, with an excess in the reacting mixture of acid, acidic salts are obtained, for example, NaHCO 3 - sodium bicarbonate, and the high alkali concentration causes the formation of basic salts, such as Al (OH) 2 Cl - aluminum dihydroxychloride.

Nemetalla

The most important non-metallic elements are in nitrogen subgroups, carbon, and also belong to groups of halogens and chalcogen periodic system. We give examples of substances belonging to nonmetallam: it is sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine. All their physical features are opposite to the properties of metals. They do not conduct an electric current, poorly pass the thermal rays, have a low hardness. Interacting with oxygen, non-metals form complex compounds - acid oxides. The latter, reacting with acids, give acids:

• H 2 O + CO 2 → H 2 CO 3

A typical reaction characteristic of acid oxides is interaction with alkalis, leading to the appearance of salt and water.

The chemical activity of non-metals in the period is enhanced, this is due to an increase in the ability of their atoms to attract electrons from other chemical elements. In groups, we observe the opposite phenomenon: non-metallic properties weaken due to the inflating the volume of the atom by adding new energy levels.

So, we considered the types of chemicals, examples illustrating their properties, position in the periodic system.

The world around the world is material. Matter has two types: substance and field. The object of chemistry is the substance (including the effect on the substance of various fields - sound, magnetic, electromagnetic, etc.)

The substance is everything that has a lot of rest (i.e., characterized by the presence of mass when not moving). So, although the mass of rest of one electron (the mass of the non-moving electron) is very small - about 10 -27 g, but even one electron is a substance.

The substance is in three aggregate states - gaseous, liquid and solid. There is another condition of the substance - plasma (for example, there is plasma in thunderstorm and ball lightning), but in the school year the chemistry of plasma is almost not considered.

Substances can be pure, very clean (necessary, for example, to create fiber optics), may contain noticeable amounts of impurities, can be mixtures.

All substances consist of the smallest particles - atoms. Substances consisting of atoms of one species (from the atoms of one element), called simple (for example, charcoal, oxygen, nitrogen, silver, etc.). Substances that contain interconnected atoms different elements, Called complex.

If there are two or more simple substances in the substance (for example, in the air), and their atoms are not interconnected, it is not called it difficult, but a mixture of simple substances. The number of simple substances is relatively small (about five hundred), and the number of complex substances is enormous. Tens of millions of different complex substances are known to date.

Chemical transformations

Substances are able to enter into account among themselves, and new substances arise. Such transformations are called Chemical. For example, a simple substance coal interacts (chemists say - reacts) with another simple substance - oxygen, as a result, a complex substance is formed - carbon dioxide in which carbon and oxygen atoms are interconnected. Such transformations of one substances into others are called chemical. Chemical transformations are chemical reactions. So, when heated sugar in air, a complex sweet substance - sucrose (from which sugar consists) - turns into a simple substance - coal and complex substance - water.

Chemistry studies the conversion of one substances into others. The task of chemistry is to find out with exactly what substances can interact under these conditions (react) this or that substance that is formed. In addition, it is important to find out exactly which conditions can flow this or that transformation and you can get the desired substance.

Physical properties of substances

Each substance is characterized by a combination of physical and chemical properties. Physical properties are properties that can be described using physical instruments.. For example, using a thermometer, we can determine the melting and boiling point of water. In physical methods, it is possible to characterize the ability of the substance to carry out an electric current, determine the density of the substance, its hardness, etc. In physical processes, substances remain unchanged in composition.

The physical properties of substances are subdivided into readable (those that can be described using certain physical instruments with a number, for example, an indication of the density, melting and boiling temperatures, solubility in water, etc.) and inconsistent (those that are impossible to characterize or very difficult - such as color, smell, taste, etc.).

Chemical properties of substances

The chemical properties of the substance are a set of information about, with what other substances and under what conditions this substance enters into chemical interactions. The most important task of chemistry is to identify the chemical properties of substances.

In chemical transformations, the smallest particles of substances are participating - atoms. With chemical transformations, other substances are formed from some substances, and the starting materials disappear, and new substances (reaction products) are formed instead. BUT atomsall chemical transformations are saved. Their regrouping occurs, with chemical transformations, old links between atoms are destroyed and new connections arise.

Chemical element

The number of different substances is enormous (and each of them has its own combination of physical and chemical properties). Atoms different from each other on the most important characteristics in the surrounding material world relatively small - about a hundred. Each type of atoms is answered its chemical element. The chemical element is a totality of atoms with the same or close characteristics.. In nature, there are about 90 different chemical elements. To date, physicists have learned to create new types of atoms on earth. Such atoms (and, accordingly, such chemical elements) are called artificial (in English - MAN-Made Elements). More than two tens of artificially obtained elements have been synthesized.

Each element has a Latin name and one or two-letter symbol. In Russian-language chemical literature there are no clear rules for the pronunciation of symbols of chemical elements. Some pronounce this way: they call the element in Russian (symbols of sodium, magnesium, etc.), others - in Latin letters (carbon symbols, phosphorus, sulfur), third - how the name of the element in Latin (iron, silver, gold, mercury sounds ). The symbol of the hydrogen element N with us is usually pronounced as this letter is pronounced in French.

A comparison of the most important characteristics of chemical elements and simple substances is shown in the table below. One element may be answered by several simple substances (the phenomenon of allotropy: carbon, oxygen, etc.), and maybe one (argon, etc. inert gases).

Inorganic substances are simple and complex. Simple substances are divided into metals (K, Na, Li) and non-metals (O, Cl, P). Sophisticated substances We are divided into oxides, hydroxides (bases), salt and acid.

Oxides.

Oxides. - compounds of the chemical element (metal or non-metal) with oxygen (oxidation degree -2), while oxygen is associated with a less electronegative element.

Allocate:

1. Acid oxides - oxides showing acid properties. Formed non-metals and oxygen. Examples: SO3, SO2, CO2, P2O5, N2O5.

2. Amphoteric oxides - oxides that can exhibit both basic and acidic properties (such property is called amphoteriness). Examples: Al2O3, CRO3, ZNO, BEO, PBO.

3. Main oxides - metal oxides, while the metals exhibit the degree of oxidation +1 or +2. Examples: K2O, MGO, CAO, BAO, Li2O, Na2O.

4. Cutting oxides - practically do not react, do not have appropriate acids and hydroxides. Examples: CO, NO.

Chemical properties of major oxides

1. Interaction with water

Only alkaline and alkaline earth metal oxides, the hydroxides of which form a soluble base are entering the reaction.

main oxide + water → alkali

K2O + H2O → 2KOH

Cao + H2O → CA (OH) 2

2. Interaction with acid

main Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

MGO + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O

Na2O + H2S (H2O) → 2NAHS + H2O

MGO (HCl → MG (OH) CL

3. Interaction with acid or amphoteric oxides

main oxide + acid / amphoteric oxide → salt

In this case, the metal, which is mainly oxide, becomes a cation, and the acidic / amphoteric oxide becomes an anion (acid residue). Reactions between solid oxides are heated. Insoluble in water, the main oxides do not interact with gaseous acid oxides.

Bao + SiO2 (T) → Basio3

K2O + Zno (T) → K2ZNO2

Feo + CO2 ≠

4. Interaction with amphoteric hydroxides

main oxide + amphoteric hydroxide → Salt + water

Na2O + 2AL (OH) 3 (T) → 2NAALO2 + 3H2O

5. Decomposition at the temperature of oxides of noble metals and mercury

2AG2O (T) → 4Ag + O2

2HGO (T) → 2HG + O2

6. Interaction with carbon (C) or hydrogen (H2) at high temperature.

When the reduction of alkaline oxides, alkaline earth metals and aluminum, the metal itself is highlighted, and its carbide is distinguished.

Feo + C (T) → Fe + Co

3Fe2O3 + C (T) → 2FE3O4 + CO

Cao + 3C (T) → CAC2 + CO

Cao + 2H2 (T) → CAH2 + H2O

7. Active metals are reduced less active from their oxides at high temperatures.

Cuo + Zn (T) → Zno + Cu

8. Oxygen oxidizes lower oxides to higher.

Alkaline and alkaline earth metal oxides are transferred to peroxides

4Feo + O2 (T) → 2Fe2O3

2bao + O2 (T) → 2BaO2

2NAO + O2 (T) → 2NA2O2

Chemical properties of acid oxides

1. Interaction with water

acid oxide + water → acid

SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

SiO2 + H2O ≠

Some oxides no appropriate acids, in this case, disproportionation reaction occurs

2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2

3NO2 + H2O (T) → 2HNO3 + NO

2CLO2 + H2O → HCLO3 + HCLO2

6CLO2 + 3H2O (T) → 5HCLO3 + HCl

Depending on the amount of water connected to P2O5, three different acids are formed - metaphosphoric NR3, pyrophosphoric H4P2O7 or orthophosphoric H3ro4.

P2O5 + H2O → 2HPO3

P2O5 + 2H2O → H4P2O7

P2O5 + 3H2O → 2H3PO4

Chromium oxide corresponds to two acids - chrome H2CRO4 and dichromova H2CR2O7 (III)

CRO3 + H2O → H2CRO4

2CRO3 + H2O → H2CR2O7

2. Interaction with the grounds

acid oxide + base → Salt + water

Insoluble acidic oxides react only when weaving, and soluble - under normal conditions.

SiO2 + 2NAOH (T) → Na2SiO3 + H2O

With an excess of oxide, an acid salt is formed.

CO2 (RI) + NaOH → NaHCO3

P2O5 (Ham) + 2CA (OH) 2 → 2CAHPO4 + H2O

P2O5 (CA) + CA (OH) 2 + H2O → CA (H2PO4) 2

With an excess of base, the main salt is formed

CO2 + 2MG (OH) 2 (MGOH) 2CO3 + H2O

Oxides that do not have appropriate acids enter the disproportionation reaction and form two salts.

2NO2 + 2NAOH → Nano3 + Nano2 + H2O

2CLO2 + 2NAOH → NACLO3 + NACLO2 + H2O

CO2 reacts with some amphoteric hydroxides (BE (OH) 2, Zn (OH) 2, Pb (OH) 2, Cu (OH) 2), while the main salt and water is formed.

CO2 + 2BE (OH) 2 → (BEOH) 2CO3 ↓ + H2O

CO2 + 2CU (OH) 2 → (Cuoh) 2CO3 ↓ + H2O

3. Interaction with basic or amphoteric oxide

acid oxide + main / amphoteric oxide → salt

Reactions between solid oxides are when fusing. Amphoteric and water insoluble main oxides interact only with solid and liquid acidic oxides.

SiO2 + Bao (T) → Basio3

3SO3 + Al2O3 (T) → Al2 (SO4) 3

4. Interaction with salt

acid non-volatile oxide + salt (T) → Salt + Acid Flying Oxide

SiO2 + Caco3 (T) → Casio3 + CO2

P2O5 + Na2Co3 → 2NA3PO4 + 2CO2

5. Acid oxides do not interact with acids, but P2O5 reacts with anhydrous oxygen-containing acids.

It is formed by NR3 and anhydride of the corresponding acid

P2O5 + 2HCLO4 (Navy) → CL2O7 + 2HPO3

P2O5 + 2HNO3 (Navy) → N2O5 + 2HPO3

6. Enter into oxidative reaction reactions.

1. Restoration

At high temperatures, some non-metals can restore oxides.

CO2 + C (T) → 2Co

SO3 + C → SO2 + CO

H2O + C (T) → H2 + CO

To restore non-metals from their oxides, the magnium is often used.

CO2 + 2MG → C + 2MGO

SiO2 + 2mg (T) → SI + 2MGO

N2O + MG (T) → N2 + MGO

2. Lower oxides are transformed into higher when interacting with ozone (or oxygen) at high temperature in the presence of a catalyst

NO + O3 → NO2 + O2

SO2 + O3 → SO3 + O2

2NO2 + O3 → N2O5 + O2

2CO + O2 (T) → 2CO2

2SO2 + O2 (T, Kat) → 2SO3

P2O3 + O2 (T) → P2O5

2no + O2 (T) → 2NO2

2N2O3 + O2 (T) → 2N2O4

3. Oxides enter into other redox reactions

SO2 + NO2 → NO + SO3 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4HNO3

2SO2 + 2NO → N2 + 2SO3 2N2O5 → 4NO2 + O2

SO2 + 2H2S → 3S ↓ + 2H2O 2NO2 (T) → 2NO + O2

2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4 3N2O + 2NH3 → 4N2 + 3H2O

2CO2 + 2NA2O2 → 2NA2CO3 + O2 10NO2 + 8P → 5N2 + 4P2O5

N2O + 2CU (T) → N2 + Cu2O

2NO + 4CU (T) → N2 + 2CU2O

N2O3 + 3CU (T) → N2 + 3CUO

2NO2 + 4CU (T) → N2 + 4Cuo

N2O5 + 5CU (T) → N2 + 5Cuo

Chemical properties of amphoteric oxides

1. Do not interact with water

amphoteric oxide + water ≠

2. Interaction with acids

amphoteric oxide + acid → salt + water

Al2O3 + 3H2SO4 → AL2 (SO4) 3 + 3H2O

With an excess of polypic acid, sour salt is formed

Al2O3 + 6H3PO4 (H2PO4) 3 + 3H2O

With an excess of oxide, the main salt is formed

ZnO (HCl → Zn (OH) CL

Double oxides form two salts

Fe3O4 + 8HCl → FECL2 + 2FECL3 + 4H2O

3. Interaction with acid oxide

amphoteric oxide + acid oxide → salt

Al2O3 + 3SO3 → Al2 (SO4) 3

4. Interaction with alkali

amphoteric oxide + alkali → Salt + water

When weaving, the average salt and water is formed, and in solution - a complex salt

Zno + 2NAOH (TV) (T) → Na2ZnO2 + H2O

Zno + 2NAOH + H2O → Na2

5. Interaction with main oxide

amphoteric oxide + main oxide (t) → salt

Zno + K2O (T) → K2ZNO2

6. Interaction with salts

amphoteric oxide + salt (T) → Salt + Flying Acid oxide

Amphoteric oxides are displaced when fusing volatile acid oxides from their salts

Al2O3 + K2CO3 (T) → Kalo2 + CO2

Fe2O3 + Na2CO3 (T) → 2NAFEO2 + CO2

Chemical properties of the base

The bases are substances that include metal cation and hydroxide anion. The bases are soluble (alkali - NaOH, KOH, BA (OH) 2) and insoluble (Al2O3, Mg (OH) 2).

1. Soluble base + indicator → color change

When adding an indicator into a base solution, its color changes:

Colorless phenolphthalene - Raspberry

Purple Lacmus - Blue

Methyloranzh - yellow

2. Interaction with acid (neutralization reaction)

base + Acid → Salt + Water

By reaction, medium, acidic or main salts can be obtained. With an excess of polypic acid, an acidic salt is formed, with an excess of multi-acid base - the main salt.

MG (OH) 2 + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + 2H2O

Mg (OH) 2 + 2H2SO4 → MG (HSO4) 2 + 2H2O

2mg (OH) 2 + H2SO4 → (MgOH) 2SO4 + 2H2O

3. Interaction with acid oxides

base + Acid oxide → Salt + water

6NH4OH + P2O5 → 2 (NH4) 3PO4 + 3H2O

4. Interaction of alkali with amphoteric hydroxide

schill + amphoteric hydroxide → salt + water

In this reaction, amphoteric hydroxide shows acid properties. When reaction in the melt, an average salt and water is obtained, and in the solution - a complex salt. The hydroxides of iron (III) and chromium (III) are dissolved only in concentrated alkalis solutions.

2KOH (TV) + Zn (OH) 2 (T) → K2ZNO2 + 2H2O

KOH + AL (OH) 3 → K

3NAOH (concluded) + Fe (OH) 3 → Na3

5. Interaction with amphoteric oxide

alkali + amphoteric oxide → Salt + water

2NAOH (TV) + Al2O3 (T) → 2NAALO2 + H2O

6NAOH + Al2O3 + 3H2O → 2NA3

6. Interaction with salt

Between the base and salt, the ion exchange reaction occurs. It is only when the sediment is dropped or when the gas is washed (when the NH4OH is formed).

A. The interaction of the soluble base and soluble acid salt

soluble base + soluble acidic salt → Medium salt + water

If the salt and base are formed by different cations, two middle salts are formed. In the case of acid salts of ammonium, excess alkali leads to the formation of ammonium hydroxide.

Ba (OH) 2 + BA (HCO3) 2 → 2Baco3 ↓ + 2H2O

2NAOH (H2S + NH4HS → NA2S + NH4HS + H2O

B. The interaction of a soluble base with soluble medium or main salt.

Perhaps several options for developing events

soluble base + soluble average / main salt → insoluble salt ↓ + base

→ Salt + insoluble base ↓

→ Salt + weak electrolyte NH4OH

→ Reaction does not go

The reactions go between soluble bases and an average salt only if the resulting non-soluble salt is formed, or an insoluble base, or a weak electrolyte NH4OH

NaOH + KCL ≠ Reaction does not go

If the source salt is formed by multi-acid base, with a shortage of alkali, the main salt is formed.

Under the action of alkalishes on silver and mercury salts (II), there are not their hydroxides, which dissolve at 25 ° C, and insoluble AG2O and HGO oxides.

7. Decomposition at temperature

basic hydroxide (T) → Oxide + water

CA (OH) 2 (T) → Cao + H2O

NaOH (T) ≠

Some bases (AGOH, HG (OH) 2 and NH4OH) decompose even at room temperature

Lioh (T) → Li2o + H2O

NH4OH (25C) → NH3 + H2O

8. Interaction of alkali and transition metal

schill + Transition Metal → Salt + H2

2AL + 2KOH + 6H2O → 2K + 3H2

Zn + 2NAOH (TV) (T) → Na2ZnO2 + H2

Zn + 2NAOH + 2H2O → Na2 + H2

9. Interaction with non-metals

Alkali interact with some non-metals - Si, S, P, F2, CL2, BR2, I2. In this case, often as a result of disproportionation two salts are formed.

SI + 2KOH + H2O → K2SIO3 + 2H2

3S + 6KOH (T) → 2K2S + K2SO3 + 3H2O

CL2 + 2KOH (concluding) → KCL + KCLO + H2O (for Br, I)

3Cl2 + 6KOH (concluding) (T) → 5KCl + KCLO3 + 3H2O (for Br, I)

CL2 + CA (OH) 2 → Caocl2 + H2O

4F2 + 6NAOH (RSC) → 6NAF + OF2 + O2 + 3H2O

4p + 3NAOH + 3H2O → 3NAH2PO2 + PH3

Hydroxides with reducing properties are able to oxidize with oxygen

4Fe (OH) 2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe (OH) 3 (\u003d CR)

Chemical properties of acids

1. Changing the color of the indicator

soluble acid + indicator → color change

Violet Lacmus and Methyloorge painted in red, phenolphthalein becomes transparent

2. Interaction with bases (neutralization reaction)

acid + base → Salt + water

H2SO4 + MG (OH) 2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O

3. Interaction with the main oxide

acid + Main Oxide → Salt + Water

2HCl + Cuo → Cucl2 + H2O

4. Interaction with amphoteric hydroxides with the formation of medium, acidic or main salts

acid + amphoteric hydroxide → salt + water

2HCl + BE (OH) 2 → BECL2 + 2H2O

H3PO4 () + Zn (OH) 2 → ZnHPO4 + 2H2O

HCl + Al (OH) 3 () → AL (OH) 2Cl + H2O

5. Interaction with amphoteric oxides

acid + amphoteric oxide → Salt + water

H2SO4 + ZNO → ZNSO4 + H2O

6. Interaction with salts

General Reaction Scheme: Acid + Salt → Salt + Acid

The reaction of ion exchange occurs, which goes to the end only in the case of the formation of a gas or precipitate.

For example: HCl + AGNO3 → AGCL ↓ + HNO3

2HBR + K2SIO3 → 2kbr + H2SIO3 ↓

A. Interaction with a salt of more volatile or weak acid to form a gas

HCl + NaHS → NaCl + H2S

B. The interaction of strong acid and salts of strong or medium acid to form an insoluble salt

strong acid + Salt of strong / medium acid → Insoluble salt + acid

Non-neutral orthophosphoric acid displaces strong, but volatile salt and nitric acids from their salts, subject to the formation of insoluble salt

B. Acid interaction with the main salt of the same acid

acid1 + Basic Salt Acid1 → Middle Salt + Water

HCl + MG (OH) Cl → MgCl2 + H2O

G. The interaction of polypic acid with an average or acidic salt of the same acid to form an acidic salt of the same acid containing a greater number of hydrogen atoms

polyshnaya acid1 + medium / acidic acid salt1 → acidic acid acid1

H3PO4 + CA3 (PO4) 2 → 3CahPO4

H3PO4 + CAHPO4 → CA (H2PO4) 2

D. Interaction of hydrogen sulfide acid with AG, CU, PB, CD, HG salts with the formation of insoluble sulfide

acid H2S + salt AG, CU, PB, CD, HG → AG2S / CUS / PBS / CDS / HGS ↓ + acid

H2S + CUSO4 → CUS ↓ + H2SO4

E. Acid interaction with a medium or complex salt with amphoteric metal in anion

a) In the event of a lack of acid, the average salt and amphoteric hydroxide is formed

acid + medium / complex salt in amphoteric metal in anion → Medium salt + amphoteric hydroxide

b) In the case of an excess of acid, two middle salts and water are formed

acid + medium / complex salt with amphoteric metal in anion → Medium salt + medium salt + water

In some cases, acids with salts enter oxidative reaction or complexation reactions:

H2SO4 (concluding) and I~ / Br~ (H2S and I2 / SO2 and BR2 products)

H2SO4 (concluding) and Fe² + (products SO2 and Fe³ +)

HNO3 RSS / CONDITION AND FE² + (NO / NO2 and Fe³ + Products)

HNO3 RSS / Confine and SO3²~ / S²~ (NO / NO2 and SO4² ~ / s or SO4² |

HCLONC and KMNO4 / K2CR2O7 / KCLO3 (CL2 and MN² + / CR² + / CL~ products)

3. The interaction of concentrated sulfuric acid with solid salt

Non-leaky acids can exhibit volatile from their solid salts.

7. Acid Acid with Metal

A. Acid interaction with metals facing or after hydrogen

acid + metal to H2 → Sel metal in minimal oxidation + H2

Fe + H2SO4 (RSS) → FESO4 + H2

acid + metal after H2 ≠ Reaction does not go

CU + H2SO4 (RSC) ≠

B. The interaction of concentrated sulfuric acid with metals

H2SO4 (CON) + AU, PT, IR, RH, TA ≠ Reaction does not go

H2SO4 (concaten) + alkaline / alkaline earth metal and Mg / zn → H2S / S / SO2 (depending on the conditions) + metal sulfate to the maximum oxidation degree + H2O

Zn + 2H2SO4 (conc) (T1) → ZNSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O

3ZN + 4H2SO4 (CON) (T2\u003e T1) → 3ZNSO4 + S ↓ + 4H2O

4ZN + 5H2SO4 (conc) (T3\u003e T2) → 4ZNSO4 + H2S + 4H2O

H2SO4 (concluded) + other metals → SO2 + metal sulfate in maximum oxidation degree + h2o

CU + 2H2SO4 (CON) (T) → CUSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O

2Al + 6H2SO4 (conc) (T) → Al2 (SO4) 3 + 3SO2 + 6H2O

B. The interaction of concentrated nitric acid with metals

Hno3 (conc) + AU, PT, IR, RH, TA, OS ≠ Reaction does not go

Hno3 (concluding) + pt ≠

Hno3 (concluding) + metal alkaline / alkaline earth → N2O + metal nitrate to maximum oxidation degree + h2o

4ba + 10hnO3 (concludes) → 4ba (NO3) 2 + N2O + 5H2O

Hno3 (concluding) + remaining metals at a temperature → NO2 + metal nitrate in maxbinal oxidation degree + h2o

AG + 2HNO3 (concludes) → AGNO3 + NO2 + H2O

With Fe, Co, Ni, Cr and Al interact only when heated, since these metals under normal conditions nitric acid passivated - become chemically resistant

The interaction of dilute nitric acid with metals

HNO3 (RSS) + AU, PT, IR, RH, TA ≠ Reaction does not go

Very passive metals (AU, PT) can be dissolved by tsaric vodka - a mixture of one volume of concentrated nitric acid with three volumes of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The oxidizing agent in it is an atomic chlorine, sprinkling on the nitrosyl chloride, which is formed as a result of the reaction: HNO3 + 3HCl → 2H2O + NOCL + CL2

HNO3 (RSC) + Metal alkaline / alkaline earth → NH3 (NH4NO3) + metal nitrate in maximum oxidation degree + h2o

NH3 turns into NH4NO3 in an excess of nitric acid

4CA + 10HNO3 (RSS) → 4CA (NO3) 2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O

HNO3 (RSC) + metal in a row of voltages to H2 → NO / N2O / N2 / NH3 (depending on the conditions) + metal nitrate to the maximum oxidation degree + H2O

With the rest of the metals facing a row of hydrogen and non-metals, HNO3 (RSC) forms salt, water and, mainly NO, but may, depending on the conditions and N2O, and N2, and NH3 / NH4NO3 (the greater the acid , the lower the degree of nitrogen oxidation in the produced gaseous product)

3ZN + 8HNO3 (RSC) → 3ZN (NO3) 2 + 2NO + 4H2O

4ZN + 10HNO3 (RSS) → 4ZN (NO3) 2 + N2O + 5H2O

5ZN + 12HNO3 (RSC) → 5ZN (NO3) 2 + N2 + 6H2O

4ZN + 10HNO3 (Och.MEB) → 4ZN (NO3) 2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O

HNO3 (RSS) + Metal after H2 → NO + metal nitrate in maximum oxidation degree + H2O

With low-active metals, standing after H2, HNO3SB forms salt, water and no

3CU + 8HNO3 (RSC) → 3CU (NO3) 2 + 2NO + 4H2O

8. Decomposition of acids at temperatures

acid (T) → Oxide + Water

H2CO3 (T) → CO2 + H2O

H2SO3 (T) → SO2 + H2O

H2SIO3 (T) → SiO2 + H2O

2H3PO4 (T) → H4P2O7 + H2O

H4P2O7 (T) → 2HPO3 + H2O

4HNO3 (T) → 4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O

3HNO2 (T) → HNO3 + 2NO + H2O

2hnO2 (t) → NO2 + NO + H2O

3HCl (T) → 2HCl + HCLO3

4H3PO3 (T) → 3H3PO4 + PH3

9. The interaction of acid with non-metals (redox reaction). In this case, the nonmetall is oxidized to the appropriate acid, and the acid is restored to gaseous oxide: H2SO4 (concaten) - to SO2; Hno3 (concluded) - to NO2; HNO3 (RSC) - up to NO.

S + 2HNO3 (RSS) → H2SO4 + 2NO

S + 6HNO3 (concludes) → H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O

S + 2H2SO4 (CON) → 3SO2 + CO2 + 2H2O

C + 2H2SO4 (concludes) → 2SO2 + CO2 + 2H2O

C + 4HNO3 (CON) → 4NO2 + CO2 + 2H2O

P + 5HNO3 (RSS) + 2H2O → 3H3PO4 + 5NO

P + 5HNO3 (CON) → HPO3 + 5NO2 + 2H2O

H2S + G2 → 2HG + S ↓ (except F2)

H2SO3 + G2 + H2O → 2HG + H2SO4 (except F2)

2H2S (water) + O2 → 2H2O + 2S ↓

2H2S + 3O2 → 2H2O + 2SO2 (burning)

2H2S + O2 (Understand) → 2H2O + 2S ↓

More active halogens are abandoned less active from NG acids (exception: F2 reacts with water, and not with acid)

2HR + CL2 → 2HCl + BR2 ↓

2HI + CL2 → 2HCl + i2 ↓

2HI + BR2 → 2HBR + I2 ↓

10. Redox reactions between acids

H2SO4 (CON) 2HBR → BR2 ↓ + SO2 + 2H2O

H2SO4 (CON) + 8HI → 4i2 ↓ + H2S + 4H2O

H2SO4 (concaten) + HCl ≠

H2SO4 (CON) + H2S → S ↓ + SO2 + 2H2O

3H2SO4 (CON) + H2S → 4SO2 + 4H2O

H2SO3 + 2H2S → 3S ↓ + 3H2O

2hnO3 (concluded) + H2S → S ↓ + 2NO2 + 2H2O

2hnO3 (concluding) + SO2 → H2SO4 + 2NO2

6hnO3 (concluding) + Hi → HiO3 + 6nO2 + 3H2O

2hnO3 (concludes) + 6HCl → 3Cl2 + 2NO + 4H2O

Chemical properties of amphoteric hydroxides

1. Interaction with main oxide

amphoteric Hydroxide + Main Oxide → Salt + Water

2AL (OH) 3 + Na2O (T) → 2NAALO2 + 3H2O

2. Interaction with amphoteric or acid oxide

amphoteric hydroxide + amphoterous / acid oxide ≠ reaction does not go

Some amphoteric oxides (BE (OH) 2, Zn (OH) 2, Pb (OH) 2) react with acid oxide CO2 with the formation of precipitation of basic salts and water

2BE (OH) 2 + CO2 → (BEOH) 2CO3 ↓ + H2O

3. Interaction with alkali

amphoteric hydroxide + alkali → salt + water

Zn (OH) 2 + 2KOH (TV) (T) → K2ZNO2 + 2H2O

Zn (OH) 2 + 2KOH → K2

4. Do not interact with insoluble bases or amphoteric hydroxides

amphoteric hydroxide + insoluble base / amphoteric hydroxide ≠ reaction does not go

5. Interaction with acids

amphoteric Hydroxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Al (OH) 3 + 3HCl → AlCl3 + 3H2O

6. Do not react with salts

amphoteric hydroxide + salt ≠ reaction does not go

7. Do not react with metals / non-metals (simple substances)

amphoteric hydroxide + metal / non-metall ≠ reaction does not go

8. Thermal decomposition

amphoteric hydroxide (t) → amphoteric oxide + water

2AL (OH) 3 (T) → Al2O3 + 3H2O

Zn (OH) 2 (T) → Zno + H2O

Soles General Information

Imagine that we have acid and alkali, we will carry out the neutralization reaction between them and get acid and salt.

NaOH + HCl → NaCl (sodium chloride) + H2O

It turns out that the salt consists of metal cation and an anion acid residue.

Salts are:

1. Sour (with one or two cations of hydrogen (that is, they have a sour (or weakly acid) medium) - KHCO3, NaHSO3).

2. Medium (I have a metal cation and an anion acid residue, a medium must be determined using a pH meter - Baso4, AGNO3).

3. Basic (there are hydroxide ion, that is, an alkaline (or weakly alkaline) medium - Cu (OH) Cl, Ca (OH) BR).

There are also double salts that form during the dissociation of the cations of two metals (K).

Salts, in a small exception, are solid crystalline substances with high melting temperatures. Most white salts (KNO3, NaCl, Baso4, etc.). Some salts have coloring (K2CR2O7 - orange color, K2CRO4 - yellow, Niso4 - green, COCL3 - pink, cus - black). According to solubility, they can be divided into soluble, low-soluble and practically insoluble. Acid salts are usually better soluble in water than the corresponding averages, and the main - worse.

Chemical properties of salts

1. Salt + water

When dissolving many salts in water, their partial or complete decomposition occurs - hydrolysis. Some salts form crystallohydrates. When dissolved in the water of medium salts containing amphoter metal in anion, complex salts are formed.

NaCl + H2O → NaOH + HCl

Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O \u003d Na2

2. Salt + Main Oxide ≠ Reaction does not go

3. Salt + amphoteric oxide → (T) Acid Flying Oxide + Salt

Amphoteric oxides are displaced when weaving the volatile acid oxides from their salts.

Al2O3 + K2CO3 → Kalo2 + CO2

Fe2O3 + Na2CO3 → 2NAFEO2 + CO2

4. Salt + acidic non-volatile oxide → Acid fly oxide + salt

Non-volatile acid oxides are displaced during the fusion of volatile acid oxides from their salts.

SiO2 + Caco3 → (T) Casio3 + CO2

P2O5 + Na2CO3 → (T) 2NA3PO4 + 3CO2

3SiO2 + Ca3 (PO4) 2 → (T) 3Casio3 + P2O5

5. Salt + base → base + salt

The reactions between the bases about the bases are ion exchange reactions. Therefore, under normal conditions, they proceed only in solutions (and salt and base must be soluble) and only under the condition that a precipitate or a weak electrolyte (H2O / NH4OH) is formed as a result of the exchange; Gaseous products in these reactions are not formed.

A. soluble base + soluble acidic salt → Medium salt + water

If the salt and base formed by different cations are formed two middle salts; In the case of acid salts of ammonium, excess alkali leads to the formation of ammonium hydroxide.

Ba (OH) 2 + BA (HCO3) → 2Baco3 + 2H2O

2KOH + 2NAHCO3 → Na2CO3 + K2CO3 + 2H2O

2NAOH + 2NH4HS → Na2S + (NH4) 2S + 2H2O

2NAOH (H2S + NH4HS → NA2S + NH4HS + H2O

B. soluble base + soluble average / main salt → insoluble salt ↓ + base

Soluble base + soluble average / main salt → Salt + insoluble base ↓

Soluble base + soluble average / main salt → Salt + weak electrolyte NH4OH

Soluble base + soluble average / main salt → Reaction does not go

The reaction between soluble bases and the average / main salt is only in the event that an insoluble salt is formed as a result of ion exchange, or an insoluble base, or a weak electrolyte NH4OH.

BA (OH) 2 + Na2SO4 → Baso4 ↓ + 2NAOH

2NH4OH + CUCL2 → 2NH4Cl + Cu (OH) 2 ↓

BA (OH) 2 + NH4CL → BACL2 + NH4OH

NaOH + KCL ≠

If the initial salt is formed by multi-acid base, with a shortage of alkali, the main salt is formed.

NaOH (Alcl3 → Al (OH) CL2 + NaCl

Under the action of alkalishes on silver and mercury salts (II), not AgOH and Hg (OH) 2, which decompose at room temperature, and insoluble AG2O and HGO oxides are distinguished.

2AGNO3 + 2NAOH → AG2O ↓ 2NanO3 + H2O

Hg (NO3) 2 + 2KOH → HGO ↓ + 2KNO3 + H2O

6. Salt + amphoterns Hydroxide → Reaction does not go

7. Salt + Acid → Acid + Salt

Mostly. Acid reactions with salts - ion exchange reactions, so they proceed in solutions and only if the salt or weaker and volatile acid is insoluble in acids are formed.

HCl + AGNO3 → AGCL ↓ + HNO3

2HBR + K2SIO3 → 2kbr + H2SIO3 ↓

2HNO3 + Na2CO3 → 2NanO3 + H2O + CO2

A. Acid1 + Salt more volatile / weak acid2 → Salt of acid1 + more volatile / weak acid2

Acids interact with solutions of salts of weaker or volatile acids. Regardless of the composition of the salt (medium, sour, basic), as a rule, an average salt and a weaker bat is formed.

2Ch3COOH + NA2S → 2Ch3Coona + H2S

HCl + NaHS → NaCl + H2S

B. Strong Acid + Salt of Strong / Medium Acid → Insoluble Salt ↓ + Acid

Strong acids interact with solutions of salts of other strong acids, if the insoluble salt is formed. The non-volatile H3RO4 (the acid of the middle strength) displaces the strong, but volatile hydrochloric nsl and nitric HNO3 acids from their salts under the condition of the formation of insoluble salt.

H2SO4 + CA (NO3) 2 → Caso4 ↓ + 2hnO3

2H3PO4 + 3CACL2 → CA3 (PO4) 2 ↓ + 6HCl

H3PO4 + 3AGNO3 → AG3PO4 ↓ + 3HNO3

V. Acid1 + Basic Acid Salt1 → Middle Salt + Water

Under the action of acid to the main salt of the same acid, the average salt and water is formed.

HCl + MG (OH) Cl → MgCl2 + H2O

Multi-Bed Acid1 + Medium / Acid Acid Salt1 → Acid Acid Salt1

Under the action of polypic acid on the average salt of the same acid, an acidic salt is formed, and an acid salt containing a greater number of hydrogen atoms is formed.

H3PO4 + CA3 (PO4) → 3CAHPO4

H3PO4 + CAHPO4 → CA (H2PO4) 2

CO2 + H2O + CACO3 → CA (HCO3) 2

D. Acid H2S + salt AG, CU, PB, CD, HG → AG2S / CUS / PBS / CDS / HGS ↓ + acid

Weak and volatile hydrogen sulfide acid H2S displaces strong acids from solutions of Ag, Cu, Pb, Cd and Hg salts, forming sulphide precipitation with them, insoluble not only in water, but also in the resulting acid.

H2S + CUSO4 → CUS ↓ + H2SO4

E. Acid + medium / complex salt with amphoteric II in anion → Medium salt + amphoteric hydroxide ↓

→ Middle Salt + Middle Salt + H2O

Under the action of acid per medium or complex salt with amphoteric metal in anion, salt is collapsed and formed:

a) in the event of a lack of acid - medium salt and amphoteric hydroxide

b) in case of an excess of acid - two medium salts and water

2HCl (Ned) + Na2ZnO2 → 2NACL + ZN (OH) 2 ↓

2hcl (week) + na2 → 2nacl + zn (OH) 2 ↓ + 2H2O

4HCl (Ham) + Na2ZnO2 → 2NACL + ZnCl2 + 2H2O

4HCl (Ham) + Na2 → 2NACL + ZnCl2 + 4H2O

It should be borne in mind that in some cases between acids and salts, the HSI or the complexation reaction proceeds. So, in the OVR enter:

H2SO4 conc. and I~ / BR~ (H2S and I2 / SO2 and BR2 products)

H2SO4 conc. and Fe² +. (SO2 and Fe³ products + )

Hno3 scan. / Conc. And Fe² + (NO / NO2 and Fe Products 3 + )

Hno3 scan. / Conc. and SO3²~ / S²~ (NO / NO2 products and sulfate / sulfate or sulfate)

HCl conc. and KMNO4 / K2Cr2O7 / KCLO3 (Gas products (Gas) and Mn² + / CR³ + / CL~.

J. Reaction proceeds without solvent

Sulfuric acid conc. + Salt (TV.) → SOLITY SOLE / Average + sour

Lacking acids can displace the volatile from their dry salts. Most often the interaction of concentrated sulfuric acid with dry salts of strong and weak acids is used, while acid and sour or medium salt is formed.

H2SO4 (CON) + NaCl (TV) → NaHSO4 + HCl

H2SO4 (CON) + 2NACL (TV) → Na2SO4 + 2HCl

H2SO4 (CON) + KNO3 (TV) → KHSO4 + HNO3

H2SO4 (CON) + CACO3 (TV) → Caso4 + CO2 + H2O

8. soluble salt + soluble salt → insoluble salt ↓ + salt

The reactions between the salts are exchange reactions. Therefore, under normal conditions, they proceed only if:

a) both soluble salts in water and taken in the form of solutions

b) As a result of the reaction, a precipitate or a weak electrolyte is formed (the latter is very rare).

AGNO3 + NaCl → AgCl ↓ + Nano3

If one of the initial salts is insoluble, the reaction is Only when, as a result, it is formed an even more unresolved salt. The criterion of "insolubility" is the magnitude of the PR (work of solubility), however, since its study goes beyond school Course., cases where one of the non-soluble salts is not considered.

If salt is formed in the exchange reaction, fully decomposed as a result of hydrolysis (in the solubility table at the site of such salts cost docking), the products of the hydrolysis of this salt becomes the reaction products.

Al2 (SO4) 3 + K2S ≠ AL2S3 ↓ + K2SO4

Al2 (SO4) 3 + K2S + 6H2O → 2AL (OH) 3 ↓ + 3H2S + K2SO4

FECL3 + 6KCN → K3 + 3KCL

AGI + 2KCN → K + Ki

AgBR + 2NA2S2O3 → Na3 + NaBr

Fe2 (SO4) 3 + 2ki → 2feso4 + i2 + k2SO4

NaCl + NaHSO4 → (T) Na2SO4 + HCl

The average salts sometimes interact with each other with the formation of complex salts. Between the salts there may be HSR. Some salts interact when fusing.

9. Salt less active metal + metal more active → Metal less active ↓ + salt

A more active metal displaces less active metal (worth the right to a row of voltage) from the solution of its salt, while the new salt is formed, and less active metal is released in free form (sedates on the active metal plate). Exception - alkaline and alkaline earth metals in the solution interact with water.

Salts with oxidative properties are in the solution with metals and in other redox reactions.

FESO4 + Zn → Fe ↓ + ZNSO4

ZNSO4 + FE ≠

Hg (NO3) 2 + Cu → Hg ↓ + Cu (NO3) 2

2FeCl3 + Fe → 3FeCl2

FECL3 + CU → FECL2 + CUCL2

HGCL2 + HG → HG2CL2

2CrCl3 + Zn → 2CrCl2 + ZnCl2

Metals can exhibit each other from salts from melts (the reaction is carried out without air access). At the same time it is necessary to remember that:

a) when melting, many salts decompose

b) A number of metals voltage determines the relative activity of metals only in aqueous solutions (for example, AlL in aqueous solutions is less active than alkaline earth metals, and in melts - more active)

K + AlCl3 (broom) → (t) 3KCl + Al

Mg + BEF2 (broom) → (T) MGF2 + BE

2Al + 3Cacl2 (broom) → (t) 2alCl3 + 3CA

10. Salt + Nemmetall

The reactions of salts with non-metals are few. These are oxidative reaction reactions.

5KCLO3 + 6P → (T) 5KCl + 3P2O5

2KCLO3 + 3S → (T) 2KCL + 2SO2

2KCLO3 + 3C → (T) 2KCL + 3CO2

More active halogens displacing less active salts of halogen hydrogen solutions. The exception is a molecular fluorine, which in solutions reacts not with salt, but with water.

2FeCl2 + CL2 → (T) 2feCl3

2NanO2 + O2 → 2Nano3

Na2SO3 + S → (T) Na2S2O3

Baso4 + 2C → (T) BAS + 2CO2

2KCLO3 + BR2 → (T) 2KBRO3 + CL2 (the same reaction is also characteristic of iodine)

2ki + BR2 → 2KBr + I2 ↓

2kbr + CL2 → 2KCL + BR2 ↓

2NAI + CL2 → 2NACL + I2 ↓

11. Salts decomposition.

Salt → (t) Thermal decomposition products

1. Nitric acid salts

The products of thermal decomposition of nitrates depend on the position of the metal cation in a row of metals.

MENO3 → (T) (for ME left MG (excluding Li)) MENO2 + O2

MENO3 → (T) (for ME from MG to Cu, as well as Li) MEO + NO2 + O2

MENO3 → (T) (for Me Ronate Cu) Me + No2 + O2

(With thermal decomposition of iron (II) / chromium nitrate (II), iron (III) / chromium (III) oxide is formed.

2. Salts ammonium

All ammonium salts are decomposable when calcining. Most often, ammonia NH3 and acid or its decomposition products are released.

NH4Cl → (T) NH3 + HCl (\u003d NH4BR, NH4I, (NH4) 2S)

(NH4) 3PO4 → (T) 3NH3 + H3PO4

(NH4) 2HPO4 → (T) 2NH3 + H3PO4

NH4H2PO4 → (T) NH3 + H3PO4

(NH4) 2CO3 → (T) 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O

NH4HCO3 → (T) NH3 + CO2 + H2O

Sometimes ammonium salts containing anions - oxidizers, decompose when heated with the release of N2, NO or N2O.

(NH4) CR2O7 → (T) N2 + CR2O3 + 4H2O

NH4NO3 → (T) N2O + 2H2O

2NH4NO3 → (T) N2 + 2NO + 4H2O

NH4NO2 → (T) N2 + 2H2O

2NH4MnO4 → (T) N2 + 2mnO2 + 4H2O

3. Salts of coalic acid

Almost all carbonates decompose to metal oxide and CO2. Carbonates alkali metals In addition to lithium, do not decompose when heated. Silver and mercury carbonates decompose to free metal.

Meco3 → (T) MEO + CO2

2AG2CO3 → (T) 4Ag + 2CO2 + O2

All bicarbonates decompose to the appropriate carbonate.

MEHCO3 → (T) Meco3 + CO2 + H2O

4. Salts of sulfuric acid

Sulfites with heating disproportionate, forming sulfide and sulfate. The sulphide (NH4) 2S3 sulfide (NH4) 2S3 sulfide (NH4) 2S3 is immediately decomposed on NH3 and H2S.

Meso3 → (T) Mes + Meso4

(NH4) 2SO3 → (T) 2NH3 + H2S + 3 (NH4) 2SO4

Hydrosulfite decompose to sulphites, SO2 and H2O.

MEHSO3 → (T) Meso3 + SO2 + H2O

5. Salt sulfuric acid

Many sulfates at T\u003e 700-800 s are decomposed to metal oxide and SO3, which at such a temperature decomposes to SO2 and O2. Alkaline metal sulfates heat-resistant. Sulfates of silver and mercury decompose to free metal. The hydrosulfates are decomposed first to disulfates, and then to sulfates.

2Caso4 → (T) 2CAO + 2SO2 + O2

2Fe2 (SO4) 3 → (T) 2Fe2O3 + 6SO2 + 3O2

2Feso4 → (T) Fe2O3 + SO3 + SO2

AG2SO4 → (T) 2AG + SO2 + O2

MEHSO4 → (T) MES2O7 + H2O

MES2O7 → (T) Meso4 + SO3

6. Complex salts

Hydroxocomplexes of amphoteric metals are decomposed mainly on the middle salt and water.

K → (t) kalo2 + 2H2O

Na2 → (T) Zno + 2NAOH + H2O

7. Basic salts

Many basic salts are decomposed when heated. The main salts of universal acids decompose into water and oxosoli

Al (OH) 2br → (T) ALOBR + H2O

2ALOHCL2 → (T) Al2OCl4 + H2O

2mgohcl → (T) MG2OCL2 + H2O

The main salts of oxygen-containing acids decompose on metal oxide and thermal decomposition products of the corresponding acid.

2ALOH (NO3) 2 → (t) Al2O3 + NO2 + 3O2 + H2O

(CuOH) 2CO3 → (T) 2CUO + H2O + CO2

8. Examples of thermal decomposition of other salts

4K2Cr2O7 → (T) 4K2CRO4 + 2CR2O3 + 3O2

2kmnO4 → (T) K2MNO4 + MNO2 + O2

KCLO4 → (T) KCL + O2

4KCLO3 → (T) KCL + 3KCLO4

2KCLO3 → (T) 2KCL + 3O2

2NAHS → (T) Na2S + H2S

2CAHPO4 → (T) CA2P2O7 + H2O

Ca (H2PO4) 2 → (t) Ca (PO3) 2 + 2H2O

2AGBR → (Hν) 2AG + BR2 (\u003d AGI)

Most of the presented material is taken from the benefit of deryabina N.E. "Chemistry. Basic classes inorganic substances". IPO" Nikitsky Gate "Moscow 2011.