Future king Alexander II.born on April 29 (April 17, in the old style) of 1818. From the very birth of the firstborn of the imperial couple Nikolai Pavlovich and Alexandra Fedorovna He was perceived as a potential throne, because the older brothers the king had no children. Therefore, special attention was paid to the education and education of the future emperor. The sacred history and the law of God taught him archpriest Gerasim Pavsky, arithmetic teach academician Collins, Military Basics - Colonel Karl Merder, and legislation - State Affairsist Mikhail Speransky. The teacher of the Russian language and the chief mentor of Alexander Nikolayevich, who was responsible for his training and education, was a post-adviser, poet Vasily Zhukovsky.

The main direction internal politicians Russia during the reigns of Alexander II became liberal reforms that were called "Great". In the 1860-70s, financial, Zemskaya, judicial, censorship, military reforms, the reforms of the Middle and higher education, urban self-government. Currently the transformations of peasant reform. March 3 (February 19, on the old style) of 1861, the emperor signed two documents: "Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom" and "Regulations on peasants coming out of the fortress dependence." According to them, the peasants stopped considered to be serfs and received the status of "temporary obligated". They were empowered by a seam site and wildlife, for the use of which the peasants had to serve the barbecine or pay the lifts for 49 years.

Also named Alexander II, Alaska is associated: the peninsula sold by the Emperor of the United States of America in 1867. This remote ownership is expensive, it was also believed that in the event of war it would be difficult to defend. Nevertheless, with Alexander II, Russia significantly expanded the boundaries, it was attached to it Central Asia, North Caucasus, Far East and Bessarabia.

The personal life of the king was always heard from contemporaries. In his youth, he often fell in love with Court Freinin, with some had stormy novels. One of the ladies of the heart of Alexander was young queen VictoriaWith which he met during a trip to London 1839. In 1841, the twenty-one-year-old heir to the throne marked with the seventeen-year-old princess of the Hessian house, who received the name in Orthodoxy Maria Alexandrovna. Being in marriage, the emperor continued to raise intrigues, and by the end of 1870, and at all began to live on two families, especially this is not hiding. Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova,the young lover of the king, together with their common excommunicable children lived in separate rest in the Winter Palace, next to the legal spouse Alexander II.

In July 1880, a few months after the death of Maria Alexandrovna, the emperor married Catherine. Wedding took place hastily until the end of the laid mourning. Alexander II wanted to crown his chief and make the heirs to the throne of their common children, but did not have time: their family happiness with a long-term launched less than a year. March 13 (March 1, on the old style) of 1881, the emperor died as a result of the next (sixth) attempt. The wound received from the bomb abandoned under his feet of the People Ignatiy Grinevitsky turned out to be fatal.

On March 3, 1855, Alexander II Nikolaevich entered the throne. In his first speech, before members of the Council, the new emperor said: "My unforgettable parent loved Russia and all his life was constantly thinking about only its benefits. In the permanent and daily works of him with me, he told me that I want to take everything unpleasant and everything was serious, just to give you Russia with it, happily and calm. Providence was judged differently, and the late sovereign, in the last hours of his life, I told me to give you my team, but unfortunately, not in such a manner, as I wished, leaving you a lot of works and worries. "

The first of the important steps was the end of the Bloody Crimean War of 1853-1856. Alexander II concluded the Paris Mirny Treaty in March 1856. When the external enemies stopped growing Russia, the emperor began to restore the country and began with reforms.

Great reforms Alexander II.

The abolition of military settlements in 1857.

IN early XIX. Century, in the era of wars with Napoleon, an offer arose to organize military settlements in the inner provinces in large sizes. This thought was put forward by Emperor Alexander I. He hoped that military settlements would replace reserve armies in Russia and would allow, if necessary, increase the number of troops in several times. Such settlements were given to the lower ranks to be able to stay among their families during the service and continue their agricultural classes, and to provide themselves with home and food.

But military settlements have long existed for long, bringing only losses of the treasury. After joining the throne of Emperor Alexander II, the Military settlements was sent to the Flygel Adjutant Dmitry Stolypin. Having traveled all settlements, Stolypin Donas the Emperor that the population of the districts heavily impoverished, many owners had no livestock, gardening had decayed, the construction of the districts required repair, and to ensure food troops, such a number of land was needed that the share of its own economy was left only uncomfortable areas. Both the local and the main authorities of military settlements came to be convinced that military settlements are unprofitable in material terms and do not reach the goal. In view of this, in 1857, military settlements and the districts of arable soldiers were abolished and transferred to the Office of the Ministry of Public Protection.

Cancellation of serfdom of 1861.

The first steps towards the restriction and further abolition of serfdom were made by Paul I in 1797 with the signing of the manifesto about the three-day Barechin, after Alexander I in 1803, with the signing of a decree of free blades, as well as Nikolai I, who continued the peasant politics of Alexander I.

The new government collected by Alexander II decided not only to continue this policy, but also to fully solve the peasant question. And on March 3, 1861, Alexander II has signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the provision on peasants emerging from the serfdom, consisting of 17 legislative acts.

• The peasants ceased to be considered serfs and began to be considered temporary obligated. The peasants received complete civil legal capacity in everything that did not apply to their special estate rights and duties - membership in the rural society and the ownership of the ruling earth.
• Peasant houses, buildings, all the movable property of the peasants was recognized by their personal property.
• The peasants received elected self-government, the lower economic unit of self-government was rural society, the highest administrative unit - the parish.
• The landowners retained the ownership of all those belonged to them, but they were obliged to provide the peasants to the peasants, and the field was put on. The land of the field put on the grounds were not personally provided to the peasants, but to the collective use of rural societies that could distribute them between the peasant farms at their discretion. The minimum size of the peasant naughty for each locality was established by law.
• For the use of a fallen earth, the peasants were supposed to serve the barbecia or pay the lifts and did not have the right to refuse her within 49 years.
• The dimensions of the field pouring and duties were to be recorded in the statutory certificates, which were compiled by landowners for each estate and were checked by world intermediaries.
• Rural societies were given the right to redeem the estate and by agreement with the landowner - Polevoy, after which all the obligations of the peasants stopped the landlord. The peasants who bought out put on, were called the lemars owners. The peasants could also refuse to redeem the right and get free from the landowner put on a quarter from the station, which they had the right to buy out. When endowed with free put on the temporary obligated condition also stopped.
• The state on preferential terms provided landowners financial guarantees for obtaining redemption payments by accepting them to pay themselves. Peasants, respectively, had to pay redemption payments to the state.

Many historians consider Alexander II reform incomplete and argue that she did not lead to the liberation of peasants, but only identified the mechanism of such liberation, and unfair. Myshkin: "The peasants saw that they were put on sand and swamps and some scattered blocks of the Earth, on which it is impossible to keep the economy when they saw that this was done with the permissation of state power when they saw that there was no such mysterious article of the law they assumed As guarding folk interests, they were convinced that they had nothing to count on the state power, that they could only count on themselves. "

"The liberation of the peasants (reading manifesta)." \u2060Boris Kustodiev. 1907

Financial reform.

Cancellation of serfdom created in Russia a new type of economy. Reforms began on May 22, 1862 with the introduction of "Rules on the preparation, review and execution of state painting and financial estimates of ministries and major departments." The first step was the introduction of the principle of publicity and the beginning of the publication of the state budget. In 1864-68, treasures were organized in the structure of the Ministry of Finance, administered all state revenues. In 1865, local financial self-government bodies were created - control chambers.

With the beginning of the reform, trade has changed. In order to eradicate corruption, the government decided to replace previously used fishing on excise stamps across alcohol and tobacco. Wine spill, income from which traditionally formed a lion's share of the budget was canceled. From now on, excise taxes could be obtained in special excise controls. The monetary reform of 1862 was postponed, since the state did not have enough gold and silver for the change of paper money. It was carried out only in 1895-97. Under the leadership of Sergey Witte.

Modernization was radically reorganized the state financial system, making it more open and more efficient. Strict accounting of the state budget set the economy to a new way of development, corruption decreased, the treasury was spent on important items and events, officials became more responsible for order of money. Thanks to the new system, the state could overcome the crisis and soften negative consequences peasant reform.

University reform.

In 1863, a university charter was adopted. The new charter provided universities more independence in the affairs of internal management and expanded the possibilities of local conditions for their development, created more favorable conditions for scientific and learning activities, increased the attractiveness of teaching work at universities for young people and contributed to the approval in the future at university departments of a sufficient number of qualified teachers, and also provided for a number of special measures to stimulate students to develop sciences. The workshop of the academic district belonged only to monitor the legality of the actions of the University Council. Students who studied at the University did not have the right to a corporate device, unauthorized persons were not at all allowed to visit lectures.

Military reform.

In 1860-1870, military reform was carried out. The main provisions of the reforms were developed by the Military Minister D. A. Milyutin. The result of the reform was:

• reducing the number of army by 40%;
• creating a network of military and UNCERSK schools, where representatives of all classes were taken;
• improvement of the military management system, the introduction of military districts, the creation of a headquarters;
• creation of vowels and competent military courts, military prosecutor's office;
• cancellation of corporal punishments (except for rods for special "fined") in the army;
• re-equipment of the army and fleet (the adoption of rifled steel guns, new rifles, etc.), reconstruction of state-owned military factories;
• introduction of universal military service in 1874 instead of a recruit set and reduced service life. According to a new law, all young people who have reached 20 years are called, but the government defines the necessary number of recruits each year, and only this number takes from conscripts to the lot, although no more than 20-25% of conscripts were used to serve. The only son of the parents was not subject to the call, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the elder brother of the recruit is serving or serving. The service taken to serve in it: in the ground forces of 15 years - 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in stock, in the fleet - 7 years of valid service and 3 years in stock. For those who received primary education The valid service period is reduced to the ages of 4, who have graduated from the city school - up to 3 years old, the gymnasium - up to one and a half years, and those who had a higher education - until six months.
• development and introduction of new military laws in the troops.

Urban reform was held. She served as a impetus for the trade and industrial development of cities, secured the system of urban public administration. One of the results of the reforms of Alexander II was the introduction of a society to civilian life. The basis for the new Russian political culture was laid.

As well as a judicial reform, which comprehensively reformed the judiciality and legal proceedings, and the Zemstvo reform, which provided for the creation of a local government system in rural areas - Zemstvo institutions.

Foreign policy.

In the reign of Alexander II, the expansion of the Russian Empire occurred. During this period, Central Asia was joined in Russia (in 1865-1881 in Russia, most of Turkestan entered), the North Caucasus, the Far East, Bessarabia, Batumi. Thanks to the prince Alexander Gorchakov, Russia restored its rights to the Black Sea, having achieved the abolition of the ban to keep his fleet there. The meaning of the accession of new territories, especially Central Asia, was incomprehensible to part of the Russian society. Saltykov-Shchedrin criticized the behavior of generals and officials who used the Central Asian War for personal enrichment, and M. N. Pokrovsky pointed out the meaninglessness of the conquest of Central Asia for Russia. These conquests wrapped in large human losses and material costs.

In 1867, Russian America (Alaska) was sold to the United States for 7.2 million dollars. In 1875, in St. Petersburg, a contract was concluded, on which Japan was transferred to all the Kuril Islands in exchange for Sakhalin. And Alaska and the Kuril Islands were distant overseas possessions, unprofitable from an economic point of view. In addition, they were difficult to defend. The concession for twenty years provided the neutrality of the United States and the Japanese empire in relation to the actions of Russia in the Far East and made it possible to free the necessary forces to consolidate the territories more suitable for living.

In 1858, Russia concluded the Aigun Treaty with China, and in 1860, the Peking Agreement, which was obtained by the extensive territories of Transbaikalia, Khabarovsk Territory, a significant part of Manchuria, including Primorye (Ussuriy Territory).

The attempts and death of Alexander II.

Alexander II had several attempted. On April 16, 1866, the Russian revolutionary Karakozov was a completely first attempt. When Alexander II headed from the gate of the summer garden to his carriage, he was shot. The bullet flew over the head of the emperor, who shot the peasant Osip Commissioners standing nearby, who saved the life of the emperor.

On May 25, 1867, an attempt was made by the Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky in Paris. The bullet pleased to the horse. April 14, 1879 in St. Petersburg. Russian revolutionary Solovyov made 5 shots from the revolver.

On December 1, 1879, an attempt was attempted to explode the imperial train near Moscow. Saved the emperor that the steam locomotive broke in Kharkov, who was half an hour before the royal. The king did not want to wait when they fix the broken locomotive and the royal train went first. Not knowing about this circumstance, terrorists missed the first composition, blowing up Ma under the fourth second car.

On February 17, 1880, Halturine was an explosion on the first floor of the Winter Palace. The emperor dined on the third floor, saved him that he arrived later than the appointed time, killed 11 people in the second floor.

On March 13, 1881, a deadly attempt occurred. The royal tuple turned from the engineering street to the embankment, heading towards theatrical bridge, Rysakov threw a bomb under the horses of the emperor. The explosion was injured and some people nearby were injured, but the emperor himself was not injured. A man who threw the shell was detained.

Life-Kucher Sergeyev, Rothmist Cullkin and Colonel Nerlaiski convinced the emperor as soon as possible to leave the place of attempt as soon as possible, but Alexander felt that Military dignity demanded to look at the wounded Circassians who were protected, and tell them a few words. After he approached the detained Rysakov and asked him about something, then he went back to the place of the explosion, and here the channel was standing at the grille and not noticed by the guard Grinevitsky threw the emperor to the emperor a bomb wrapped into a napkin.

The explosive wave dropped Alexander II to the ground, blood was whipped from crushed feet. The fallen emperor whispered: "Carry me to the palace ... there ... die ...". By order of the Grand Duke, Mikhail Nikolayevich, who arrived from the Mikhailovsky Palace of the Great Prince of the Emperor, was lucky in the Winter Palace.

The sovereign was made on their hands and put on the bed. Life Medic Botkin to the question of the heir, if the emperor will live for a long time, replied: "From 10 to 15 minutes." At 15 35 minutes, the imperial standard was launched on the flagpole of the Winter Palace, the imperial standard was launched, otoving the population of St. Petersburg on the death of Emperor Alexander II.

Emperor Alexander II on mortal app. Photo of S. Levitsky.

March 13 (March 1, in Article) - Memorial Day Tsar liberator Alexander II Nikolaevich who has become a victim of revolutionary terrorists on March 1, 1881.

He was born on April 17, 1818, in a bright Wednesday, in the bishop house of the miracle of the monastery in the Kremlin. His educator was the poet V.A. Zhukovsky, who instilled his romantic attitude towards life.

According to numerous testimonies, in the youthful age was very impressionable and in love. So, during a trip to London 1839, he had a mumbling in love with the young Queen Victoria (later, as the monarchs, mutual hostility and hostility were experiencing).

In 1837, Alexander made a great trip to Russia and visited 29 provinces of European part, Transcaucasia and Western Siberia, and in 1838-1839 visited Europe.

Alexander Never - nor in his youth, nor in mature years - did not adhere to any particular theory or concept in his views on the history of Russia and the tasks government controlled. For its general views, it was characterized by an idea of \u200b\u200bthe inviolability of the autocracy and the existing statehood of Russia as the whole of its unity, about the divine origin of the royal power. He confesses to his father, having familiarized himself with Russia in a trip: "I consider myself happy that God put all my life to dedicate to her". Having become a dealer, he identified himself with Russia, considering his role, his mission as serving the degree of dedication.

Personal life

Alexander II's personal life was unfortunately. In 1841, at the insistence of his father, he was married to the Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt Maximilian Wilhelmin August Sofia Mary (Maria Alexandrovna, († 1880). They had 7 children: Alexander, Nikolay, Alexander (future emperor Alexander III), Vladimir, Maria, Sergey, Paul (the first two died: Daughter in 1849, heir to the throne in 1865).

Spouse Tsar Maria Aleksandrovna

German by birth, Maria Alexandrovna was observed on his aristocratic. She did not love and did not respected Russia, she did not understand her husband and did not appreciate and engaged in the most embroidered or knit and knit and the gossip about the court romance, intrigues, weddings and funerals at the courtyards of Europe. Alexandra, such a wife did not satisfy. In 1866, he loved the princess to Catherine Dolgoruky († 1922), on which he married immediately after the death of the first spouse in 1880 by the Morganotic marriage (marriage between persons unequal, in which the spouse (or spouse) does not receive a lower position as a result of this marriage of the same high social status). He had 4 children from this marriage.

Beginning of reign

Alexander II entered the throne at the age of 36 years after the death of the father of Emperor Nikolai I 19 February 1855, the coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin on August 26, 1856 (Sacredness headed Metropolitan Moscow Filaret (Drozdov)). The full title of emperor sounded like emperor and autocrats All-Russian, King Polish and Grand Prince Finland. On the occasion of coronation, the sovereign declared the amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashesssemi, participants of the Polish uprising of 1830-31.

The introduction of Alexander II for the throne occurred under very serious circumstances. Finance were extremely upset by the unsuccessful Crimean War, during which Russia was in full international isolation (Russia opposed the connected forces of almost all the main European powers). The first of the important steps was conclusion of the Paris World (1856) - on the conditions that in the current situation were not the bad(In England, there were strong moods to continue the war to the complete defeat and dismemberment of the Russian Empire). Thanks to some diplomatic steps,Alexander II managedbreak through the foreign policy blockade of Russia. Representatives of seven powers (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered in Paris. Russia gave Sevastopol, but obliged the king not to start the fleet in the Black Sea. I had to take this condition, scary humiliating for Russia. The Paris World, although not profitable for Russia, was still honorable for her because of such numerous and strong opponents.

Alexander II reforms

Alexander II entered the story as a reformer and liberator (In connection with the abolition of serfdom on Manifesto on February 19, 1861). He canceled corporal punishment and forbade beat the soldiers with sticks. Before him, the soldiers served 25 years, soldier children from birth were credited to the soldiers. Alexander introduced a universal military service, spreading it to all nationalities, whereas only Russians served before.

State bank, loan cash registers, railways, telegraphs, government posts, plants, factories - everything appeared under Alexander II, as well as urban and rural folk schools.

In his reign was canceled serfdom (1861) . The liberation of the peasants served as the cause of the new Polish uprising in 1863. By converting Russia, Alexander put the cornerstone transformations to Russification of Okrain - Finland, Poland and the Baltic region.

Great reforms Alexander II

Estimates of some reforms of Alexander II contradictory. The liberal press called his reforms "Great." At the same time, a significant part of the population (part of the intelligentsia), as well as a number public figures That era adversely appreciated these reforms.

Foreign policy

In the reign of Alexander II, Russia returned to the policy of the All-time expansion of the Russian Empire, previously characteristic of the reign of Catherine II.

During this period, Central Asia, the North Caucasus, the Far East, Bessarabia, Batumi were joined in Russia. Victory in the Caucasian War was obsessed in the early years of his reign. Promotion in Central Asia has successfully over (in 1865-1881, most of Turkestan entered Russia).

On the eastern outskirts of Asia, Russia in the reign of Alexander II also made quite important acquisitions, besides in a peaceful way. According to Agreement with China (1857), the entire left bank of Amur was departed to Russia, and the Beijing Agreement (1860) provided us with part of the right bank between R. Ussuri, Korea and Sea. Since then, the rapid settlement of the Amur region began, one of the different settlements and even the city began to occur.

Under Alexandra II, the "Transaction of the Century" took place for the sale of Alaska. In 1867, the Government decided to abandon Russia's possessions in North America and sold Alaska (Russian America) to the United States for $ 7 million (By the way, the 3-storey building of the district court in New York was then more expensive than all Alaska).

In 1875, Japan had lost part of Sakhalin in return for the Kuril Islands that did not yet belong to Russia.

But his main achievement became the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which brought liberation to the Balkan peoples from Turkish yoke.

The Turks conquered the Balkan Peninsula, and all Christians were facing slavery. The Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, Croatians and Armenians were languid up 500 years old. They were all slaves. Their property and life belonged to the Turks. They were selected wives and daughters in the harem, sons in slavery. Finally, Bulgarians rebelled. Turks began to pacify them with fierce executions and torture. Alexander tried to achieve liberation peacefully, but in vain. Then Russia announced Turkey to war, and all Russians enthusiastically went to shed their blood for the Christian brothers. In 1877, the Balkan Slavs were released!

Growth of public discontent

Alexander II reign, despite liberal reforms, was not calm. The economic situation of the country has worsened: the industry struck the prolonged depression, there were several cases of mass hunger in the village.

Large sizes reached a shortage of foreign trade balance and state external debt (almost 6 billion rubles), which led to a disorder of monetary circulation and public finance.

The problem of corruption aggravated.

In Russian society, a split and acute social contradictions were formed, which reached their peak by the end of the reign.

Outcomes of the Berlin Congress of 1878 are usually attributed to other negative parties, exorbitant expenses in the war of 1877-1878, numerous peasant performances (in 1861-1863: more than 1150 speeches), large-scale nationalist uprisings in the kingdom of Polish and the North-West Territory (1863) and in the Caucasus (1877-1878).

Attempts

Under Alexandra II, a revolutionary movement has developed. Members of the revolutionary parties arranged several times at the king of the attempt.

Terrorists organized a real hunt for the sovereign. It was repeated for his life: Karakozov April 4, 1866 , Polish emigrant Berezovsky May 25, 1867 in Paris, Solovyov April 2, 1879 in St. Petersburg, an attempt to explode the imperial train near Moscow November 19, 1879 , explosion in the winter palace produced by Halturine February 5, 1880 .

According to rumors, in 1867, Paris Tsyganka rushed to the Russian Emperor Alexander II: "Your life will be in the balance of six times, but will not break, but in the seventh - death will overtake you."Prediction came true ...

Murder

March 1, 1881 - The last attempt on Alexander II, who led to his death.

On the eve, February 28 (Saturday of the first week of the Great Post), the emperor in the Small Church of the Winter Palace, along with some other family members, joined the Holy Taine.

Early in the morning of March 1, 1881, Alexander II left the Winter Palace in Manege, he was accompanied by a rather small security. He was present at the divorce of the guard and, having drove the tea from his cousin, great Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna, the emperor went back to the Winter Palace through the Catherine Canal. The attempted occurred when the Tsarskiywee went on the Ekaterini Canal embankment in St. Petersburg. The first bomb threw Nikolai Rysakov, but the king was not injured (it was the sixth unsuccessful attempt). He came out of the carriage and spoke with the pests, asking his name and title. At that moment, Ignatius Grinevitsky ran up to Alexander II and threw a bomb among himself and the king. Both were mortally wounded. The explosive wave dropped Alexander II to the ground, blood was very much bleeding from crushed feet. The fallen emperor whispered: "Take me to the palace ... there I want to die" .... Alexander II put in Sani, and sent to the palace. There, after a while, Alexander II, died.

In the hospital, before his death, Tsaryubita came to himself, but did not name his names. Rysakov was unharmed, immediately arrested and interrogated by investigators. Fearing the death sentence, a 19-year-old terrorist said everything that he knew, including giving out the whole core of the "People's Will". The arrests of the attempt organizers began. In the process of "First Armenian" Grinevitsky passed as a cat, Elnikov or Mikhail Ivanovich. Real surname King's killers became known only in soviet time. Oddly enough, this young man in life was not "weighing hell." Ignatius Ioahimovich Grinevitsky was born in the Minsk province in 1856 in the family of impoverished Polish nobleman. He successfully graduated from Belostok real gymnasium and in 1875 he entered Institute of Technology St. Petersburg. All his knew as a soft, modest, friendly man with a strong sense of justice. In the gymnasium Ignatius was one of the best disciples and there was a nickname cat, which then became his underground nickname. At the institute, he entered the revolutionary circle, was one of the organizers of the "Working Newspaper", the participant of "walking to the people". According to testimonies, Grinevitsky not only had a meek temper, but he was Catholic. With difficulty stacked in the head, as a believer Christian could go to murder. Obviously, he believed that autocracy in Russia is a great evil, for his destruction, all the means are good, and confessed conscious self-sacrifice with the willingness to give themselves "in the devil's hands." What was it? The greatest idea or just to remember the mind?

The death of the "liberator", killed by the pests on behalf of "liberated", seemed to many of the symbolic congestion of his reign, led from the point of view of the conservative part of society, to the ragleg of Nihilism. It is said that his death wanted half of Russia. The political figures of the right wing said that the emperor "in time" was killed: he would make a year or two, a catastrophe of Russia (autocracy wreck) would become inevitable.

Demons - So F.M. Dostoevsky called the revolutionaries-terrorists. In his last work, "Brothers Karamazov" Dostoevsky wanted to continue the topic "demons". Alesha Karamazova, almost saint, the writer planned to "make" a terrorist who ended with life on the scaffold! Dostoevsky is often referred to as a writer-prophet. Indeed, he not only predicted, but even described the future king's king: Alyosha Karamazov is very similar to Ignatia Grinevitsky. The writer did not survive before the murder of Alexander II - he died a month before the tragic event.

Despite the arrest and execution of all the leaders of the "People's Will", terrorist acts continued in the first 2-3 years of the reign of Alexander III.

The results of the reign of Alexander II

Alexander II left a deep mark in history, he managed to do what they were afraid to take another self-containers - the liberation of peasants from the serfs. We use his reforms to this day. During his reign, Russia firmly strengthened its relationship with European powers, allowed numerous conflicts with neighboring countries. The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable on their scale except with the reforms of Peter I. The tragic end of the emperor has greatly changed the further course of history, and it was this event that led Russia in 35 years to death, and Nikolai II to a martyr's wreath.

The views of modern historians on the era of Alexander II were subjected to sharp changes under the influence of the dominant ideology, and are not established.

Material prepared Sergey Shalyak

Alexander II Nikolaevich (Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov). Born on April 17, 1818 in Moscow - died 1 (13) March 1881 in St. Petersburg. Russian emperor 1855-1881 from the Romanov dynasty. A special epithet in historiography is awarded the liberator.

Alexander II - the eldest son first in high-road, and since 1825 the imperial couple of Nicholas I and Alexandra Fedorovna, the daughter of the Prussian King Friedrich-Wilhelm III.

Born on April 17, 1818, in a light Wednesday, at 11 o'clock in the morning in the Bishi House of the Monastery of the Kremlin, where the whole imperial surname, excluding the uncle of the newborn, Alexander I, who was in the inspection trip to the south of Russia, arrived at the beginning of April to show and meet Easter; In Moscow, there was a salute in 201 cannon volley. On May 5, the sacraments of the baptism and world formation were committed over the baby in the temple of the municipal monastery by Archbishop Moscow Augustine, in honor of which Maria Feodorovna was given a gala dinner.

The future emperor received a home education. His mentor (with the responsibility of supervision for the whole process of upbringing and education) was V.A. Zhukovsky, teacher of the Law of God and the Holy History - Archpriest Gerasim Pavsky (up to 1835), Military instructor - Karl Karlovich Merder, and also: MM Speransky (legislation), K. I. Arsenyev (statistics and history), E. F. Kankrin (Finance), F. I. Bronov ( foreign policy), Academician Collins (arithmetic), K. B. Trinius (Natural History).

According to numerous testimonies, in the youthful age was very impressionable and in love. So, during a trip to London, 1839 he had a mumbling, but strong, in love with the young Queen Victoria, which will later become the most unworthy ruler in Europe.

At the achievement of the age of April 22, 1834 (the day of the oath) heir-Cesarevich was introduced by his father to the main state institutions The Empire: in 1834 in the Senate, in 1835 it was introduced to the Holy Governing Synod, from 1841 member of the State Council, in 1842 - the Committee of Ministers.

In 1837, Alexander made a big journey through Russia and visited 29 provinces of European part, Transcaucasia and Western Siberia, and in 1838-39 visited Europe.

Military service at the future emperor passed quite successfully. In 1836, he already became a Major General, since 1844 a full general commanded by the Guards Infantry. From 1849 Alexander - Head military-educational institutions, Chairman of the Secret Committees in the peasant case of 1846 and 1848. During the Crimean War of 1853-56, with the announcement of the St. Petersburg province in the military commanded by all the troops of the capital.

In his life, Alexander did not adhere to any particular concept in views on the history of Russia and the task of public administration. Having entered the throne in 1855, he received a heavy heritage. None of the questions of the 30-year-old reign of his father (peasant, oriental, Polish, etc.) was not resolved, in Crimean war Russia suffered defeat.

The first of its important decisions was the conclusion of the Paris world in March 1856. In the socio-political life of the country came "Thaw". On the occasion of coronation in August 1856, he declared the amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevs, the participants of the Polish uprising of 1830-31, suspended the recruit sets for 3 years, and in 1857 eliminated military settlements.

Not being a reformer on calling and temperament, Alexander became him in response to the needs of the time as a person of sober mind and goodwill.

Realizing the priority importance of the decision of the peasant question, he had shown to cancel the serfdom for 4 years. Adhecking in the 1857-58 of the "Ostsey Option" of the landless liberation of the peasants, he at the end of 1858 agreed to the redemption of the peasants of the ridiculous land in the property, that is, the reform program developed by liberals, together with like-minded people from public figures (N. A. Milyutin , Ya. I. Rostovtsev, Yu. F. Samarin, V. A. Cherkasy; Led. KN. Elena Pavlovna, etc.).

From the speech of Emperor Alexander II at a meeting of the State Council on January 28, 1861: "... The case of the liberation of serfs peasants, which is submitted for consideration by the State Council, I consider the importance of my own, a vital issue for Russia, which will depend on its future development and Power ... Further expectation can only initiate passion and lead to the most harmful and distress consequences for the entire state in general and landlords in particular ... "

With its support, the 1964 Zemstvo and the city status were adopted, the judicial charters of 1864, military reforms of the 1860-70s, reforms national Education, censorship, cancellation of corporal punishment.

Alexander II confidently and successfully led traditional imperial politics. Victory in the Caucasian War was obsessed in the early years of his reign. Promotion in Central Asia has successfully over (in 1865-81, most of Turkestan entered Russia). After a long resistance, he decided on a war with Turkey 1877-78.

After the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-64 and the attempt by D. V. Karakozov on its life on April 4, 1866, Alexander II went on concessions to the shopping rate, expressed in appointment to higher state posts by D. A. Tolstoy, f. F. Trepova, P. A. Shuvalova.

In 1867, Alaska (Russian America) was sold to the United States. This gave almost 3% increase in total income Russian Empire for that year.

The reforms continued, but sluggish and inconsistently, almost all reform figures with a rare exception, received resignation. At the end of his reign, Alexander leaned towards the introduction of a limited public office in Russia under the State Council.

At Alexandra II, several attempts were made: D. V. Karakozov in 1866, Polish emigrant Anton Berezovsky on May 25, 1867 in Paris, A. K. Solovyovoy 2 April 1879 in St. Petersburg.

The Executive Committee of the People's Will "on August 26, 1879 decided to murder Alexander II (an attempt to explode the imperial train near Moscow on November 19, 1879, an explosion in the Winter Palace, produced by S. N. Halturine 5 (17) February 1880). For the protection of state order and combat revolutionary motion The Supreme Regulatory Commission was created. But it could not prevent the violent death of the emperor.

1 (13) Martha 1881 Alexander II was mortally wounded on the Ekaterininsky Canal embankment in St. Petersburg the bomb thrown by Peace Ignatius Grinevitsky. He died just that day when M. T. Loris-Melikova decided to give a constitutional project, saying his sons Alexander (future emperor) and Vladimir: "I do not hide from myself that we are going along the path of the Constitution."

First marriage (1841) with Maria Alexandrovna (07.07.1824 - 05.22.1880), in the princess of the Princess Maximilian-Wilhelmina-Tomb-Sophia-Maria Hesssen-Darmstadt.

Second, Morganatic, marriage on a long-standing (since 1866) Love of Dolgorukova, Catherine Mikheilovna (1847-1922), who received the title of the bright princess Yuryevskaya.

Alexander II's own capital amounted to about 12 million rubles as of March 1, 1881. (securities, Gosbank tickets, share of railway companies); From personal funds, he donated 1 million rubles in 1880. On the hospital device in memory of the empress.

Children from the first marriage:
Alexandra (1842-1849);
Nikolai (1843-1865) was brought up as the heir to the throne, died of inflammation of the lungs in Nice;
Alexander III (1845-1894) - Emperor of Russia in 1881-1894;
Vladimir (1847-1909);
Alexey (1850-1908);
Maria (1853-1920), Great Princess, Duchess of Great Britain and Germany;
Sergey (1857-1905);
Paul (1860-1919).

Alexander II entered the story as a reformer and liberator.

In his reign, serfdom was canceled, a universal military service was introduced, the Zemstvo was established, a judicial reform was conducted, the Caucasian mining is provided with the Caucasian Highlanders (which contributed to a large extent to the termination of the Caucasian War), and a number of other reforms were conducted.

The results of the Berlin Congress 1878 unprofitable for Russia are usually attributed to Russia; (1863) and in the Caucasus (1877-1878).

Biography

Alexander II Nikolaevich (April 17, 1818, Moscow - March 1, 1881, St. Petersburg) - Emperor All-Russian, King Polish and Grand Prince Finland (1855-1881) from the Romanov dynasty. The eldest son first is a grandnya, and from 1825 the imperial couple Nikolai Pavlovich and Alexandra Fedorovna.

Entered Russian history as a conductor of large-scale reforms. A special epithet in Russian pre-revolutionary and Bulgarian historiography is awarded (in connection with the abolition of serfdom on Manifesto on February 19, 1861 and the victory in the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878), respectively). He died as a result of a terrorist act organized by the secret organization "People's Volia".

Childhood, education and upbringing

17 (29) April 1818 was born at 11 am in the Church of the Monastery in the Kremlin bishops, where the whole imperial name arrived in early April for easter sends and meetings. Since the senior brothers Nikolai Pavlovich did not have sons, the baby was already perceived as a potential throne. On the occasion of his birth in Moscow, Salute was given in 201 a cannonal volley. Charlotte Liven on May 5 made a baby to the Cathedral of the miracle of the monastery, where the Moscow Archbishop of Augustine committed over the infant of the sacrament of baptism and world conjunction, in honor of which Maria Fedorovna was given a gala dinner. Alexander - The only native of Moscow, who was at the head of Russia since 1725.

Got a home education under a personal supervision of his parent, who paid the issue of raising the heir special attention. His "mentor" (with the responsibility of the management of the whole process of education and education and the commission to draw up a "exercise plan") and the teacher of the Russian language was V. A. Zhukovsky, the teacher of the Law of God and the Holy History - Enlightened by theologies of Archpriest Gerasim Pavsky (up to 1835), military Instructor - Captain K. K. Merder, as well as M. M. Speransky (legislation), K. I. Arsenyev (statistics and history), E. F. Kankin (Finance), F. I. Brunov (foreign policy), Academician E. D. Collins (Arithmetic), K. B. Trinius (Natural History).

According to numerous testimonies, in the youthful age was very impressionable and in love. So, during a trip to London, 1839 he had a mumbling in love with the young Queen Victoria (later as the monarchs they experienced mutual hostility and enmity).

Start of state activities

Upon reaching the age of majority on May 5, 1834 (the day of the oath) Heir-Cesarevich was introduced by his father to the main state institutes of the Empire: in 1834 in the Senate, in 1835 it was introduced to the Holy Governing Synod, from 1841 member of the State Council, in 1842 - Committee ministers.

In 1837, Alexander made a great trip to Russia and visited 29 provinces of European part, Transcaucasia and Western Siberia, and in 1838-1839 visited Europe. On these travels, he was accompanied by compatinals and the state adjutants A. V. Petkul and, partly, I. M. Wielgorsky.

Military service at the future emperor passed quite successfully. In 1836, he already became a Major General, since 1844 a full general commanded by the Guards Infantry. Since 1849, Alexander - Head of military schools, Chairman of the Secret Committees in the Peasant Cause of 1846 and 1848. During the Crimean War, 1853-1856 with the announcement of the St. Petersburg province on the military commanded by all the troops of the capital.

Zesarevich had the title of an adjutant general, was part of the main headquarters of his imperial majesty, was the Ataman of all the Cossack troops; It was listed as part of a number of elite regiments, including the Kavalegard, Life Guard of the equestrian, Kirassir, Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky, Izmailovsky. He was Chancellor of the University of Aleksandrovsky, a doctor of the University of Oxford, an honorary member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy, Society for the Promotion of Artists, St. Petersburg University.

The reign of Alexander II.

The country was a number of complex intra and foreign policy issues (peasant, oriental, polish and others); Finance was extremely upset by the unsuccessful Crimean War, during which Russia was in full international isolation.

According to the magazine of the State Council for February 19, 1855, in his first speech before members of the Council, the new emperor said, in particular: "My unforgettable parent loved Russia and all his life was constantly thinking about only her benefits. In the permanent and daily works of him with me, he told me: "I want to take everything unpleasant and everything is serious, just to give you Russia with it, happily and calm." Providence was judged differently, and the late sovereign, in the last hours of his life, told me: "I give you my team, but unfortunately, not in such a manner, as I wished, leaving you a lot of works and worries." "

The first of the important steps was the conclusion of the Paris world in March 1856 - on the conditions that were not the bad situations in the current situation (in England there were strong moods to continue the war to complete the defeat and dismemberment of the Russian Empire).

In the spring of 1856, he visited Helsingfors (Grand Principality Finland), where he made at the University and Senate, then Warsaw, where he called on the local to know "Leave dreams" (Fr. Pas de Rêveries), and Berlin, where he had a very important meeting for him with Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV (his mother's brother), with whom the "Dual Union" was secretly crossed, thus broke through the foreign policy blockade of Russia.

In the socio-political life of the country came "Thaw". On the occasion of the coronation held at the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin on August 26, 1856 (the sacred was headed by Metropolitan Moscow Filaret (Drozdov); The emperor was rented on the throne of King Ivan III from ivory), the highest manifesto was given benefits and relaxing a number of categories of subjects, in particular, Decembristians , Petrashevs, participants of the Polish uprising of 1830-1831; Suspended for 3 years recruit sets; In 1857, military settlements were eliminated.

Great reforms

The Board of Alexander II was marked by unprecedented reforms on the scale of "great reforms" in the pre-revolutionary literature. The main ones are as follows:

Liquidation of military settlements (1857)
Cancel of serfdom (1861)
Financial Reform (1863)
Higher Education Reform (1863)
Zemskaya I. Judicial reforms (1864)
Urban self-government reform (1870)
Reform of secondary education (1871)
Military Reform (1874)

These transformations have solved a number of long-haired socio-economic problems, cleared the road for the development of capitalism in Russia, expanded the boundaries of civil society and legal stateHowever, they were not fully brought.

By the end of the reign of Alexander II, under the influence of conservatives, some reforms (judicial, Zemskaya) were limited. The counter-reforms deployed by his successor Alexander III also touched upon the provisions of the peasant reform and reform of urban self-government.

National Politics

The new Polish national liberation uprising on the territory of the Kingdom of Polish, Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank of Ukraine broke out on January 22, 1863. In addition to Poles, there were many Belarusians and Lithuanians among the rebels. By May 1864, the uprising was suppressed by Russian troops. 128 people were executed for involvement in the uprising; 12 500 was expelled to other locations (some of them later raised the 1966 round-baikal uprising), 800 sent to Katorga.

The uprising has accelerated the holding of peasant reforms in the regions affected by them, while at more favorable conditions for the peasants than in the rest of Russia. Authorities have taken measures to develop elementary school In Lithuania and Belarus, expecting that the enlightenment of the peasantry in the Russian Orthodox spirit will affect the political and cultural reorientation of the population. Policy Russification measures have also been taken. In order to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church on the Poland's social life after the uprising, the royal government decided to translate in Orthodoxy to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church of the Ukrainians of Kholchschin. Sometimes these actions met resistance. Residents of the village of Pratulain refused. On January 24, 1874, believers gathered near the parish church in order to prevent the transfer of the church for the management of the Orthodox Church. After that, the soldier squad opened fire in people. 13 people died, who were canonized by the Catholic Church as the Pratulant Martyrs.

In the midst of the January uprising, the emperor approved the secret Valuevsky circular about the suspension of the printing in the Ukrainian language of literature religious, educational and intended for initial reading. "Only such works in this language, which belong to the field of graceful literature, were allowed to pass the censorship. In 1876, an Emian decree was followed to limit the use and teaching of the Ukrainian language in the Russian Empire.

Under Alexander II, significant changes have occurred regarding the trail of the somewar of the Jews. A number of decrees issued from 1859 to 1880, a significant part of the Jews received the right to unhindered to settle through the territory of Russia. As A. I. Solzhenitsyn writes, merchants, artisans, doctors, lawyers, graduates of universities, their families and staff, and, for example, "persons of free professions" received the right of free resettlement. And in 1880, by decree of the Minister of the Interior, it was allowed to leave for a residence outside the deferment of those Jews who settled illegally.

Reform autocracy

At the end of the reign of Alexander II, a draft creation of two bodies under the king was drawn up - the expansion of the already existing State Council (which included largely large nobles and officials) and the creation of a "General Commission" (Congress) with the possible participation of representatives from zeal, but mainly formed " appointment »Government. It was not about the constitutional monarchy, in which the Supreme Body is a democratically elected parliament (which was not planned and was not planned in Russia), but about the possible restriction of the autocratic power in favor of bodies with limited representation (although they were assumed that in the first stage they will be purely deliberative ). The authors of this "Constitutional Project" was the Minister of Internal Affairs of Loris-Melikov, who received emergency powers at the end of the reign of Alexander II, as well as the Minister of Finance Abaz and Military Minister Milyutin. Alexander II, shortly before his death, approved this plan, but he did not have time to discuss on the Council of Ministers, and on March 4, 1881 a discussion was scheduled, followed by entry into force (which did not take place due to the king of the king).

The discussion of this project of the autocracy reform was already under Alexander III, March 8, 1881. Although the overwhelming majority of ministers expressed "for", Alexander III accepted the point of view of Graph Stroganov ("Power will go from the hands of an autocratic monarch ... In the hands of different sallopayev thinking ... Only about His personal advantage ") and K. P. Pobedonossev (" It's not necessary to think about the establishment of a new taller, ... but about the case "). The final decision was fixed by a special manifesto on inviolability of autocracy, the project of which was prepared by victorious.

Economic development of the country

Since the beginning of the 1860s, an economic crisis has begun in the country that a number of economic historians binds Alexander II refusing from industrial protectionism and the transition to liberal policy in foreign trade (the historian P. Bairh sees one of the reasons for the transition to this policy in Russia defeated In the Crimean War). Liberal foreign trade policy continued after the introduction of the new customs tariff of 1868. Thus, it was estimated that, compared with 1841, import duties in 1868 decreased by an average of more than 10 times, and on some types of imports - even 20-40 times.

Certificate of slow industrial growth during this period can be the production of cast iron, the increase in which only slightly advanced growth of the population and marked noticeably from the indicators of other countries .. Contrary to goals, the declared peasant reform of 1861, yield in agriculture Countries did not increase until the 1880s, despite the rapid progress in other countries (USA, Western Europe), and the situation in this most important sector of the Russian economy also worsened.

The only industry, which was rapidly developed, was railway transport: the railway network in the country rapidly grew, which also stimulated their own locomotive and car buildings. However, the development of railways was accompanied by a variety of abuse and deterioration of the financial position of the state. Thus, the state guaranteed the full coverage of their expenses created by private railway companies and still maintaining subsidies of the guaranteed rate of profit. The result was huge budgetary expenses for maintaining private companies ..

Foreign policy

In the reign of Alexander II, Russia returned to the policy of the All-time expansion of the Russian Empire, previously characteristic of the reign of Catherine II. During this period, Central Asia, the North Caucasus, the Far East, Bessarabia, Batumi were joined in Russia. Victory in the Caucasian War was obsessed in the early years of his reign. Promotion in Central Asia has successfully over (in 1865-1881, most of Turkestan entered Russia). In 1871, thanks to A. M. Gorchakov, Russia restored its rights to the Black Sea, having achieved the abolition of the ban to keep his fleet there. In connection with the war in 1877, a major uprising occurred in Chechnya and Dagestan, which was cruelly suppressed.

After a long resistance, the emperor decided to war on the war with the Ottoman Empire of 1877-1878. According to the results of the war, he adopted Chin General Feldmarshal (April 30, 1878).

The meaning of the accession of some new territories, especially Central Asia, part of Russian society was incomprehensible. So, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin criticized the behavior of generals and officials who used the Central Asian War for personal enrichment, and M. N. Pokrovsky pointed out the meaninglessness of the conquest of Central Asia for Russia. Meanwhile, this conquest turned into large human losses and material costs.

In 1876-1877, Alexander II took a personal part in the conclusion of a secret agreement with Austria in connection with the Russian-Turkish war, which, according to some historians and diplomats, the second half of the XIX century, became the Berlin treatise (1878), which was included in domestic historiography As "flawed" in relation to the self-determination of the Balkan peoples (a substantially cutting the Bulgarian state and transferred to Bosnia-Herzegovina Austria). The criticism of contemporaries and historians caused examples of the unsuccessful "behavior" of the emperor and his brothers (great princes) at the theater of war.

In 1867, Alaska (Russian America) was sold to the United States for 7 million dollars (see Alaska for sale). In addition, the St. Petersburg Treaty of 1875 was concluded, according to which Japan passed all the Kuril Islands in exchange for Sakhalin.

And Alaska and the Kuril Islands were distant overseas possessions, unprofitable from an economic point of view. In addition, they were difficult to defend. The concession for twenty years provided the neutrality of the United States and the Japanese empire in relation to the actions of Russia in the Far East and made it possible to free the necessary forces to consolidate the territories more suitable for living.

In 1858, Russia concluded with China Aigun Treaty, and in 1860 the Beijing Agreement for which the extensive territories of Transbaikalia, the Khabarovsk Territory, a significant part of Manchuria, including Primorye ("Ussuriy Krai").

In 1859, Russian representatives founded the Palestinian Committee, which was later transformed into the Imperial Orthodox Palestinian Society (IPGO), and in 1861 the Russian spiritual mission appeared in Japan. To expand missionary activities, on June 29, 1872, the Department of the Aleutian Diocese in San Francisco (California) and the Diocese began to trade their care for all North America.

Refused annexation and Russian colonization of the northeastern shore of Papua - New Guinea, which Alexander II called on the well-known Russian traveler and researcher N. N. Miklukho-Maclay. Australia and Germany's indecision in this issue, Australia and Germany took advantage of this issue, soon divided the "Nezozny" territories of New Guinea and the adjacent islands.

Historian P. A. Zaisonchkovsky believed that the Government of Alexander II held a "Germanophile policy", which did not meet the interests of the country, which was contributed to the position of the monarch itself: "The awe in his uncle - the Prussian king, and later the German emperor Wilhelm I, he in every way promoted the formation of one Militarist Germany. " During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, "Georgievsky crosses were generously distributed by German officers, and the signs of the Order were soldiers, as if they were fighting for the interests of Russia."

The results of the Greek Plebiscitis

In 1862, after overthrowing in Greece as a result of the uprising of the ruling king of Ottone I (from the kind of Vittelsbach), the Greeks held a plain plebiscite at the end of the year. There were no ballots with candidates, so any citizen of Greece could offer his candidacy or the form of government in the country. The results were made public in February 1863.

Among those who entered the Greeks, Alexander II, he ranked third and scored less than 1 percent of the votes. The truth should be recognized that the representatives of the Russian, British and French reigning houses could not occupy the Greek throne according to the London Conference of 1832.

Growth of public discontent

In contrast to the previous reign, almost not marked with social protests, the era of Alexander II was characterized by the growth of public discontent. Along with a sharp increase in the number of peasant uprisings (see above), there are many protest groups among the intelligentsia and workers. In the 1860s, the Group S. Nechaeva, the circle of Zichevnevsky, the circle of Olshevsky, the circle of ishutin, the organization of the land and the will, a group of officers and students (Ivanitsky and others) who prepared the peasant uprising. In the same period, the first revolutionaries appeared (Peter Tkachev, Sergey Nechaev), who promoted the ideology of terrorism as a method of combating power. In 1866, the first attempt was made to kill Alexander II, in which D. Karakozov shot.

In the 1870s, these trends increased significantly. This period includes such protest groups and movements as a circle of Kursk Jacobinians, a chalk circle, a Circle of Perovsky, a circle of Dolgushinsev, Lavrov Groups and Bakunin, Circles of Dyakova, Syriakova, Seyanovsky, South Russian Union Workers, Kiev Commune, Northern Work Union, new organization Earth and will and a number of others. Most of these circles and groups until the end of the 1870s. Engaged in anti-government propaganda and agitation, only from the late 1870s. An explicit roll begins towards terrorist acts. In 1873-1874 2-3 thousand people, mainly from the number of intelligentsia, went to the countryside under the guise ordinary people In order to propaganda revolutionary ideas (so on. "Going to the people").

After the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 and the attempted D. V. Karakozov on his life on April 4, 1866, Alexander II went on concessions to the shopping rate, expressed in appointment to the highest state posts of Dmitry Tolstoy, Fedor Trepova, Peter Shuvalova, which led to tightening measures in the field of domestic policy.

The strengthening of repression by police bodies, especially with regard to "walking to the people" (the process of 193 of populists), caused a perturbation of the public and laid the beginning of terrorist activities, subsequently mastered. So, the attempted faith of the Zasulich in 1878 at the St. Petersburg city history of Trepov was undertaken in response to a bad appeal with the proceedings of the 193s. Despite the irrefutable evidence, testifying to the perfect attempt, the court of jury justified her, in the courtroom she was arranged ovation, and on the street she met an enthusiastic manifestation by the large mass of the public building.

Over the next years, attempts were organized:
1878: at the Kiev Prosecutor of Kotlyarevsky, on the gendarme officer of Gaying in Kiev, on the chief gendarmes Mezentsev in St. Petersburg;
1879: on the Kharkov governor of Prince Kropotkin, at the Rinstein police agent in Moscow, on the Hegent of the Gendarmes of the Draentelne in St. Petersburg
february 1880: A attempt was held at the "dictator" Loris-Melikova.
1878-1881: A series of attempts at Alexander II occurred.

By the end of his reign, protest sentiment spread among different layers of society, including the intelligentsia, part of the nobility and the army. A new rise in the peasant uprisings began in the village, and the factories began a mass strike movement. The head of the government of P. A. Valuev, giving the overall characteristics of moods in the country, wrote in 1879: "In general, in all the layers of the population, some kind of indefinite, which has developed all the displeasure is manifested. Everyone complains about something and seem to want and wait for change. "

The public hands-up to terrorists, the number of terrorist organizations themselves grew - so, the People's Volia, who sentenced the king to death, has numbered hundreds of active members. Hero of the Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878. And the war in Central Asia Commander-in-Chief of the Turkestan Army General Mikhail Skobelev at the end of the reign of Alexander showed a sharp discontent with his politics and even, according to evidence A. Koni and P. Kropotkin, expressed the intention to arrest tsarist seven. These and other facts gave rise to a version that the Skobeliev prepared a military coup in order to overthrow the Romanovs.

According to the historian P. A. Zayonchkovsky, the growth of protest sentiment and the explosion of terrorist activity caused "fear and confusion" in government circles. As one of the contemporaries, A. Planon wrote, "Only during an armed armed uprising, such a panic was there such a panic, which took possession of all in Russia in the late 70s and in the 80s. In all of Russia, everyone was swallowed in clubs, in hotels, on the streets and in the bazaars ... and both in the province and in St. Petersburg were all waiting for something unknown, but horrible, no one was sure of tomorrow. "

As historians indicate, against the background of the growth of political and social instability, the government has received new and new emergency measures: first the military courts were introduced, then in April 1879, temporary governor-generals were appointed in a number of cities, and finally, in February 1880 G. Dictatorship was introduced by Loris-Melikov (extreme authority), preserved before the end of the reign of Alexander II - first in the form of the chairman of the Supreme Regulatory Commission, then in the form of the Minister of the Interior and the actual head of the government.

Emperor B. last years Life was on the verge of nervous disorder. Chairman of the Committee of Ministers P. A. Valuev recorded in the diary on June 3, 1879: "The sovereign is tired and spoke of nervous irritation he himself, which he enhances hide. Crowned dilapidated. In the era, where it is necessary in it, it is obvious, it is impossible to count on it. "

Death and burial. Company reaction

1 (13) March 1881, at 3 hours 35 minutes in the afternoon, died in the Winter Palace due to the deadly injury received on the Ekaterini channel embankment (Petersburg) about 2 hours of 25 minutes in the afternoon on the same day - from the bomb explosion (the second during the attempted ), abandoned under his feet, Ignatiy Grinevitsky; He died that day, when M. T. Loris-Melikova was intended to approve. The attempt occurred when the Emperor returned after the military divorce in Mikhailovsky Manege, with Tea (second breakfast) in the Mikhailovsky Palace in the Grand Duchess of Catherine Mikhailovna; There was also attended grand Duke Mikhail Nikolayevich, who left a slightly later, having heard an explosion, and arrived shortly after the second explosion, gave orders and orders at the scene. On the eve, February 28 (Saturday of the first week of the Great Post), the emperor in the Small Church of the Winter Palace, along with some other family members, joined the Holy Taine.

On March 4, his body was transferred to the winning cathedral of the Winter Palace; March 7 was solemnly transferred to Peter and Paul Cathedral of St. Petersburg. The funeral on March 15 was headed by Metropolitan St. Petersburg Isidore (Nikolsky) in serving other members of His Holiness Synod and Song of the clergy.

The death of the "liberator", killed by the pests on behalf of "liberated", seemed to many symbolic congestion of his reign, led, from the point of view of the conservative part of society, to the ragleg of Nigilism; Special indignation caused the primitive policy of Count Loris-Melikova, who was considered as a puppet in the hands of Princess Yuryevskaya. The political figures of the right wing (among them Konstantin Victoronossev, Evgeny Feoktististov and Konstantin Leontyev) with a greater or less directness even said that the emperor "in time" died: he would make a year or two, the catastrophe of Russia (autocracy) would be inevitable.

Shortly before the designated Ober-prosecutor of the Sacred Synod K. P. Victoronians on the very day of the death of Alexander II wrote a new emperor: "God ordered us to survive the current terrible day. The exact Kara of God fell into unhappy Russia. I would like to hide my face, go under the ground to not see, do not feel, do not experience. God, have mercy with us. "

Rector of St. Petersburg Spiritual Academy Archpriest John Yanishev on March 2, 1881, before Panichidoy in St. Isaac's Cathedral, he said in his word: "The sovereign did not doubt only, but also killed in his own capital ... A martyr's crown for his sacred head of gossip in Russian land, In the environment of his subjects ... That's what makes the sorrow, our unbearable, the disease of the Russian and Christian heart is incurable, our immeasurable disaster is our eternal shame! "

Great Prince Alexander Mikhailovich, who was at a young age in Odra dying emperor and whose father was in the Mikhailovsky Palace on the day of the attempt, in the emigrant memories he wrote about his feelings in the following days: "At night, sitting on our beds, we continued to discuss the disaster passed Sunday and polled each other, what will happen next? The image of the late sovereign, leaning over the body of the wounded Cossack and not thinking about the possibility of a secondary attempt, did not leave us. We understood that something is incommensurable more than our loving uncle and courageous monarch went with him idle in the past. Idyllic Russia with the king-father and his loyal people ceased to exist on March 1, 1881. We understood that Russian King Never be able to relate to their subjects with limitless trust. Will not be able to forget the kingdom, fully surrendered to state affairs. The romantic traditions of the past and the idealistic understanding of the Russian autocracy in the spirit of Slavophiles - all this will be buried, together with the killed emperor, in the crypt Petropavlovsk Fortress. The last Sunday explosion was defeated by the former principles, and no one could deny that the future is not only the Russian Empire, but also on the whole world, it was now dependent on the outcome of an inevitable struggle between the new Russian king and the elements of denial and destruction. "

The editorial article of a special addition to the right-conservative newspaper "Rus" of March 4 was reading: "The king is killed! ... Russian king, in Russia, in his capital, brutal, barbaric, in front of everyone - Russian ... Shame, shame our country! Let the burning pain of shame and grief will penetrate our land out of the end to the end, and shudders in her horror, sorrow, anger of indignation every soul! Then the garbage that is so dangling, so brazenly oppresses the soul of the entire Russian people, there is no concession of our simple people, nor his old days, nor even novelty enlightened, - and the generation of the dark aspects of the St. Petersburg period of our history, apostasy from Russian nationality, treason Her legends, principles and ideals. "

In the emergency meeting of the Moscow City Duma, the following ruling was unanimously: "The event was made unheard of and terrifying: the Russian king, the liberator of the peoples, fell victory to the villains of villains among the multi-million dollar, unless the people devoted to him. Several people, cutting the gloom and Kramol, dare sacred by the Holy Hand to encroacitate the age-old legend of the Great Earth, to stain her story, the banner of which is Russian king. The Russian people shuddered with indignation and anger with a terrible event. "

In No. 65th (March 8, 1881), the official newspaper "St. Petersburg Vedomosti" was printed a "hot and outstanding article", which produced "Trouble in the St. Petersburg press". In the article, in particular, it was said: "Petersburg, standing on the outskirts of the state, tends to foreign elements. There was a nest and foreigners who are thirsty of the decomposition of Russia, and the figures of our outflows. [Petersburg] Polon Our own bureaucracy, which has long lost a sense of the people's pulse, somewhat in St. Petersburg, you can meet a lot of people, apparently and Russians, but who argue as the enemies of their homeland, as the traitors of their people. "

Antimonarchically tuned representative of the left wing of Cadetov V.P. Obninsky in its work "The Last Self-Customer" (1912 or later) wrote about the kingdom: "This act deeply stuck society and the people. For the killed sovereign, too outstanding merit was listed so that his death was held without reflex from the population. And such a reflex could have only the desire for the reaction. "

At the same time, the executive committee of the "People's Will" a few days after March 1 published a letter in which, along with the statement of "bringing to the execution of the sentence" of the king, was "ultimatum" by the new king, Alexander III: "If the government policy will not change The revolution will be inevitable. The government should express the folk will, and it is a usurpactor walker. " A similar statement that has become a famous public has made and arrested the leader of the "People's Will" by A. I. Zhelyabov during the interrogation of March 2. Despite the arrest and execution of all the leaders of the "People's Will", terrorist acts continued in the first 2-3 years of the reign of Alexander III.

On the same day, March, the Government's Government for Advanced Articles, "Explaining the Gnus Department of Recent Days," explaining the Gnus Departures of the Recent Days and as an entitler of the reaction to Russia on those from the advisers of the royal, Koi led to the reaction measures " In the following days, on the initiative of Loris-Melikov, the newspaper "Molva", "S.-Petersburg Vedomosti", "Order" and Smolensky Bulletin, who printed "harmful", from the point of view of government, articles were closed.

In his memoirs, the Azerbaijani Satir writer and the enlightener Jalil Mamedculus, who was at the time of the death of Alexander II schoolboy, as follows described the reaction of the local population to the murder of the emperor:
We were released at home. The bazaar and shops were closed. The people gathered in the mosque, and there was a compulsory paneir. Mollah rose to Minbean and became so painting the advantages and merit of the killed Padishah, which in the end he himself burst out and the praying caused tears. Then Marcia was read (English) Russian., And the mountain along the dead Padishah merged together with the grief in Imam - the Great Martyer, and the mosque was announced by heartbreaking screams.