Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook for universities. Concepts of modern natural science
Concepts of modern natural science. Karpenkov S.Kh.
6th ed., Pererab. and add. - M.: Higher. Shk., 2003. - 488 p.
The textbook is written in accordance with state educational standards (state 2000). It sets out the issues of naturally scientific knowledge of the surrounding world, the fundamental concepts, principles and laws of nature are presented, the actual problems of modern natural science, related to the study of natural processes and properties of the substance at the molecular level, are reflected natural-scientific aspects of energy, ecology and highlights of the most important achievements of natural science underlying modern high-tech technologies.
Designed for students of higher educational institutions. It can be interesting and useful to a wide circle of readers.
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Preface to the sixth edition
The first edition of the proposed book was published in 1997. It was one of the first textbooks dedicated to the discipline "Concept of Modern Natural Science", studied by students of higher educational institutions of socio-economic and humanitarian directions.
As new materials accumulated and the following editions are substantially refined, supplemented and corrected fixes and clarifications. When improving, many years of experience reading lectures and practical training at the State University of Management was taken into account. As a result, the textbook was improved and changed: the number of chapters from nineteen (in the first edition) to eleven (in later publications) was reduced, the outdated information was replaced with new ones, some sections were written again, etc. The sixth edition was significantly recycled and corrected.
In the proposed textbook in a compressed and accessible form, fundamental natural-scientific knowledge are presented, i.e. Knowledge of nature, which is needed by every educated person to not only tell the mystery, the power and beauty of nature, but also to understand what needs to be done to preserve the environment and live in harmony with nature.
When studying the concepts of modern natural science, it is useful to remember the instruction of the Russian publicist D.I. Pisareva (1840-1868): "We need to study at school, but much more needs to learn from school."
The book is designed for students of higher educational institutions of day, evening and correspondence forms of training in the specialties of the economy, jurisprudence, management, philosophy, sociology, ecology, management, marketing, merchant, tourism, business, finance, entrepreneurship, etc.
Preface ................................................... .................................................. .................. eight
Introduction ................................................... .................................................. ........... nine
Part I.. Natural science and modern world............................ 11
1. Natural science and the world ............................................ .....................13
1.1. Naturally scientific knowledge and modern education ................................ 13
1.2. The role of natural science in the formation of professional knowledge. . eighteen
1.3. Naturally scientific knowledge and management sphere ........................................... 23.
1.4. Fundamental and applied problems of natural science ................... 27
1.5. Natural science and mathematics ............................................... .................. 31
1.6. The development of natural science and pseudo-scientific trends ........................... 35
1.7. Natural science and morality ............................................... ........... 42.
1.8. Rational and irrational principles of knowledge ................................ 46
56
2. Naturally scientific knowledge of the surrounding world ..................................... 57
2.1. The process of natural scientific knowledge ............................................. . 57.
2.2. Forms of natural scientific knowledge ............................................. ... 62.
2.3. Methods and techniques of natural scientific research ......................... 70
2.4. Scientific discovery and proof .............................................. .................... 77.
2.5. Experiment - the basis of natural science .............................................. ... 82.
2.6. Modern funds of natural-scientific research ............. 85
2.7. The most important achievements of modern natural science ..................................... 90
Control questions................................................ .................................. 93
PART II. Fundamental laws and concepts of natural science
3. Fundamental principles and laws ............................................ ...................... 97
3.1. Physics - the fundamental industry of natural science ........................................ 97
3.2. Matter and movement, time and space ...................................... 104
3.3. The concept of an atomism. Discreteness and continuity of matter. . . 108.
3.4. Fundamental interactions ........................., ........................ ......... BY
3.5. The principle of relativity ................................. ................................... 116
3.6. Properties of space - time and laws of preservation .............................. 118
3.7. Fundamental laws of Newton ............................................... ......... 122.
3.8. Statistical and thermodynamic properties of macrosystem .... 125
3.9. Thermodynamic laws ................................................ ............................ 129.
3.10. Electromagnetic concept ................................................ ............................ 134.
3.11. Corpuscular wave properties of light ......................................................... ... 138.
Control questions................................................ ............................................ 143
4. Atomic in the nucleon levels of the structure of the mother.......................... 144
4.1. Atom structure ................................................ ................................... 144.
4.2. The corpuscular wave properties of microparticles ......................................................... 147
4.3. Probabilistic nature of microprocessions ............................................... ...... 150.
4.4. Modern atomic systems ............................................... ............... 153.
4.5. Nuclear processes ................................................ ........................................... 156.
4.6. Elementary particles................................................ ........................... 164.
4.7. Prospects for the development of microme physics .............................................. ........ 166.
169
Part III . Naturally scientific concepts of development. . . 171.
5. Development concept and evolution of the universe ........................................... ............. 173
5.1. Essence of the Development Concept ................................................. .......................... 173.
5.2. Evolution of the Universe .................................................. .............................. 176.
5.3. The structure of the universe ................................................ ...................................... 182.
5.4. Means of observation of objects of the universe ............................................ 185
5.5. The problem of searching for extraterrestrial civilizations .............................................. ........ 188.
5.6. Solar system - part of the universe ............................................. ............. 190.
5.7. Earth - Planet of the Solar System ............................................. ....... 195.
Control questions................................................ ........................................... 202
6. Naturally scientific knowledge about substance .................................................... 203
6.1. Development of chemical knowledge ............................................... .................. 203.
6.2. Synthesis of chemicals ............................................... ................... 207.
6.3. Modern catalysis ................................................ ............................. 212.
6.4. The formation of earth and extraterrestrial substances ........................................... 218
6.5. Natural stocks of raw materials ................................................. ........................ 220.
6.6. Organic raw materials ................................................ .............................. 227.
6.7. New chemical elements ............................................... .................. 234.
6.8. Perspective chemical processes ............................................... ... 238.
6.9. Modern materials ................................................ ........................ 243.
6.10. Perspective materials ................................................ ..................... 252.
Control questions................................................ .................................. 261
7. Biosphere levelorganizations Matters ............................................262
7.1. The birth of living matter ..................................................... ................... 262.
7.2. Carrier of genetic information ............................................... ............. 264.
7.3. Structure and function of proteins .............................................. .................. 269.
7.4. Building and varieties of cells .............................................. ................... 271.
7.5. The origin of life ................................................ .......................... 275
7.6. Background of evolutionary idea ..................................................... ......... 279.
7.7. Evolution of life ................................................ ............ .............................. 283.
7.8. Flora and fauna.............................................. ............... 294.
7.9. Man is a phenomenon of nature ................................................ .......................... 302.
7.10. Life support of a person ................................................ .......................... 310
7.11. Extending the life of the body ............................................... ........................... 321.
7.12. Formation of the noosphere ................................................ ..................... 327.
Control questions................................................ ........................................... 328
Part IV. . Naturally scientific foundations of modern technical
Nologii, Energy and Ecology ................................
329
8. Naturally scientific aspects of technologies ........................................... ..... 331
8.1. Development of information technology products ............................................. 331
8.2. Modern means of accumulation of information .................................... 337
8.3. Multimedia systems and virtual world ...................................... 342
8.4. Micro and nanoelectronic technologies ............................................. . 344.
8.5. Laser technology .................................................. ...................................... 352.
8.6. Modern biotechnologies .................................................. ................. 359.
8.7. Gene technologies ................................................ .......................................... 361.
8.8. The problem of cloning ................................................ .................................. 364.
366
9. Naturally scientific problems of modern energy .........................367
9.1. Energy - Source of Welfare .............................................. ............. 367.
9.2. Energy conversion .................................................. ...................... 369.
9.3. Efficiency of production and energy consumption .................................. 373
9.4. Thermal power plants .................................................. ............................. 375
9.5. Improving the efficiency of power systems ............................................ 376
9.6. Hydroistrices and geothermal energy sources ........................ 382
9.7. Helioenergy ................................................. ................................... 387.
9.8. Wind energy................................................ ........................................ 389.
9.9. Nuclear power................................................ ....................................... 392.
9.10. Features of the domestic energy ................................................. ....... 396.
Control questions................................................ ................................... 398
10. Naturally scientific aspects of ecology .......................................... 399
10.1. Global catastrophes and evolution of life .......................................... 399
10.2. Preventing environmental disasters ..................................................... 403
10.3. Natural catastrophes and climate .............................................. ............ 405
10.4. Greenhouse effect and acid precipitation ........................................... 412.
10.5. Preservation of the ozone layer ............................................... ........................... 416.
10.6. Water resources and their preservation ............................................. .......... 420.
10.7. Energy consumption and wiring of our habitat ............................. 422
10.8. Radioactive effect on the biosphere ............................................. 425
10.9.
Naturally scientific problems of environmental protection ....... 431
Control questions................................................ ...........................................434
11. Harmony of Nature and Man .................................................................... 435
11.1. Human and nature............................................... ................................... 435.
11.2. Preservation of natural resources ............................................... ........ 436.
11.3. Upgrading power systems ................................................ .................. 438.
11.4. Effective energy consumption ............................................... ..... 439.
11.5. Saving material resources ............................................... ...... 444.
11.6. Saving resources on transport .............................................. ....... 446.
11.7. Cities and Nature ................................................. ............................ 451.
11.8. Solving the problems of disposal ............................................... .............. 454.
11.9. Perspective technologies and the environment .............................. 459
11.10. Globalization of biosphere processes ................................................. 460.
Control questions................................................ ................................... 462
Conclusion ............................................................... .................................................. ....... 464.
Literature................................................. .................................................. ................ 465
Dictionary of Special Terms ............................................... .............................. 466.
Name pointer ................................................ .................................................. .......... 479.
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Stepan Karpenkov
Concepts of modern natural science
Preface to the twelfth edition
Dedicated to young people, obsessed with thirst for knowledge - a source of harmony and perfection
The proposed textbook along with other books of the author was awarded the high state award - the government awards of the Russian Federation in the field of education.
The past over fifteen years since the first edition (1997) showed that this textbook was useful and interesting for a wide range of readers and primarily for students of higher educational institutions, including certified specialists who have decided to receive the second higher education. This is evidenced by its multiple reprints.
The textbook on its content is interdisciplinary in nature: covers a wide range of knowledge about the nature necessary for each educated person. Such knowledge is the basic resource for the development of society, the creative power of humanity and an effective means of preserving the natural state of nature.
As a result of the study of the concepts of modern natural science, the student should know:
- the main provisions of the knowledge of the surrounding world;
- fundamental laws of nature;
- Naturally scientific concepts of development;
- Naturally scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology;
- ways to solve natural scientific problems;
- relying on natural-scientific knowledge, orient your practical activities on the preservation of the nature and its god of thes of their own resources;
- to provide all-effective assistance in solving natural scientific issues;
keep the skills
- practical application of knowledge of nature as a basic resource for the development of the economy;
- organization of work in the harmonious combination of nature and man;
be competent:
- in solving the practical tasks of preserving the biosphere and rescue life on Earth.
Multiple publications of the proposed textbook were processed, complemented and changed. Compared to the first of the last edition - essentially a new book with didactic elements, relevant to state educational standards. All of her chapters include new information and the latest natural scientific achievements.
The textbook is intended for students of higher educational institutions studying in the areas and specialties of management, economics, jurisprudence, tourism, entrepreneurship, business, ecology, sociology, etc., day, evening and correspondence forms of training.
From the preface to the seventh edition
As new materials accumulated and the following editions are substantially refined, supplemented and corrected fixes and clarifications. When finalizing, many years of experience reading lectures and practical studies of students of various specialties took into account. As a result, the textbook was improved and modified: the number of chapters from nineteen (in the first edition) to eleven (in later editions) was reduced, the outdated information was replaced with new ones, some sections were written again, etc. The seventh edition was recycled and corrected.
In the pages of the book, precious grains, collected for thousands of years with many generations of naturalists and containing the most necessary, guiding, without which it is impossible to start any creative work.
The concepts of modern natural science are the most important link connecting natural-scientific and humanitarian knowledge and strengthening the fundamental base of all forms of education.
In the modern world, economic, environmental and spiritual and moral crises are rapidly approaching. The exit of them is quite possible, if in every person living on our planet, will awaken the will to naturally scientific and spiritual and moral truth and if every person will bring his own, albeit a small, but accompanied contribution to solving this complex, global problem. This book will help to find your own way of knowledge of truth.
When studying the concepts of modern natural science, it is useful to remember the instruction of the Russian publicist D.I. Pisareva (1840-1868): "We need to study at school, but much more needs to learn from school."
From the preface to the fifth edition
The proposed fifth edition of this textbook has been redesigned and compared with the previous one contains new information about the latest most important achievements in the field of natural science.
The textbook consists of four parts. In Part I, the practical significance of natural science in modern society is substantiated and the main provisions of the natural science knowledge of the surrounding world are considered. Part II set out the fundamental laws and concepts of natural science. Part III is devoted to the natural and scientific concepts of development of processes in nature. Part IV, natural-scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology are considered.
The material of the textbook is set out within the framework of concepts - fundamental ideas and system approaches - and is presented in a visual and accessible form.
From the preface to the first edition
In modern society, much attention is paid not only to various industries, but also rapidly developing high-tech technologies, energy and ecology. Fundamental concepts of natural science and natural science basics of modern technologies, energy and ecology are dedicated to a real textbook.
It consists of five parts in which the main issues provided for by government educational standards are consistently outlined to study the discipline of the "Concept of Modern Natural Science" in higher educational institutions.
The textbook is written at the level of concepts of natural scientific problems, i.e., taking into account the fundamental ideas, systems of views on the issues studied. In the presentation of the material used well-known terms and simple mathematical formulas, reflecting the fundamental laws of nature. Naturally, the scientific essence of the coveted issues is presented in an affordable form for a wide range of readers.
The book is designed for students of higher educational institutions of day, evening and correspondence forms of teaching economic, legal, philosophical and other humanitarian specialties.
Introduction
Finally I give your hand to truly useful science.
Horace
Every person, starting from early age, is distinguished by curiosity - a natural desire to know the world around. "Curiosity to akin to man and enlightened, and wilderness," said an outstanding Russian historian and writer N.M. Karamzin (1766- 1826). With age, unconscious curiosity gradually develops into curiosity - a conscious desire to know the laws that are managed by nature, learn how to apply them in their work activities, providing its implications. The laws of nature and methods of their application reflect the concentrated experience of humanity. Relying on him, a person is able to protect himself from mistakes, and it is easier for it to achieve the desired goals. The concentrated experience of humanity underlies the basis of any educational process.
Natural science is a single system of sciences on laws, phenomena and properties of nature objects, including many industries - natural sciences.
The most important achievements of natural science constitute a fundamental base of modern high-tech technologies for the production of various products, including goods of everyday demand. In order to know which price is given such products - the most important component of the economy, what are the prospects for the development of modern technologies, closely related to economic, social and political problems, need fundamental knowledge about nature - natural-scientific knowledge. Nowadays, natural-scientific knowledge has become the scope of active actions and represent the basic resource of the economy, in its importance superior material resources: capital, land, labor, etc. Naturally scientific knowledge and based on them. Modern technologies form a new image Life and a highly educated person cannot distance themselves from the fundamental knowledge of the world around the world, not risking to be helpless in professional activities. "Without natural sciences there is no salvation with a modern person; Without this healthy food, without this strict education of thought by facts, without this intimacy to the world around us, "a Russian writer and philosopher A.I. gave such a high assessment of natural-scientific knowledge. Herzen (1812-1879).
If we present in detail the natural-scientific knowledge accumulated in all sectors of natural science, it will turn out a huge folio, maybe the necessary, but little useful even for specialists of a natural-scientific profile, not to mention specialists of humanitarian and socio-economic directions. The objective of the presentation becomes more complicated by the fact that his form should be accessible to students whose future professional activity is not directly related to natural science. To solve this problem, we need a generalizing philosophical principle. The essence is in the presentation of natural-scientific knowledge within the framework of concepts - fundamental ideas and systemic approach. The conceptual principle allows students to get fundamental, comprehensive knowledge of nature, and based on them more deeply examine the highly specialized disciplines.
Modern natural sciences make it possible to explore many of the most complicated processes at the level of atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules, cells, and then synthesize the substances that have not previously existed in nature with unusual properties, and from them produce new materials for various machines, devices, products, etc. P. In addition, thanks to such research, high-yielding cultivated plants are grown, highly efficient means of treating diseases are developed, etc.
Any promising direction of human activity is directly or indirectly connected with the new material base and new technologies, and the knowledge of their natural-scientific essence is the key to success. Without fundamental knowledge of nature, an erroneous public opinion may arise, leading to a biased decision, as happened, for example, with an unreasonable announcement of the temporary (1975-1985) moratorium on genine engineering. Consequently, natural-scientific knowledge is needed not only to highly qualified specialists, but also any educated person, regardless of its area of \u200b\u200bactivity.
In pursuit of material values, modern humanity has already beyond the sustainable state of the biosphere, which includes all living together with the habitat. This means that as a result of the invasion of civilization in nature, a steady equilibrium has already been impaired, which for a long time provides a circulation of substances. Destructive natural phenomena for the past decade are reminded: hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, droughts, - causing huge material damage and accompanied by an increasing number of human victims.
The transformation of the modern consumer society to the spiritually developed enlightened society is the task is extremely difficult. It can be solved, only developing the entire education system by the general forces of educated people, for whom a guide star is not a luxury, not on and other seductive idols, but the kingdom of good, freedom and truth. Noble, but the thorny path to such a kingdom begins with raising love in early childhood, when the spiritual and moral basis is laid for the learning of knowledge at all levels of training, and continues throughout every life of every person.
Knowledge do not come by themselves. It is necessary to work hard, diligently learn. "We must learn without shaming, but not taking careless," said the famous Thinker Vasily Great in the distant times (approx. 330- 379), and only in this case can be hoped for success.
Part I Natural Science and Modern World
Learn, my son: Science reduces the experiments of a fast-growing life ...
A.S. Pushkin
For us, science natural science is the same lever that is the only way to turn the whole world to the Sun.
M. Gorky
As a result of the study of part I, the student should know:
- the object and subject to study the discipline "Concept of modern natural science";
- modern natural scientific problems;
- the main provisions of natural scientific knowledge;
- Apply your knowledge when solving problems of conservation of nature;
keep the skills
- careful attitude towards nature in any practical man.
1. Natural science and world
1.1. Naturally scientific knowledge and educationHistory of development of knowledge about nature. Throughout the history of the development of society, the basis of education was knowledge of nature, knowledge of man and knowledge of society. Obviously, these three components of education are interconnected: nature spawned a person, and people make up society. According to the outstanding Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), "Human Personality, Human Society and Nature of the country - these are the three main forces that build a human hostel ... The ideal of the historical education of the people consists in the full and slim development of all elements of the hostel and in such a ratio in which each The element is developing and acting in the measure of its normal value in the social composition, without bringing itself and not inactive others. "
The long history of the development of civilization shows that not always the named elements of different in the form and the content of educational systems were in full compliance and accounted for harmonious unity. So, in the ancient times of knowledge about nature - natural-scientific knowledge - we wore a descriptive, speculative, naturalophilosophical character. The focus was paid to the knowledge of a person.
Ancient Greek thinker Socrates (approx. 470-399 BC) believed that the main function of knowledge is self-knowledge and intellectual, moral, human spiritual growth. His contemporary, ancient Greek philosopher Protagor (approx. 480-410 BC), argued that the purpose of the knowledge is to make human activity more successful and fruitful. However, both philosophers did not belong to knowledge - a direct path to skills and skills. You could master this or that craft in those times could have been from a master or accumulating your own experience. Up until the beginning of the XVIII century. In English, the concept of "craft" was expressed by the word Mystery, meaning the sacrament, and not only because the secret of one or another craft gave an oath to not disclose secrets, but also because the craft was not available for a person who did not pass the masters and who did not take In practice, his experience.
In Russia already in the XIV century. There was a unique community of free masters, known for the name "Artel". Unlike such communities in the West, the Artel in Russian Earth was not only and not so much by the commercial unification of the masters of a narrow profile in a modern sense, but rather the communion of the united people who professed Orthodoxy and who complied with the laws of freedom and justice. Being a kind of form of social work, the Artel set the rules of life and influenced the nature and behavior of everyone, rewarding the affairs of him and the affairs of the surrounding. The advantages of man were estimated primarily to belong to a particular nature of masters.
Narget technologies.With the development of natural-scientific knowledge, when starting from the XVIII century. The first fundamental laws of nature opened with their subsequent practical application, the concept of "technology" appeared. It comes from the words techne - art, craft and logos - the concept, the doctrine that together means organized, systematized, targeted knowledge.
Educational institutions were created to study technologies. The first of them is a school of bridges and roads - based in France in 1747; The school of agriculture was followed in 1770 and the mining school in 1776 (both in Germany). In 1794, the Higher Educational Institution was opened in France - Polytechnic University. It was the first University of Technical Profile on the preparation of engineers. In previous higher educational institutions, for example, in the oldest in Europe, Bologna University, open in 1088 in Italy, studied non-technical and unnatural sciences: mathematics, logic, philosophy, etc. In the future, medical practice was also transformed into a systematic scientific knowledge. .
Entry into science and the comprehension of technologies in Russia was determined by the peculiarities of its nature and economic life together with the warehouse of the nature and mind of Velikorsov, which, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, "Thought and act, how to go; It seems that you can come up with Krivee and winding the Great Russian Costloda? Exactly snake wasp. And try to go straight: only feed and go out on the same winding path. " And at the same time, "no people in Europe are capable of such a labor tension for a short time, which can develop Velikorsos."
In the considered few chronicles and arches of ancient Russia, the phenomena of nature were described: solar and lunar eclipses, northern lights, comet movement and meteorites fall, thunderstorms, storms, floods; The technical nature of the technical nature of the types and apparatus of weapons, the construction of fortresses and churches, about casting bells and guns, about hourly mechanisms, about the construction of bridges, etc., the astronomical phenomena is marked with "great accuracy". Time brought to us the name of the first Russian scientist, astronomer and mathematician Kirik Novgorod, who wrote in 1136 the scientific treatise "The teaching of them is also to see a person of the number of all years," there is no analogue in either ancient Russian, nor in Byzantine, nor in South Slavic literature. Feudal fragmentation, Tatar-Mongol invasion and other factors constrained the development of culture, science and education in Russia. If in Europe after the invention, I. Gutenberg (1399-1468) multiplied the printing houses and books were published in Latin, then in Russia, at the time, the newly established their typography, founded by Ivan Fedorov (approx. 1510-1583), released in 1564 . The first Russian printed book "Apostle". A radical fracture in the development of science, education and culture in Russia has come under Peter I (1672-1725).
As natural-scientific knowledge develops in the West, and above all in the UK, the invention began to be introduced, and the craft of masters ceased to be the sacrament and secret. The edition of the first "encyclopedia", compiled in 1751-1780, climbed to technologies from crafts. Denis Didro (1713-1784), Jean d'Alumber (1717-1783) and others. In this greatest fundamental work, information about many types of crafts was presented in an organized and systematic formation, which made it possible to get specialized knowledge without being hired into the disciples. Scientific articles for "Encyclopedia" wrote outstanding scientists of that time - Voltaire (1694-1778), Rousseau (1712-1778) and others.
The first technical schools and "encyclopedia" solved the most important task for the development of science and technologies - they made together, were systematized and made the general wealth of knowledge, skills and secrets of various crafts transmitted earlier in oral form from generation to generation for many centuries and even thousands of years. Practical experience they transformed into professional knowledge, practical training - in textbooks, secrets - to the methodology, and concrete actions - in applied sciences. All this contributed to the development of science, technology and industrial production.
Universality education."Three paths lead to knowledge: the way of reflections is the path is the most noble, the path of imitation is the easiest way, the path of experience is the most bitter," said the Ancient Chinese Thief of Confucius (OK. 551-479 BC). Without a doubt, it was always that all the knowledge of knowledge has always developed. However, if the path of reflections prevailed in ancient times, the experience, experiment and practice - the most difficult, but the effective way of knowledge of the surrounding world, leading to the development of natural-scientific knowledge, and with them specialized, industry sciences in the last centuries Specific results, useful not only to the person, but also society. The fact that is now taken to consider true knowledge, constantly proves its practical significance and is checked by experience, in practice.
In a modern generalized presentation of knowledge, this is information that has practical value. Recently, in many countries there has been a transition to the economy based on the movement of not only traditional material resources and goods, but also new ideas and sectoral knowledge that make up information resources. At the same time, information technologies play a decisive role. Thanks to their implementation, for example, in the United States, the annual increase in the internal gross product is more than 30%, or about $ 600 billion, and in this indicator the information industry is ahead of the aviation and automotive industry.
However, an unsystematic approach to mass consumption of information and its excessiveness generate information chaos, which depends on many factors and, above all, from the education system. By time, the desire for narrow specialization, multi-consistency in medium and higher schools, the oversaturation of curricula, computer addiction and other "innovations" lead to the fact that not only teachers and teachers, but also their students are future specialists from different industries - like the builders of the Babylonian Tower cease to understand each other. At the same time, the versatility and latitude of education are gradually lost. Redundancy, excessive information structuring and with them information chaos is disgusted with knowledge and, as a result, cause panic and give rise to ignorance. "Society, driven by panic, disgusted with knowledge and is looking for salvation in ignorance," Russian writer M.Ye said rightly Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889). With the loss of universality and latitude of education, it is possible to assimilate the practical knowledge necessary for the development of new technologies.
In the past century, the withdrawal of natural-scientific and humanitarian knowledge was obviously began to manifest itself, and a huge abyss formed between them, which was still in the 50s of the XX century. Started English writer Charles Snow (1905-1980). In his opinion, society cannot survive without knowing the house where he lives, or without knowledge about the world around - without natural-scientific knowledge. However, such practically significant knowledge in domestic education in recent decades does not pay due attention from the state that defines the preference to mass humanitarian education. Any society, cooling off from natural scientific knowledge, cannot agree on its actions with the fundamental laws of nature and especially if it loses spiritual and moral landmarks. This thought can be continued by the words of Holiness Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexy II (1929-2008): "I am convinced: no matter how humanity has increased for the past century in his own eyes, he needs to take again at the school desk. It is necessary to study again that people have lost their own power and pride over the years, to learn humility, the ability to ascetic to limit their desires, obedience to the will of God, moral lifestyles. Otherwise, all the achievements of science and technology will turn their strength against us, and the Babylonian tower of human power falls, the burial of its builders under the wreckage. The most difficult for each of us will be the work is not external, but internal. The gospel advises us to reverse the eyes inwardly. "
To understand the need for versatility and the fundamentalities of modern education, based on knowledge of nature, a person and society, many researchers came both in Russia and in other countries. They came in different ways and from various considerations. And they offer to solve this problem in different ways: some see the exit in humanitarianization of natural-scientific and technical education, while others are as necessary for teaching natural scientific foundations for students of humanitarian areas and specialties. At the same time, those and others come to a common opinion: the purpose of the study of all disciplines is the same - to ensure the future of human existence in the biosphere. However, a clearly indicated goal does not determine the means of achieving it. Indeed, the amount of information necessary for study is extremely large. It is quite a challenged question: can I explore it? And after him and another question: how to study it? It turns out that it is possible if you use a conceptual principle to study the subject within the framework of fundamental ideas and a systematic approach. This fundamental principle of education is not only the subject of discussions, but also by management to action when the subject is studied.
Education at the turn of the Millennium.Due to the increasing anthropogenic effect on the biosphere and the exacerbation of the environmental problem, modern natural-scientific education becomes an effective means of mastering knowledge not only to solve many scientific and technological tasks, but also to protect the environment for the sake of rescue life on our planet.
Over the course of many centuries, the education system is constantly improved and in our time allows for a shorter period to obtain a significantly greater volume of knowledge that is constantly growing. If in the 1870s the volume of knowledge of all mankind increased by about twice as early as a decade, in the 1980s in the 1980s, in the 1990s each year, then at the beginning of this century such a period decreased to several months.
The development of education is the most important task of any state and humanity as a whole. In many countries, enlightened authorities are aware of the investment of funds in education - intellectual potential is a profitable investment type. However, the education system in different countries is funded in different ways. For example, the annual expenses for the training of one student account for $ 18.57 thousand, Denmark - 11.60, Spain - 6.03, and in Mexico - only 5.30 thousand dollars.
The rapid increase in the volume of new knowledge, subject to exponential pattern, requires an increase in learning efficiency and increase its duration. Currently, the average duration of training is 15 years in Europe, in North America - 14 years old, in South America - 13 years old, in Asia - 9.2 years, in Africa - 7 years and around the world - on average 10 years. It is assumed that in the coming decades, the duration of the training required for a highly qualified specialist will come close by 18 years. Despite the widespread education, it covers not all population of the globe even at the initial level. According to the UN statistics, today there are about 3.5 billion people in the world to read and write, which is about 3 times more than 40 years ago. At the same time, approximately 900 million adults do not know how to read or write, and two thirds of them are women. The level of illiteracy of the adult population in many developing countries is more than 50%: in Nigeria - 80%, in Mali - 73%, in Iraq, Ethiopia and Bangladesh - 60%, in Pakistan - 58%.
Every year, since 1990, all over the world, the number of children enrolled in school increases by about 10 million, and today they are about 700 million. At the same time, more than 100 million school-age children have no opportunity to sit at school desk . Ensuring universal primary education is one of the priority tasks formulated in the UN Millennium Declaration.
Education issues were discussed in 2006 at the G8 Summit in St. Petersburg, where decisions were made on international cooperation, aimed at improving the quality of national education and on its accessibility for wide segments of the population.
Only through a perfect education system, including spiritual-o-moral education, modern society will be able to preserve the natural environment and ensure the further development of civilization.
Fruits of domestic education. Without plunging into the debris of the history of Russian education, it is possible to unmistakably assert that the education system tried to reform at all times, although it was not always necessary in this. There was no need to reform education in recent decades. Indeed, with all the flaws of the former social device and the utopicity of the communist ideology, a system of education, which allowed to receive good knowledge to everyone, was established in our country.
Hasty, failure reforms started in our country in the 1990s and continuing until now under the sign of democratization, liberalization, humanization and other modernization, led not only to the massive impoverishment of the Russian people and enrich the small group of deltsi, free from conscience, but also To the sharp drop in the level of education, which is now in the direction of ministerial officials is called the quality of education. At the same time, the policy of qualitative education has become a policies of complete delusion. As a result, knowledge depreciated. Lost the respect and honor of the teacher and teachers. Their wages decreased dramatically. The various forms of paid "educational" services bloom in a lush, under the guise of which many managers of so-called educational institutions are gaining, and teachers receive a beggar salary. Pupils stopped listening to teachers and parents, and students are teachers. Sometimes terrible crimes are committed: teachers and teachers seeking to give the most expensive knowledge, become a victim of aggression of their badly educated students.
The precious time of young people began to absorb various films and stages with the show of intimate relationships, computer games and, especially, the Internet with inexhaustible seductive services. Children have become more actively manifested by hidden abilities to write and draw on house facades, on the walls of schools and on the desks. Some schools and universities became pritone of drug addicts. Smoking and even alcohol, to which children are involved in early childhood are involved. And the result, as they say, did not slow down to wait: a lot of entertainment has become available for children and adolescents, where youth foaming takes place under the guise of cultural recreation, and many passing people are good, arranging homework, where all the means are good: and powerful audio Both video equipment and drugs, and alcohol.
Judging by the definition of education given in the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" (Education is education and training in the interests of man, society and the state), the education process includes an important component - education. A good formation can only grow on fertile soil with strengthened education by spiritual and moral landmarks.
Modern Natural science
Edition second,
corrected and supplemented
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
as a textbook
for university students
publishing house
"Academic Project" 2000
Reviewers:
department of Philosophy of the Financial Academy
under the Government of the Russian Federation
(Head. Department of Prof. M.V. Valoan)
and laureate of the USSR State Prize
in the field of science and technology, Dr. Tehn. science
prof. V.A. Shakhov
Karpenkov S.Kh.
K26 Concept of modern natural science: Textbook for universities. - M.: Academic Project, 2000. Ed. 2nd, copy. and add. - 639 p.
ISBN 5-8291-0085-1
The textbook is written in accordance with the State Educational Standard. It contains fundamental principles, laws, concepts and the most important achievements of natural science, as well as the natural and scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology.
For university students. It can be interesting and useful to a wide circle of readers.
UDC50
BBK 20.
ISBN 5-8291-0085-1
© Karpenkov SK, 2000
© Academic project, originality
layout, clearance, 2000
Dedicated to all those who
i would like to tell the mysteries,
power and beauty
nature.
Preface
In modern society, much attention is paid not only to various industries, but also rapidly developing high-tech technologies, energy and ecology. Fundamental concepts of natural science and natural science basics of modern technologies, energy and ecology are dedicated to a real textbook.
The textbook consists of four parts. In Part I, the practical significance of natural science in modern society is substantiated and the main provisions of the natural science knowledge of the surrounding world are considered. Part II set out the fundamental laws and concepts of natural science. Part III is devoted to the natural and scientific concepts of development of processes in nature. Part IV, natural-scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology are considered.
The material of the textbook is set out at the level of concepts, i.e. Given the fundamental ideas and systems of views on the natural-scientific issues. With the presentation of the material, mathematical expressions, formulas and terms are used. Naturally, the scientific essence of the issues under consideration is presented in a visual and accessible high school form.
The textbook is written in accordance with the contents of the author's teaching manuals: "The main concepts of modern natural science" (UNITY, 1998) and "Concept of Modern Natural Science: Workshop" (UNITY, 1998), - and also taking into account corrections, changes and additions to the material set forth in previously published tutorial of the author "Concept of Modern Natural Science" (UNITY, 1997).
When studying the concepts of modern natural science, it is useful to remember the wise instruction of the Russian publicist Dmitry Pisareva (1840-1868): "We must learn at school, but much more needs to learn from school."
The book is intended for students of higher educational institutions of day, evening and correspondence forms of learning economic, legal, philosophical, as well as specialties and specializations of management, sociology, technology, management, marketing, merchant, tourism, business, finance, entrepreneurship, etc.
Concepts of modern natural science
Year: 2000, 2003, 2009
Author: Karpenkov S.Kh.
Genre: Training edition
Publishing house: Knorus
ISBN.: 978-5-390-00316-9
Language: Russian
Format: 2000 - Doc, 2003-PDF, 2009 - DJVU
Quality: Scanned Pages
Number of pages: 672
Description: The textbook is written in accordance with government educational standards. It sets out questions of the natural science knowledge of the surrounding world, the fundamental concepts, principles and laws of nature, considered the current problems of modern natural science, related to the study of natural processes and the properties of the substance at the molecular level, are reflected naturally scientific aspects of energy, ecology and highlights the most important achievements of natural science underlying At the heart of modern high-tech technologies.
For university students. It can be interesting and useful to a wide circle of readers.
Examples of pages 11 publications
Click to close the spoiler: Examples of pages 11 editions
Preface to the eleventh edition .......................... 3
From the preface to the tenth edition ................................ 3
From the preface to the seventh edition ................................ 4
From the preface to the first edition .................................. 5
Introduction ................................................... ............................. 6.
Part 1
Natural science and modern world
Chapter 1.
Natural science and world
1.1. Naturally scientific knowledge
and modern education ................... 11
1.2. Structure and development of natural science .......... 20
1.3. Sustainable development and natural-scientific education ............................... 25
1.4. The role of natural science in the formation of professional knowledge ................... 35
1.5. Naturally scientific knowledge and management sphere .............................. 38
1.6. Fundamental and applied problems of natural science ............................. 43
1.7. Natural science and mathematics ................. 49
1.8. The development of natural science and pseudo-scientific tendencies ................................. 55
1.9. Natural science and morality .............. 62
1.10. The rational and irrational principle of knowledge .................................. 68
Control questions ........................... 81
Chapter 2.
Naturally scientific knowledge of the surrounding world
2.1. The process of natural scientific knowledge ........ 84
2.2. Forms of natural scientific knowledge ......... 96
2.3. Methods and techniques of natural scientific research .............................. 105
2.4. Scientific discovery and proof ............ 113
2.5. Experiment - the basis of natural science .......... 119
2.6. Modern funds of natural-scientific research .............................. 121
2.7. The most important achievements of modern natural science ............................. 126
Control questions ........................... 131
Part II.
Fundamental laws and concepts of natural science
Chapter 3.
Fundamental laws and principles
3.1. Physics - the fundamental industry of natural science ............................. 135
3.2. Mattery and movement, time and space ..... 144
3.3. The concept of an atomism. Discreteness
And the continuity of matter .................... 149
3.4. Fundamental interactions ............. 151
3.5. The principle of relativity .................... 159
3.6. Space Properties
and the laws of conservation ........................ 161
3.7. Fundamental laws of Newton ............ 165
3.8. Statistical and thermodynamic
Properties of macrosystem ....................... 169
3.9. Thermodynamic laws .................. 173
3.10. Electromagnetic concept ................ 178
3.11. Corpuscular wave properties of light ........ 183
Control questions ........................... 189
Chapter 4.
Atomic and nucleon levels of the structure of matter
4.1. The structure of atoms ........................... 192
4.2. Corpus-wave properties of microparticles.195
4.3. Probabilistic character of microprocessions ....... 198
4.4. Modern atomic systems ................ 203
4.5. Nuclear processes .......... ................ 206
4.6. Elementary particles ...................... 215
4.7. Prospects for the development of microme physics ...... 217
Control questions ........................... 221
Part III Naturally Scientific Development Concepts Chapter 5.
Development and Evolution of the Universe
5.1. Essence of the Development Concept ................ 225
5.2. Evolution of the Universe ........................ 229
5.3. The structure of the universe. ....................... 236.
5.4. Means of observation of objects of the universe ....... 239
5.5. The problem of searching for extraterrestrial civilizations ...... 242
5.6. Solar system - part of the universe .......... 245
5.7. Earth - Planet of the Solar System ........... 252
Control questions ........................... 260
Chapter 6.
Naturally scientific knowledge about substance
6.1. Development of chemical knowledge ................. 262
6.2. Synthesis of chemicals .................. 267
6.3. Modern catalysis ....................... 272
6.4. The formation of earth and extraterrestrial substances ...... 279
6.5. Natural stocks of raw materials ..................... 282
6.6. Organic raw materials ......................... 290
6.7. New chemical elements .................. 299
6.8. Perspective chemical processes .......... 304
6.9. Modern materials ..................... 310
6.10. Perspective materials ................... 321
Control questions ........................... 331
Chapter 7.
Biospheric level of matter
7.1. Narget of living matter .................. 334
7.2. Carrier of genetic information ........... 337
7.3. Structure and function of proteins .................. 342
7.4. Building and varieties of cells .............. 345
7.5. The origin of life ....................... 350
7.6. Background of evolutionary idea ............. 360
7.7. Evolution of life ........................... 366
7.8. Vegetable and animal world ................ 382
7.9. Man - Phenomenon of Nature .................. 393
7.10. Human life support .................. 402
7.11. Extension of the life of the body .................. 415
7.12. Formation of the noosphere ..................... 421
Control questions ........................... 423
Part IV.
Naturally scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology
Chapter 8.
Natural and scientific aspects of technology
8.1. Development of information technology products..427
8.2. Modern means of accumulation of information. .434.
8.3. Alternative computers ................. 440
8.4. Multimedia systems and virtual world. . .447.
8.5. Microelectronic technologies ............... 450
8.6. Nanotechnology ............................ 456.
8.7. Laser technology ........................ 462
8.8. Rocket and space technology .............. 470
8.9. Modern biotechnology .................. 473
8.10. Gene technologies .......................... 476
8.11. The problem of cloning ..................... 479
Control questions ........................... 481
Chapter 9.
Naturally scientific problems of modern energy
9.1. Energy - a source of welfare ............ 484
9.2. Energy conversion ..................... 487
9.3. Production efficiency
and energy consumption ....................... 492
9.4. Thermal power plants .................... 493
9.5. Improving the efficiency of power systems ....... 495
9.6. Hydroid and geothermal
Energy sources .......................... 503
9.7. Helioenergy ............................ 510.
9.8. Wind energy .............................. 513
9.9. Nuclear power ......................... 516
9.10. Features of domestic energy ......... 524
Control questions ........................... 527
Chapter 10.
Naturally scientific aspects of ecology
10.1. Global catastrophes and evolution of life ..... 529
10.2. Preventing environmental catastrophe ..... 533
10.3. Natural catastrophes and climate .............. 536
10.4. Greenhouse effect and acidic precipitation ....... 544
10.5. Preservation of the ozone layer ................... 550
10.6. Water resources and their preservation .............. 554
10.7. Energy consumption and our habitat. . .557.
10.8. The impact of radiation on the biosphere ........... 560
10.9. Naturally scientific aspects of environmental protection ......................... 570
Control questions ........................... 575
Chapter 11.
Harmony of Nature and Man
11.1. Biosphere limits .......................... 577
11.2. Preservation of natural resources .............. 584
11.3. Energy savings .................... 588
11.4. Saving resources in transport .............. 595
11.5. Cities and Nature ........................... 600
11.6. Solving the problems of recycling ................. 604
11.7. Globalization of biosphere processes ........... 610
11.8. To development through education ................. 614
Control questions ........................... 623
Conclusion ..................................... 625
Dictionary of Special Terms ...................... 628
Name pointer ................................... 649
List of references ................................ 665
All books of the author: Karpenkov S. (2)
Karpenkov S. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook for universities
Introduction .. 4.
Part I. Natural Science and Modern World .. 6
Chapter I. Natural Science and the world 6
1.1. The role of natural science in the formation of professional knowledge 6
1.2. Natural science in a changing world ... 10
1.3. Fundamental and applied problems of natural science ... 12
1.4. Natural science and mathematics ... 14
1.5. Development of natural science and anti-scientific trends 16
1.6. Natural science and morality ... 19
1.7. Rational and real picture of the world .. 22
1.8. Naturally scientific and religious knowledge. 24.
Control questions . 28.
Chapter II. Naturally scientific knowledge of the surrounding world 29
2.1. Naturally scientific knowledge - the process of comprehending the truth ... 29
2.2. Forms of natural scientific knowledge. 32.
2.4. Scientific discovery and proof 41
2.5. Experiment - the basis of natural science 44
2.6. Modern funds of natural scientific research ... 49
2.7. The most important achievements of modern natural science 52
Control questions . 55.
Part II. Fundamental laws and concepts of natural science. 56.
Chapter 3. Fundamental principles and laws ... 56
3.1. Physics - the fundamental industry of natural science .. 56
3.2. The concept of atomism and universality of physical laws. 61.
3.3. Fundamental interactions. 63.
3.4. Concepts of matter, movement, space and time .. 66
3.5. The principle of relativity and invariance ... 69
3.6. Properties of space, time and conservation laws 71
3.7. Fundamental laws of Newton 73
3.8. Statistical and thermodynamic properties macrosystem 75
3.9. Thermodynamic laws. 78.
3.10. Electromagnetic concept 80.
3.11. Vaccular wave properties of light. 83.
Control questions . 87.
Chapter 4. Atomic and Nucleon Levels of the Organization of Matter ... 87
4.1. Evolution of ideas about the structure of atoms ... 87
4.2. Bohr's postulates .. 89
4.3. The corpuscular wave properties of microparticles. 90.
4.4. Probabilistic character of microprocessions .. 92
4.5. Elementary particles 93.
4.6. The structure of the atomic nucleus ... 95
4.7. Nuclear processes 97.
4.8. Prospects for the development of microworld physics ... 100
Control questions ... 103
Part III. Naturally Scientific Development Concepts 103
Chapter 5. Concepts of development and evolution of the Universe. 103.
5.1. Essence of the Development Concept .. 103
5.2. Evolution of the Universe .. 106
5.3. Structure of the Universe .. 109
5.4. Means of observation of the objects of the Universe .. 111
5.5. The problem of finding extraterrestrial civilizations .. 113
5.6. Solar system - part of the universe .. 114
5.7. Earth - Planet Solar System 118
Control questions .. 123
Chapter 6. Evolution of Natural Scientific Knowledge of Substance 123
6.1. Development of chemical knowledge. 123.
6.2. Chemical proceedings. 127.
6.3. Synthesis of chemicals ... 128
6.4. Modern catalysis. 131.
6.5. The formation of earth and extraterrestrial substances .. 135
6.6. Natural stocks of raw materials 136
6.7. Organic raw materials 141.
6.8. New chemical elements and isotopes ... 146
6.9. Perspective chemical processes .. 149
6.10. Synthetic materials 153.
6.11. Traditional materials with new properties 158
6.12. Perspective materials ... 162
Control questions ... 171
Chapter 7. Biosphere Level of the Organization of Matter 172
7.1. Fundamental life systems. 172.
7.2. Equilibrium biochemical processes. 173.
7.3. Media genetic information. 174.
7.4. Genetic properties 176.
7.5. Proteins - the base of living systems. 179.
7.6. The structure and variety of cells. 181.
7.7. Modern idea of \u200b\u200bthe origin of life ... 183
7.8. 197 Evolutionary Idea Backgrounds
7.9. Evolution of life. 189.
7.10. Vegetable and animal world ... 197
7.11. Man is a phenomenon of nature. 203.
7.12. Life support person 206.
7.13. Extension of the body's life 213
7.14. Formation of the noosphere. 217.
Control questions ... 218
Part IV. Naturally scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology. 219.
Chapter 8. Concepts for the development of modern technologies and energy. 219.
1.1. Development of technical means of information technology 219
8.2. Modern means of accumulation of information 223
8.3. Multimedia systems and virtual world ... 228
8.4. Micro and nanoelectronic technology 230
8.5. Laser technology .. 236
8. 6. Modern biotechnology 241
8.7. Gene technologies .. 242
8. 8. Cloning problems ... 244
Control questions ... 245
Chapter 9. Naturally Scientific Energy Problems .. 246
9.1. Modern view of energy .. 246
9. 2. Conversion and energy consumption .. 248
9.3. Efficiency of production of energy consumption 250
9.4. Thermal power plants .. 251
9.5. ... 255
9.7 Helioenergy ... 258
9.8 Wind Energy 260
9.9. Nuclear power. 262.
9.10. Features of the development of domestic energy 266
9.11. Energy of the World Ocean 267
9.12. Energy of the future. 269.
Control questions ... 269
Chapter 10. Naturally Scientific Aspects of Ecology .. 270
10.1. Global catastrophes and evolution of life ... 270
10.2. Biosphere and prevention of environmental disasters .. 272
10.Z. Natural catastrophes and climate. 275.
10.4. Greenhouse affect and acid precipitation 279
10.5. Saving the ozone layer .. 281
10.6. Water resources and conservation problems .. 283
10.7. Consumption of aerygia and our habitat. 285.
10.8. Radioactive effect on the biosphere 286
10.9. Naturally scientific problems of environmental protection .. 291
Control questions ... 292
Chapter 11. Harmony of Labor Activities of People and Nature .. 293
11.1. Upgrading power systems 293.
11.2. Industry, Motor Transportation and Environment 294
11.3. Cities and Nature ... 297
11.4. Solving disposal problems .. 300
11.5. Prospective materials, technology and environment .. 304
Control questions ... 306
Conclusion .. 307.
Dictionary of Special Terms ... 307
Name pointer ... 317
ConceptsModern Natural science
Edition second,
corrected and supplemented
publishing house
"Academic Project" 2000
UDC50
BBK 20.
To 26.
Reviewers:
department of Philosophy of the Financial Academy
under the Government of the Russian Federation
(Head. Department of Prof. M.V. Valoan)
and laureate of the USSR State Prize
in the field of science and technology, Dr. Tehn. science
prof. V.A. Shakhov
Karpenkov S.Kh.
K26 Concept of modern natural science: Textbook for universities. - M.: Academic Project, 2000. Ed. 2nd, copy. and add. - 639 p.
ISBN 5-8291-0085-1
The textbook is written in accordance with the State Educational Standard. It contains fundamental principles, laws, concepts and the most important achievements of natural science, as well as the natural and scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology.
For university students. It can be interesting and useful to a wide circle of readers.
UDC50
BBK 20.
ISBN 5-8291-0085-1
Karpenkov sk, 2000
Academic project, originality
Layout, clearance, 2000
Dedicated to all those who
i would like to tell the mysteries,
power and beautynature.
Preface
In modern society, much attention is paid not only to various industries, but also rapidly developing high-tech technologies, energy and ecology. Fundamental concepts of natural science and natural science basics of modern technologies, energy and ecology are dedicated to a real textbook.
The textbook consists of four parts. In Part I, the practical significance of natural science in modern society is substantiated and the main provisions of the natural science knowledge of the surrounding world are considered. Part II set out the fundamental laws and concepts of natural science. Part III is devoted to the natural and scientific concepts of development of processes in nature. Part IV, natural-scientific foundations of modern technologies, energy and ecology are considered.
The material of the textbook is set out at the level of concepts, i.e. Given the fundamental ideas and systems of views on the natural-scientific issues. With the presentation of the material, mathematical expressions, formulas and terms are used. Naturally, the scientific essence of the issues under consideration is presented in a visual and accessible high school form.
The textbook is written in accordance with the contents of the author's teaching manuals: "The main concepts of modern natural science" (UNITY, 1998) and "Concept of Modern Natural Science: Workshop" (UNITY, 1998), - and also taking into account corrections, changes and additions to the material set forth in previously published tutorial of the author "Concept of Modern Natural Science" (UNITY, 1997).
The author is grateful to colleagues and reviewers, whose comments and wishes contributed to improving the quality of the book.
When studying the concepts of modern natural science, it is useful to remember the wise instruction of the Russian publicist Dmitry Pisareva (1840-1868): "We must learn at school, but much more needs to learn from school."
The book is intended for students of higher educational institutions of day, evening and correspondence forms of learning economic, legal, philosophical, as well as specialties and specializations of management, sociology, technology, management, marketing, merchant, tourism, business, finance, entrepreneurship, etc.
Concepts of modern natural science
Finally I serve a truly useful science.
Horace
Introduction
In any person, at the earlier age, curiosity arises - a natural desire to know the world around. "Curiosity is akin to man, and enlightened, and wilderness," said the outstanding Russian historian and writer Nikolai Karamzin (1766-1826). With age, an unconscious desire to know the surrounding world gradually develops into a conscious form of curiosity - the desire to know the laws that are governed by nature and the ways of their use, allowing a person to anticipate the possible consequences of their actions. The laws on nature and methods of their application are the concentrated experience of mankind, which constitutes the support of human practical activity, capable of protecting it from possible errors and failures and help achieve the desired goals. The concentrated experience of mankind is the fundamental and necessary basis of any educational process: a person should know how the most complex system is functioning - the nature of the Earth is its only home to which he is obliged to appear on the light and part of which is himself.
Natural science is the science of phenomena and the laws of nature. Modern natural science includes many natural-scientific industries: physics, chemistry, biology, as well as numerous related industries, such as physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry and many others. Natural science affects a wide range of issues on numerous and multilateral manifestations of the properties of nature objects, which can be considered as a whole.
If all the scientific material has been issued in detail, accumulated over a long period of time in all sectors of natural science, it will turn out a huge folio, it may be necessary, but little useful even for narrow specialists of the natural science profile, not to mention specialists of humanitarian directions. The task of presenting the material of natural science is more complicated by the fact that its form should be accessible to future specialists, for whom natural science is not a discipline forming professional knowledge.
To solve this problem, we need a generalizing philosophical approach, taking into account the advanced methods of didactics based on the laws of learning knowledge and the acquisition of skills and skills. The essence of this approach lies in the presentation of natural science material at the level of concepts - the fundamental ideas and systems of views. A conceptual systemic approach is useful not only for understanding the development of the natural science and studies of the phenomena and the laws of nature, but also for acquaintance with the most important achievements of natural science, on the basis of which modern high-tech technologies are successfully developed to improve the quality of products and carefulness to nature.
Many achievements of modern natural science constituting the base for high-tech technologies are associated with a comprehensive study of the objects and phenomena of nature. With the involvement of modern technical means of the experiment, it was precisely such a study that did not only create heavy-duty, superconducting and many other materials with unusual properties, but also to take a fresh look at the biological processes occurring inside the cell and even inside the molecule. Most of the branches of modern natural sciences are somehow connected with the molecular study of certain objects that combines many natural scientists engaged in highly specialized issues. The results of this kind of research are the development and production of new high-quality products, and above all goods of everyday demand. In order to know what price this product is given - the most important component of the economy, what are the prospects for the development of modern high-tech technologies, closely related to economic, social, political and other problems, need fundamental natural-scientific knowledge, including the general conceptual idea of Molecular processes on which the most important achievements of modern natural science are based.
Modern means of natural science - science on fundamental laws, natural phenomena and a variety of properties of nature objects - allow you to study many of the most complicated processes at the level of nuclei, atoms, molecules, cells. The fruits of comprehending the true knowledge of nature at such a deep level are known to every educated person. Synthetic and composite materials, artificial enzymes, artificial crystals - All these are not only real objects of developing scientists and naturalists, but also products of consumption of various industries producing in a wide range of daily demand. In this regard, the study of natural-scientific problems at the molecular level within the framework of fundamental ideas - concepts - no doubt is relevant, useful and necessary for future specialists of the high qualification of natural-scientific and technical profiles, as well as for those whose professional activities have no direct relationship to natural science, i.e. for future economists, specialists of management, merchandise, lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, journalists, managers, etc.
Recently, increasingly indicate the chemical interaction of substances and increasing their chemical activity, but on the change in the structure of the molecule, about the rupture of the chain of molecules, on the interaction of molecular beams, on the combination of fragments of DNA molecules, etc. In the lexicon of specialists and scientific commentators Journalists are increasingly meeting the words "molecule", "molecular structure", etc. And this means that the modern level of natural science reflects the understanding of the occurrences in the nature of phenomena, as well as the processes observed in laboratories, taking into account the structure and behavior of each molecule. It is thanks to this understanding that previously not existing substances with fundamentally new properties are synthesized, and new cars, devices, products, etc. are created, high-quality varieties of cultivated plants are grown, efficient methods and means of treating diseases, etc.
At first glance, it may seem that this kind of knowledge is not needed at all, for example, the future control specialist or journalist. In fact, without them, the Specialist of the Office will not be able to choose a promising direction of its activities, because any business is somehow connected with the new material base and new technologies. Consequently, a specialist of the Office, if he is a true specialist, must have deep and comprehensive knowledge. The same can be said about the journalist: without a deep understanding of the commented problem, the journalist is not in a state correctly and in a popular form to convey to a wide range of readers the most important natural scientific achievements. Without possessing the necessary knowledge, the journalist may erroneously orient public opinion and provoke a biased decision, as it happened, for example, with an unreasonable declaration of a temporary moratorium on genine engineering (1975-185).
It must be said that natural-scientific knowledge with the conceptual idea of \u200b\u200bthe most important achievements of modern natural science is needed not only to future economists, lawyers, managers, entrepreneurs and other highly qualified specialists, but also to any educated person, regardless of its activities.
Knowledge of themselves do not come. It is necessary to work hard, diligently learn, understanding freedom as a conscious need. "It is not necessary to learn to learn, but not taking careless," said the famous thinker Vasily Great in the distant times (approx. 330-379), and only in this case can be hoped for success.
Conclusion
Nature as an object of studying natural science is complex and diverse in its manifestations: it is continuously changing and is in constant motion. The circle of knowledge about it is becoming more wider, and the region of interfacing it with an infinite field of ignorance turns into a huge blurred ring, destroyed by scientific ideas - grains of natural science. Some of them run on their sprouts into a circle of classical knowledge and give life to new ideas, new natural-scientific concepts, others will remain only in the history of science development. They are then replaced by more perfect. Such is the dialectic of the development of naturally scientific knowledge of the surrounding world.
About Nature How about the subject of natural science can we say strict scientific language. We can also say simple words that carry a deep meaning, as the German thinker and the naturalist Johann Goethe did it:
"Nature! Surrounded and covered by it, we can not get out of it, neither deeper into it to penetrate it ... she captures us in the whirlwind of her dance and rushes with us, while tired, we will not fall out of her hands.
She always speaks with us, but does not open their secrets. We are constantly acting on it, but we have no power over it.
She is the only artist: from the simplest substance, she creates the opposite works, without the slightest effort, with the greatest perfection and everything puts some gentle covers. She thought continuously and thinks constantly, but not as a person, but as nature, she has its own comprehensive meaning ...
No number of her children. It's equally generous to all, but she has lovers who crumples a lot, sacrificing a lot. Great she takes under its cover.
Life is its best invention; Death for her means for greater life.
She surrounds man with a darkness and drive him to the light. All her act - good, for any need; She is slow to strive for her; She is in a hurry, so that it is not satisfied.
She has no speech and language, but it creates thousands of languages \u200b\u200band hearts that she speaks and feels. The crown of her is love. Love only approach her. With one touch of the mouth to the bowl of love, it hits the whole life of suffering.
She is a Surov and Major, loves and terrifying, weak and Almighty. Do not snatch her recognition in love, do not put down a gift from her, will it give it voluntarily. As she works, you can create forever. "
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