In which parts of the world were the Phoenician colonies. Phoenician city-states and their colonies
inikia - narrow band the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, bounded in the east by the Lebanese ridge. It was inhabited by a people who spoke the Phoenician language: it belongs to the Canaanite group of northern Semitic languages; the same group includes the Hebrew language (Canaan is the ancient name of Palestine and Phenicia). Occupying a middle position between Egypt and Babylonia, Phenicia was politically subordinate to one or the other power, and economically was closely connected with both and played the role of a trade intermediary between them. Phoenicians The Greeks called them the Foins ("crimson people"). in the oldest texts they are referred to as an agricultural people. Wine and olive oil have been exported from Phenicia since time immemorial (like Lebanese cedar).
Phoenician ship
Paolo Novaresio, The Explorers, White Star, Italy, 2002Egypt and Babylonia required gold, non-ferrous metals, especially copper and tin (for bronze items), and a lot of slaves. Mining metals, hunting for slaves, the Phoenician half-merchants-half-pirates moved farther and farther from their native ports. Like all sailors of antiquity, they never voluntarily moved away from the coast beyond the limits of its visibility, never swam in winter and at night. Taking over from other peoples the novelties of shipbuilding, they built large rowing ships with frames, a keel and a solid deck, which could sail under a favorable wind (the Phoenicians sewed them from dense purple fabric). The rowers were slaves; slave labor was used by the Phoenicians in ports, in forestry, in sea mines. Phoenician society became slave-owning and more and more needed an influx of new slaves, and this further strengthened the desire to sail to overseas countries. The Phoenician city-states of Sidon and Tire, which then ousted Byblos, played an especially important role in sea trade during the period of the decline of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture.
Despite the outstanding role of the Phoenicians in the ancient maritime trade, despite the fact that "the alphabetic-sound letter created by them, due to its simplicity and accessibility, first spread among the neighbors of the Phoenicians, and then served as the initial basis for all subsequent alpha-sound systems" ( V. A. Istrin), they themselves left little written news. During excavations in European countries visited by the Phoenicians, very few items or other traces of their stay were found. However, many ancient authors, starting with Homer and Hesiod, noted the predominant role of the Phoenicians in the chain of those historical events, which can be defined as the course of the discovery of the coasts and islands of Europe and the coast of North-West Africa.
One of the phono addicts, French M. Berard, believes that it was the Phoenicians who began and completed the exploration of the Mediterranean. Opponents of the phonikomaniacs put forward a number of objections, of which only one archaeological sound is convincing: European finds of material material of undoubtedly Phoenician origin, which can be attributed at least to the end of the 2nd millennium BC, are extremely rare. NS. in contrast to the Minoan (Crete-Mycenaean). Phoenico-phobes claim that many discoveries of the 2nd millennium BC. NS. in the Central Mediterranean, attributed to the Phoenicians, committed by the Minoans.
In the XII century. BC NS. the northern ancient Greek tribes of the Dorians, who conquered the Achaean regions, Crete and other islands of the Aegean Sea, burned and destroyed all the main centers of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture. A long, almost three-century period of decline of Greece began. Then the Phoenicians no longer had trade competitors in the Eastern Mediterranean basin, and no one could interfere with their advance to the west. True, there their rivals, as some historians suggest, may have been some "sea peoples" who plundered the Eastern Mediterranean in the XII-X centuries. BC BC: either the ancestors of the Carians, the indigenous pre-Greek population of the southwestern coast of Asia Minor, or the ancestors of the Etruscans, who then moved to the Apennine Peninsula. But the proponents of such assumptions have not yet been able to cite any sustained evidence in their favor.
The priority of the Phoenicians in the discovery and exploration of the Western Mediterranean with the decline of Crete and Mycenae (early 1st millennium BC) is hardly disputed. We emphasize “almost”, since there are still Etruscan people, especially among Italian historians. They ascribe to the Etruscans not only the discovery of the shores of the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Seas and the Gulf of Lyons, which is quite acceptable, but also of the entire eastern and southern coast of Spain, that is, the first exit to the Atlantic Ocean.
So, no later than 15 centuries BC. NS. the Phoenicians began to visit Crete. Moving westward from there, they laid the foundation for the historically proven discovery of the Central Mediterranean Basin. From the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Phoenicians moved to the southern shores of the Balkan Peninsula, crossed the Otranto Strait, which connects the Ionian Sea with the Upper Sea (Adriatic), and rounded Apulia and Calabria. Simultaneously with the Cretans, or somewhat later, they discovered the mountainous about. Sicily Phoenician colonies on its western (Motia) and northern (Palermo) shores were founded in the 8th century. BC NS. and to the south of it, in the very center of the Mediterranean Sea, they found in the XIII century. BC NS. colonized Melita (Malta). She probably became a strong point for the further penetration of the Phoenicians into the Western Mediterranean. Having crossed the wide Tunisian Strait, they moved westward and traced almost 2000 km of the coastline of North-West Africa, opening the mountainous Atlas country from the sea to the Pillars of Melkart (the supreme god of the city of Tire) - the Strait of Gibraltar; later the Greeks called it the Pillars of Hercules, the Romans - the Pillars of Hercules, and the medieval Arabs - Jebel Tariq (distorted into Gibraltar). Coming out to the strait, the Phoenicians for the first time got a correct idea of the length (3700 km) of the Great Sea of Sunset.
Moving along the Mediterranean coast of Africa, they opened the mouths of numerous short rivers, Nowadays most of them have become temporary streams - wadis; flowing down from the Atlas Mountains, including Sheliff (700 km) and Muluya (520 km); they entered all the small bays and bays, carefully planning the places for future settlements. We must pay tribute to these early explorers: the sites were chosen so well that many of them later turned into large port cities. On the western coast of the Gulf of Tunis they discovered, they founded the first colony of Utica on the Mediterranean coast of Africa (about 1100 BC). In 825 BC. NS. Carthage, Phoenician Novgorod (Kart-hadasht), which later became a great state, the most dangerous rival of Rome in the struggle for dominance in the Mediterranean, was laid near it. The Romans called the Carthaginians Puns. Hence the name of the Punic wars. Soon, Carthage had a suburb of Tunet, named after the Phoenician queen of the Moon Tanit (modern Tunisia). At the northernmost cape of the African continent, El Abyad, they founded another point, which grew into the large port of Bizerte. Further to the west, they formed a chain of 20 colonies, located mainly on the western shores of small bays or bays, including Hippon (modern port of Annaba), Icosium (Algiers) and Russadir (port of Melilla). Most historians attribute their foundation to the XII-X centuries. BC NS.
Probably, simultaneously with their penetration to the west, the Phoenicians began to explore the most indented part of the African coast in an easterly direction, opening the large bays of Hammamet, Gabes (Small Sirte) with Kerkenna and Djerba and Sidra (Big Sirte) islands. On their shores for 1500 km in the IX-VII centuries. BC NS. they founded 10 colonies. Among them are Gadrumet (now Sus), which later became an important center of Carthage, Sabrat (Zuara), Uyat (later Ea, modern Tripoli), where a line of rocks and shallows forms a convenient anchorage, and Lpki (Leptis Magna, now Homs); probably, the Phoenicians also founded Sirte, located 360 km east of Homs. According to ancient Greek authors, the Phoenicians were the first to enter the Atlantic Ocean and on the African coast at the turn of the 12th – 11th centuries. BC NS. founded two colonies: Tingis (Tangier) and Lix, at the mouth of the river. Lukos, now Larash. On the shores of Africa discovered by them from the Gulf of Sidra to Lix (more than 3000 km) lived the tribes of the Libyans, The related eastern tribes have long been known to the Egyptians (libu); mostly hunters and pastoralists. Phoenician colonization, which contributed to the emergence of slaveholding relations in these regions, had mainly economic roots - consolidation on the most important trade routes and their protection. There were, however, and social reasons, formulated by the Roman historian of the 1st century. BC. Gaius Sallust: "... the Phoenicians, some for the sake of reducing the population in their homeland, and others out of a thirst for power, arousing plebs [common people] and others, greedy for innovations, founded colonies on the sea coast ..." They arose on wide coastal plains Libya and Eastern Tunisia, in the lower reaches of the Atlas rivers, on the low-lying plains of the Atlantic coast of Morocco. And everywhere the Phoenicians began to grow olives, grapes and other Asian plants brought from their homeland. Their works were not in vain: the "new settlers" took root well and are still cultivated.
From the African side, the Phoenicians discovered the Iberian Peninsula (apparently, a second time, after the Cretans). On its southern coast in the XI-VIII centuries. BC NS. they created three strong points: Gadir ("Fortress" or "Fortification") - modern Cadiz, 30 km south of the mouth of the river. Guadalquivir; a colony at the top of the Gulf of Cadiz - modern Huelva; Malacu (Malaga), at the eastern entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar, which still exists today. Probably, another site was established at the western entrance promontory of the Gulf of Cadiz, near the modern port of Faro. Further to the west, traces of Phoenician colonization were found during excavations along the shores of the historical region of the Algarve (at 37 ° N, southern Portugal), along the Atlantic coast of the country up to 40 ° N. NS. and in the Tagus basin. Beyond 40 ° N NS. material evidence of the Phoenicians' stay has not yet been found.
Such an early foundation of Gadir is not confirmed by archeology: the oldest finds in this area date back to the 7th century. BC NS. But the tradition ties in well with the course of the Phoenician colonization of the coast of North-West Africa. And it is quite plausible that the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula was colonized much earlier than the African south of Lix: in southern Spain In Phoenician "I-shpannim" ("Coast of rabbits") because of the abundance of these rodents in the area of the colony; from the end of the 15th century. the official name of the Spanish kingdom. the Phoenicians were looking for and found the most important goods for them - precious and non-ferrous metals, and then North-West Africa could only provide them with agricultural products. Here, on the Iberian Peninsula, on the edge of the world known to the ancients, the Phoenicians established trade contacts with the state of Tarshish (Tartess), which at times turned into their enemy in the struggle for dominance on the sea trade routes.
It is debated how far north of Ghadir the Phoenicians went along the coasts of Europe. These voyages were associated with the delivery of tin to the Mediterranean countries, and the lands where the Phoenicians mined it were called the Cassiterids ("Tin") islands. But where to look? And were the Cassiterids really islands and not a peninsula? Most historians identify them with the British Isles, since there are ancient tin mines in Cornwall, which were exploited for many centuries before Roman rule. But some authors point to the presence of tin deposits close to Gadir, for example, in the north-west of Spain (in Galicia), where the coast is highly dissected and small peninsulas can easily be mistaken for islands.
One way or another, the Phoenicians undoubtedly discovered the entire (about 1000 km) western coast of the Iberian Peninsula and entered the mouths of all significant Pyrenean rivers that carry their waters to the Atlantic Ocean: to Apas (Guadiana) Latin names are given, and Spanish and Portuguese in parentheses. into the vast estuary of the river. Tag (Tagus, Tahoe), where the city of Olisipo (now Lizhboa, or Lisbon) arose later; in Munda (Mondego); in Durius (Douro, Duero), at the mouth of which, under the Romans, the harbor of Calais Port (now Porto) became known; to Mineas (Mignot). Probably, the Phoenicians also got acquainted with the shores of the Bay of Biscay for almost 1500 km - mountainous in the south (Cantabrian mountains) and low-lying in the east - up to the Brittany Peninsula. On the southern mountainous coast of the Pyrenees and ova (Cordillera Betica) no later than the end of the VIII century. BC BC, in addition to Malaka, they founded two more points and, probably advancing to Cape Nao, reached the Pitiuz and Balearic Islands. This could be done, however, from one of the main strongholds on the African coast. Sardinia, apparently, was discovered from the south; in the VIII-VII centuries. BC in. on its southern coast, they founded five colonies, including Cagliari and Nora.
The main activity of the Phoenicians, as already noted, was sea trade. But in search of new outlandish goods, as well as gold, ivory and exotic animals, they penetrated from strongholds on the northern shores of Africa into the deep regions of the Sahara and, probably, even to the river. Niger, using ancient caravan routes and hiring local guides. In the north, the Phoenicians were not pioneers: the road to the south across the Sahara no earlier than 1000 BC. NS. were discovered, mastered and marked with rock paintings by people from about. Crete. It is possible that Phoenician merchants reached Niger from the Atlantic coast, i.e., they became the discoverers of the High Atlas, the westernmost and most elevated (up to 4165 m) mountain range in the Atlas Mountains system, as well as in the western part of the great Sahara desert.
At the end of the VIII century. BC NS. the Phoenician metropolitan cities were captured by Assyria and the colonies "had" to pursue an independent policy. It soon became clear that the strong points left "unattended" were viable, strong enough to not only hold on to everything they had, but also continue what they started from the metropolises. On the low Atlantic coast of Africa, the Phoenicians from Hades founded several new settlements (including Sale, modern Rabat), stretching to the south for almost 700 km: the most remote point of Mogador, at 31 ° 30 "N (now the port of Es- Suweira), founded in 600 BC.
The already mentioned Ea, Sabrata and Leptis Magna, later named Tripolis (“Three Cities”) by the Greeks, having become independent, created an alliance, and their common possessions were called Tripolitania. In the VII century. BC NS. as a countermeasure against the activity of the Greeks and Tartessians, several such unions (associations) arose. The dominant position among them was taken by Carthage, which in the middle of the 7th century. BC NS. became a major power, subjugating all the former Phoenician colonies.
Voyages of the Phoenicians in the Indian Ocean and around Africa
FThe Inikians built ships for expeditions, which were organized by their neighbors, who owned the shores of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and entered their service. For the Egyptians, they went to the country of Punt, for the Israelite-Jewish king Solomon in the X century. BC. (according to the biblical legend) - to the country of Ophir, the location of which is not known. Perhaps this is the country of Abhira in South India, in the valley of the river. Tapti, from where Solomon was supplied with gold, ivory, peacocks and ebony. For the Assyrian king Sinacheriba(beginning of the 7th century BC) they built warships in the Persian Gulf.
In the Egyptian service in 609-595. BC NS. on large rowing galleys (triremes), each lifting at least 50 people of the team, the Phoenicians rounded the whole of Africa, Herodotus narrates the story of this voyage around "Libya" (Africa) about such details that he himself considers incredible. But they just confirm the reliability of the event: “Libya ... is apparently surrounded by the sea, except for the place where it adjoins Asia; this, as far as I know, was the first to prove it by Necho, king of Egypt. [He] ... sent the Phoenicians in ships. On the way back, he ordered them to keep through the Pillars of Hercules ... The Finns left the Red Sea and then sailed across the South [Indian Ocean]. In the fall, they landed on the shore and, no matter where they fell in Libya, they worked the land everywhere, then they waited for the harvest, and after the harvest they sailed on. Two years later, on the third, the Phoenicians rounded the Pillars of Hercules and arrived in Egypt. According to their stories (I don't believe it ...), while sailing around Libya, the sun turned out to be on their right side. This was the first time it was proved that Libya is surrounded by the sea ”(IV, 42–43).
So, skirting Africa from the south and moving from east to west, the Phoenicians had the sun on the right side, that is, in the north. For Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century. BC NS. and who did not have our ideas about the globe and the solar system, this part of the story seemed implausible. For us it is clear that it is precisely this circumstance, which apparently especially amazed the Phoenician sailors, the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere, confirms that they really crossed the equator, sailed through the waters of the southern hemisphere and circled Africa from the south. The three-year duration of the voyage is also quite plausible, for the length of the African coastline is 30.5 thousand km. The Phoenicians could travel this distance by oars or sail, when there were favorable winds, and for most of the way they could use the following coastal currents. True, they landed on the mainland to sow and harvest grain, losing two to three months every year. And yet, the rest of the time was quite enough to complete the entire voyage in three years with the navigational equipment of that time. It is also interesting in the story of Herodotus that there is an indication that agriculture is possible in southern Libya. This means that it is not at all a bleak desert, scorched by the sun, where life is impossible because of the unbearable heat, as most ancient and medieval geographers imagined tropical Africa.
In our time, most scientists believe that this is a great geographical discovery made by the Phoenicians. But in 1975 the English historian A. Lloyd expressed doubts about this. He made a number of compelling reasons for Greek origin both ships and crew. According to Lloyd, triremes were invented in the 7th century. BC NS. in Greece, or rather - in Corinth, which, like another Greek state - Samos, had close contacts with Egypt during the reign Psammetichus I(663–610 BC) and Necho II (609–595 BC); the orientation of both courts was Greek. The Greek navy, based in Egypt, used galleys - and they were all triremes. Less than 20 kilometers from Sais, the capital of Egypt, was the large Greek colony of Navcratis, literally overflowing with Greek ships, which, of course, had ship carpenters; nothing of the kind about the Phoenicians at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 6th century. BC NS. not known. Thus, for the construction of ships, Necho II had the opportunity to get any Greek specialists practically at the walls of his palace. And finally, the main thing: archaeological and linguistic data indicate that the Egyptian fleet under the pharaoh April(589–570 BC), grandson of Necho II, consisted of Greek triremes manned, at least in part, by Greek sailors. In the Lloyd v. Herodotus case, it is not yet clear who is right: the last word has not yet been said.
Carthaginians in North Africa and the Atlantic Ocean
NSHaving firmly settled on the coast, Carthage at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 6th century. BC NS. began the conquest of the interior territories of Numidia and Mauretania. Numidia, inhabited by the Masil and Mazezil tribes, occupied the northern half of modern Tunisia and the eastern part of Algeria; Mauretania (Berber population) - the western territories of Algeria and the eastern part of Morocco. for this purpose, the Carthaginians undertook campaigns south through the relatively accessible Tell Atlas mountain range. Behind it, they discovered high plateaus - vast elevated plains with a strip of closed lakes, which have now turned into shots - temporary shallow salt lakes. As a result of hostilities against the sedentary Libyans in the eastern part of the Atlas Mountains, the troops of Carthage under the command Malcha managed to advance south to 35 ° N. sh., and maybe further. It is “a very mountainous wooded [country] with many wild animals. Huge snakes, lions, elephants, bears ... horned donkeys [antelopes?], Wild men and women and many other ... animals live there ”(Herodotus, IV, 191). Great apes, as well as elephants and bears in North Africa, are now extinct. Expansion of possessions was also undertaken from the coast of the Gulf of Gabes to the west. As a result, two large lakes were discovered - Tritonis (Shott-Jerid) mentioned by Herodotus and Libika (Shott-Melgir).
Carthage became the successor of the Phoenicians not only in sea, but also in land trade. There was no need to guard the roads in the desert, since the Carthaginians here - at least for the first few centuries - had no competitors. Merchants crossed the Sahara, if not regularly, then periodically, accompanying caravans with goods from the Mediterranean coast to the river. Niger. On this great trans-Saharan road, the "Three Cities" had an undeniable advantage over other colonies, for they were almost 200 km closer to the internal markets.
Around 500 BC e., more precisely, probably in 470, the Carthaginians noticeably advanced beyond the Pillars of Melkart, to the southwest along the African coast. It was the work of the colonial expedition Hannona... He led a flotilla, consisting of 60 fifty-oar ships, on which there were 30 thousand colonists, "bread and other supplies" were loaded. Here and below, quotes from the periphery of Gannon (translated by I. Sh. Shifmap, 1963). The first point he founded two days sailing from Gibraltar - "there is a large plain near it" - perhaps this is Mehdia at the mouth of the river. Cebu. Moving generally south along the northwestern coast of Africa, Gannon established several more colonies, leaving settlers everywhere, until he reached the mouth of a river - perhaps the Dra, at 28 ° N. NS. Local residents - Berbers - greeted the Carthaginians friendly and provided translators to continue their voyage. Gannon found out that at a distance from the coast lived “inhospitable Ethiopians, living in a bestial manner in a country crossed high mountains»- the western end of the Atlas mountain range.
It took more than three days sailing along a flat desert with dunes (western end of the Sahara) to the point where the sixth settlement (Kerna) was founded, as far south of the Pillars as Carthage was to the east of them - it is traditionally believed that this is Cape Argen (20 ° 30 "N, Bay of Levrier). Passing further south, they found a" river, large and wide "with crocodiles and hippos - most likely Senegal. Hannon returned to Kerna, I again moved south. After 12- day voyage, the expedition stood for two days at a mountainous cape (Cape Zeleny?), and then passed along a hilly and forested country, reaching a large bay, where Gannon took fresh water (the Gambia river?). Five days later he reached another bay - can I to assume that this is the estuary of Freetown (at 8 ° 30 "N), and moved for several more days, and“ at night ... [saw] the land filled with fire; in the middle there was ... a huge bonfire that seemed to reach the stars. In the afternoon it turned out that this is a mountain, leaning against the sky and engulfed in flames; streams of fire - obviously lava - flowed directly into the sea. The description is very realistic, corresponds to the current volcano Cameroon (4070 m), located on the coast of the bay, at 4 ° N. sh., and therefore seems to be very high. Gannon went a little further and got into a bay with islands (the Bay of Cameroon?), On one of them he found a herd of large monkeys; the translators called them gorillas. From here the expedition turned home. In Carthage, three skins of the captured animals were transferred to the temple, two were there until the Roman invasion of 146 BC. NS.
So, written rather dryly and vaguely, the periphery of Gannon, preserved to this day in a later retelling, still makes it possible to quite confidently put four main points along the line of the route: p. Cebu, Kerna, b. Senegal and the volcano Cameroon. Consequently, Gannon, though a second time, after the Phoenicians (Greeks?), Discovered about 6000 km of the African coast. The results of his outstanding voyage were used only to a minimal extent: Carthaginian traders followed him as far as Kerna and organized the "Golden Road" (gold trade) with the deep regions of West Africa.
Probably, attempts to enter the Atlantic Ocean were made by the Carthaginians shortly after the founding of the main colonies on the African coast. In ancient literature, there are plausible, and sometimes no doubt, stories about island lands located in the Western (Atlantic) Ocean: they were discovered by the Carthaginians (or Phoenicians?), And later sailors from other Mediterranean peoples sailed to them. The earliest extant news of an island lying in the open ocean west of the Strait of Gibraltar belongs to an anonymous author who is called Pseudo-Aristotle, since his work "On miraculous rumors" was previously attributed to Aristotle (IV century BC): “They say that on the other side of the Pillars of Hercules, the Carthaginians discovered in the ocean an uninhabited island, rich in forests and navigable rivers and abounding in fruits. He was at a distance of several days' journey from the mainland. " The ancient Greek historian Diodorus of Siculus (1st century BC) attributes the discovery of a previously unknown oceanic land to the Phoenicians who sailed along the Atlantic coast of North-West Africa: “In the middle of the ocean opposite Africa lies an island that stands out for its size. It is only a few days' journey from Africa ... "
So, Pseudo-Aristotle and Diodorus of Siculus indicate exactly that the island is a few days' journey from the mainland. Diodorus directly named the continent - this is Africa. In Pseudo-Aristotle, it is unnamed, one can assume Europe, but in both cases there can be no question of the discovery of any American island. All other plausible news of the later ancient authors - in those cases when they speak of Atlantic island lands with a warm or hot climate - also refer to islands close to Africa, in most cases, undoubtedly, to the Canary group, occasionally, and moreover, controversial , - to Madeira.
Not a single object has yet been found on the American islands or on both western continents, which would testify to the visit of America by the ancient Mediterranean peoples, although, theoretically, random visits to America by them are possible. All reports of finds there of inscriptions or other traces of Mediterranean cultures after verification turned out to be erroneous or false. Ancient sailors, in particular the Carthaginians, may have reached the Azores, but there is no indication of such visits in the literary monuments. But in 1749 the Swede Yukhan Podolin reported the find on about. Corvo is a treasure trove of ancient coins, among which there were Carthaginian ones. This information was called in the XIX century. lively discussion that has continued to this day. The question of whether the Carthaginians visited the Azores remains open.
Some historians of geosciences of the XIX century. (For example, K. Ritter and O. Peschel), referring to ancient sources, suggested that ancient sailors discovered the Sargasso Sea - part of a giant calm area in the western subtropical strip of the Atlantic Ocean. However, until our time, it has not been possible to find a single evidence of the sailing of ancient Mediterranean sailors in this part of the Atlantic. And the assumptions that the Carthaginians knew about the Sargasso Sea are based only on a confused and contradictory message. Aviena on the voyage of the Gimilkon.
Carthaginians off the coast of the Iberian Peninsula
TOArfagen paid close attention to the Iberian Peninsula in the middle of the 7th century. BC e., shortly after its rise, and already in 665 BC. NS. the first Carthaginian colony of Ebessa was founded on the Pitiuz Islands. Relying on it, the Punyans launched an offensive in the south of Spain, captured all the Phoenician colonies, including Hades, and at the end of the 7th century. or in the VI century. BC NS. founded a number of new points on the mainland and colonized the Balearic Islands. Standing firmly on the coast of the Iberian Peninsula, at the end of the VI century. BC NS. they launched an offensive against the Tartessian state. At the end of the 5th century. BC e., or, more precisely, between 485-476. BC NS. (on Yuri Tsirkin), Carthage, managed to establish a blockade of Gibraltar; by this time he owned a coastal strip about 700 km long with an average width of 50 km. “In the days of the heyday of Carthage,” the Punyans made an attempt to explore the sea route to the tin deposits of the Brittany Peninsula along the shores of the Bay of Biscay; this path may have been used by the Phoenicians and used by the Tartessia. First Carthaginian voyage around 470 BC NS. Roman authors - naturalist Pliny the Elder(1st century AD) and poet Rufus Fest Avien(IV century AD) - attributed to Gimilkon. According to Avien, who refers to the most ancient Punic chronicles, Gimilkon even reached the British Isles. But the Roman poet lived more than eight centuries after Gimilkon and, undoubtedly, used only other people's retellings of the chronicles. In his work "Seashore" Avien gives a description of one of the Western European seas: "... here the Atlantic Gulf begins ... the bulk of stone peaks all mainly face the south ... At the bottom of these mountains, at the very foot, where the cape protrudes. .. the Gulf of Extremidia is wide open. In it lie those islands which are called the Estremnids; Spread widely, they are rich in metals, lead and tin. A lot of people live here ... They ply the stormy sea and the ocean depths, full of monsters ... but - it's a wonderful thing - they prepare ships for themselves from sewn skins ... that it is possible to make such a path only in four months ... "
Avien also reports on the water area west of the Pillars of Hercules, referring three times to the same Gimilkon: “Further to the west of these Pillars, the sea is boundless, as Gimilkon says ... No one reached these waters, no one sent their ships to these seas ... "
Barquids in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Alps
Hneither the Phoenicians nor the Greeks penetrated far into the interior of Spain; we do not have direct indications of the fact that the Carthaginians did this in those centuries when they established themselves in its coastal regions. The colonies of these peoples were based in or near river estuaries, and - with two, though very important, exceptions - the newcomers, apparently, did not rise even to the valleys of the middle reaches of the Pyrenean rivers, not to mention their upper reaches. Only along the navigable Betis did the colonists, starting with the Phoenicians, reach at least Corduba (Cordoba), that is, they crossed almost the entire southern (Andalusian) lowland; Yes, along the Guadiana Valley, navigable only in the lower reaches, ran the most accessible route to the mercury and silver mines, which have long been exploited in the south-west of the Meseta plateau and on its raised edge - the Mariana Mountains (Sierra Morena). Leading there from the southern, Mediterranean coast of Spain and less convenient, but shorter routes - through the western section of the Cordillera Betica (Andalusian mountains).
However, the Carthaginian generals of the Barkid dynasty began to collect any reliable information about the deep regions after the 1st Punic War (unsuccessful for Carthage). The first was Hamilcar Barca("Lightning"), the arena of hostilities which in 237-229. BC NS. was the valley of the river. Betis is the core of the Tartessian state. He defeated the Tartessians, captured a huge booty and many prisoners, including them in his army. Only part of the wealth Hamilcar sent to Carthage, he distributed the main trophies to his soldiers. After his death (he drowned in the river), collecting information was continued by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, who founded about 228 BC. NS. in the southeast by the sea of New Carthage (Cartagena). By 225 BC. NS. he conquered the entire (more than 500 km) east coast (Spanish Levant) to the lower reaches of the river. Iber (Ebro). Under him, the Carthaginians got acquainted with the Sierra Morena mountains. Hannibal, who accompanied his father Hamilcar and Hasdrubal in the Spanish campaigns, becoming at the age of 25-26 at the head of the army in 221 BC. BC, after the death of Hasdrubal, sent scouts to many of the interior regions, preparing in Spain an army to invade Italy (beginning of the 2nd Punic War, 218 BC). All three established peaceful relations, even entered into alliances with some tribes living in the south and east of Meseta in order to subjugate other, rebellious tribes by force.
Carthaginian agents (merchants, scouts, ambassadors) collected a variety of military-geographical materials, but they have come down to us only in a small part, in the later retellings of ancient authors. In rare cases, according to their writings, it is possible to find out in which internal regions the conquerors-Romans followed in the footsteps of the Carthaginians and in which they were the true discoverers or "pioneers of the ways."
After wintering in New Carthage, in the spring of 220 BC. NS. Hannibal led a campaign in the lands of the Wettons - between the rivers Tahoe and Duero. He crossed the Tagus in the middle reaches and crossed the Carpetan Mountains (Central Cordillera). His goal was to capture the most important cities of the Wetton and Wakkei, who lived to the north, in the middle and upper Duero. First, he laid siege to and sculpted Salamantika (now Salamanca), and most of the inhabitants managed to escape in the mountains, and then captured and plundered two cities of the Wakkei; the inhabitants were enslaved. The campaign almost ended with the defeat of the Carthaginians: a large (about 100 thousand people) army of several tribes, mainly the Carpetans, unexpectedly overtook the invaders returning home and they wavered. But the night saved Hannibal - he managed to withdraw the army behind the Tahoe, and in the morning he gave battle and won. Apparently, in revenge for fear, Hannibal went through the whole land of the Carpetan - the upper reaches of the Tagus and the interfluve of the Tagus and Guadiana - plundering, ravaging and burning. He returned to New Carthage with a huge booty. There, Roman ambassadors awaited him, insisting that he abide by the treaty - not to cross the Ebro and "not to disturb the inhabitants of the Sagunta" (the only city loyal to Rome on the Spanish coast south of the Ebro, not yet conquered by the Barcids). Hannibal is still in 219 BC. NS. took it by storm after an eight-month siege - this, as you know, was the reason for the 2nd Punic War, which the Carthaginian commander decided to win on the territory of Italy. It is not clear when Hannibal managed to seize the lands of the Edetans and Caltibers, in other words, when he annexed the Idubeda mountain system (Iberian Mountains, 440 km) to the Carthaginian possessions. Apparently, this happened during the campaigns (220-219 BC. E., Because by the beginning of the war with Rome, the power of Carthage extended to half of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula.
But before starting the war, it was necessary to secure their rear, and Hannibal, wounded during the siege of Sagunta in the thigh, in 219 BC. NS. led a punitive expedition against the Carpetans and the Oretan tribe, who lived in the interfluve of the upper reaches of Guadiana and Guadalquivir; He ordered about 16 thousand captured combat-ready men to be taken to Africa. Only after this "operation" Hannibal decided to force the Ebro and, continuing the tactics of providing rear services, subjugated the regions belonging to the Illergetes, Yatsetans and other tribes living between the Ebro and the southern slopes of the Pyrenees to Carthage. He considered the indigenous inhabitants of both Gaul, Transalpine and Cisalpine, as future allies, and he was not mistaken. Having received information from his scouts about the possibility of crossing the Alps, Hannibal in the early spring of 218 BC. e, went on a campaign, having, according to Polybius, about 90 thousand infantry and 12 thousand cavalry. After crossing the Iberus, he was forced to release some of the hesitating soldiers - he had about 9 thousand horsemen and 50 thousand infantrymen left. At Rona, Hannibal divided his army into two columns, which crossed the river in boats and rafts near the mouths of its largest left tributaries, the Isara and Druentia (Isere and Duranet). In mid-November, Hannibal crossed the Alps through the Mont Cenis pass and descended along the valley of the river. Dora Riparia to Po. Historical geographers attach great importance to this event as the first recorded crossing of the Alps.
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There is a chain along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Lebanese mountains... Their slopes were covered with cedar forests. Here, between the sea and the mountains, is located Phoenicia.
The largest Phoenician cities were Sidon, Tire and Bibl. Their names reflect natural conditions Phenicia and the occupation of its inhabitants, Phoenicians."Byblos" translated from Phoenician means "mountain", "Tire" - "ska-la", and "Sidon" - "place for fishing."
In Phenicia, there are no deep overflowing rivers, little fertile land and pastures for livestock. On the slopes of the mountains and on narrow plains, the Phoenicians laid out vineyards, planted groves of olive trees, but they did not have enough of their own bread.
But the geographical position of Phenicia was very convenient: trade routes from Mesopotamia and Egypt converged here. We can say that by nature itself the Phoenicians were determined to engage in crafts and trade. These occupations did not require joint work to build dams and canals. Strong royal power and a unified state were not needed. Phoenician cities were small, independent states. However, the kings did not have despotic power. They had to reckon with the opinion of the city council, which consisted of noble and wealthy Phoenicians.
Phoenician colonies
This is exactly the case in IX (9) century BC a city on the African coast Carthage, which founded Elissa, Princess Tyra. She fought against the power of her brother, the king of Tire, but was defeated. Together with many noble people and priests, the Tsarevna went on ships to look for a new homeland. Legend has it that the leader of the local tribes of the Libyans allowed Elissa to occupy as much land as one bull's hide could cover. Then the cunningly clever princess ordered to cut the skin into thin strips, tie them and gird a large area with a leather cord.
In the history of Asia Minor I millennium BC. NS. the city-states of Phenicia played an important role. Their role in the economic, political and cultural history of countries the ancient world was for its time more significant than the role of states that arose in Palestine.
With the weakening of the Egyptian power of the New Kingdom, the Phoenician states - Tire, Sidon, Byblos, Arwad, and others - again become independent. These were city-states, for the most part ruled by the king together with the council of the slave nobility.
The rise of the Phoenician cities
After the destruction of Sidon by the "peoples, the pestilence," hegemony passed to Tire, which flourished under King Hiram I, a contemporary of Solomon, King of Israel (about 950 BC). Hiram, with the help of an artificial embankment, expanded the island on which the main part of Tire was located, and, having opened a source of water here, made Tire an almost impregnable fortress for an external enemy. At this time, Tire entered into close trade relations with all the surrounding states; under Hiram, the colonization of the modern region of Tunisia on the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea began, and under his successors the city of Carthage was founded there (according to legend, in 814 BC).
Phenicia's own agricultural production, as in the previous period, played a secondary role. The use of the forest resources of the Lebanese mountains was of great importance; valuable species of wood were an important export item. Syrian wool, dyed with Phoenician purple, was also exported, and from the V1I1-VII centuries - small glass items. Phenicia's maritime trade, significant already during the Egyptian domination, began to expand even more after the collapse of the Egyptian state. All trade of Egypt now passed into the hands of the Phoenicians, and their numerous ships constantly arrived at the marinas of the cities along the banks of the Nile. The Phoenicians traded not only Phoenician goods, but also those imported from other countries - slaves, various handicrafts, and later also agricultural and livestock products. Probably, ordinary freemen took an active part in the sea trade, whom they donated and lent to the nobility in silver and goods. In the caravan trade, which especially began to develop from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. BC, when the camel was already domesticated and, as a result, it was easier to overcome the vast desert and steppe spaces of Syria, along with the kings and the nobility, some representatives of the ordinary free could also enrich themselves. Along with the growth of wealth, there is an increasing stratification of the population of the cities of Phenicia.
The Phoenicians were known as slave traders. Although a significant part of the slaves they acquired were intended for export, it is likely that in the Phoenician cities themselves there were a significant number of slaves who were used on ships, in workshops, etc. Historical sources testify to an acute class struggle in Phenicia. Greek tradition tells about the slave revolt in Tire, to which the free have-nots may have joined. This uprising, which occurred, possibly in the 9th century. BC e., ended, according to legend, with the complete destruction of the male representatives of the ruling class, and women and children were distributed among the rebels. Greek historians tell us about some "Phoenician misfortunes", which can also presumably be considered the uprisings of the exploited masses in the Phoenician cities.
However, these uprisings, like other slave uprisings, did not lead to a change in existing relationships; slave society and the state continued to exist in Phenicia.
As a result of the internal struggle in Tire, his power weakened, and from the end of the IX century. along with Tire, at times exceeding its significance, Sidon rises again. However, soon the period of complete independence of the Phoenician cities comes to an end. From the second half of the VIII century. Assyrian troops began to increasingly reach the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and, although the economic importance of the Phoenician cities remains, in the end all the Phoenician city-states, except Tire, were forced to submit to Assyria. Then, from the end of the 7th century, Egypt and Babylonia began to strengthen again, and the Phoenician city-states fell into dependence on them. With the emergence Persian power in the second half of the VI century. BC NS. Phenicia was included in it, although the Phoenician cities have now retained their self-government and their importance as rich centers of trade. The Phoenician fleet was the mainstay of Persian power at sea.
Mediterranean Sea and Phoenician Colonization.
In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. NS. the Phoenician city-states establish their de facto dominance over the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean Sea is a vast inland sea located between the three largest continents of the Eastern Hemisphere: Europe in the north and west, Asia in the east and Africa in the south; it owes its name to this circumstance. In the west, the Mediterranean Sea connects to the Atlantic Ocean through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar. In the northeast, its bay - the Aegean Sea - is connected by the narrow Dardanelles Strait with the Sea of Marmara, through it and the Bosphorus Strait - with the Black Sea; and through the Black Sea and the Kerch Strait - with the Sea of Azov.
The long and narrow Apennine Peninsula (Italy) in the north and the projection of the African coast in the area of modern Tunisia in the south divide the Mediterranean Sea into eastern and western parts. The western Mediterranean is enclosed by the Iberian Peninsula. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, the dominant position is occupied by the Balkan Peninsula (Greece), separated from the Apennine Peninsula by the Ionian and Adriatic seas, and from Asia Minor by the Aegean and Marmara seas. Numerous islands are scattered throughout the Mediterranean. In the Western Mediterranean, there are the large islands of Corsica and Sardinia, as well as Sicily, which is a continuation of the Apennine Peninsula. The Balearic Islands are located off the coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The Balkan Peninsula with its rugged shores is surrounded by a whole island world.
Rugged coasts, an abundance of bays and islands along with favorable climatic conditions contributed to the early development of navigation in the Mediterranean.
The climatic conditions of the Mediterranean are favorable for the cultivation of a wide variety of crops, including various cereals and horticultural crops; of the latter, grapes and an olive tree were of particular importance in antiquity. Summers in the Mediterranean countries are warm and even hot, winters are mild and humid. Three or four thousand years ago, the summer was evidently less dry than it is now; this is largely due to the fact that at that time the countries of the Mediterranean abounded in vast forests, subsequently cut down.
The Mediterranean countries are rich in minerals. In ancient times, copper ore was obtained from the islands of Cyprus and Sardinia and from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain); iron ore from Asia Minor, from the island of Elba and from Spain; silver was mined in Asia Minor, Greece, Spain. Tin, so important for the development of bronze production, was mined in Spain or delivered there from the British Isles. Greece and Italy were famous for their beautiful marble. In many places, there were deposits of high-quality clay, which favored the flourishing of pottery.
Connections of Western Asia with the countries of the Eastern and Western Mediterranean had for her great importance, all increasing with the growing demand for copper, tin, iron. For the Mediterranean countries, connections with the advanced areas of culture in Western Asia were of no less importance. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. this connection was carried out mainly by Phoenician sailors. Not limiting themselves to exchange, they, as already indicated, were engaged in the seizure of people and the slave trade, thus turning the shores of the Mediterranean into an additional source from which slaves came for the ancient slave states.
The creation of Phoenician colonies on the Mediterranean coasts dates back to this time. Their main goal was the organization of exchange, but in some cases they turn into independent agricultural slave states.
The ruling class of the Phoenician states, fearing the uprisings of slaves and the poor, strove to ensure that a large number of "restless elements" did not accumulate in the cities. From the writings of the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle (IV century BC), we learn about the measures that the nobility of Carthage resorted to for this purpose: side of the people in that they give him the opportunity to get rich. Namely, they constantly expel certain parts of the people to the cities and regions subject to Carthage. With this, the Carthaginians heal their political system and give it stability. " Probably, the Carthaginians learned the art of "healing" their state system from the metropolis - Tire, which from time to time (maybe even from the end of the II millennium BC and at least from the beginning of the 1st) repeatedly expelled, as, incidentally, , and other Phoenician city-states, with several thousand citizens each, in order to establish their colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.
Similar Phoenician colonies, aimed at ensuring Phoenician maritime trade, were created in the eastern Mediterranean, primarily on the island of Cyprus, where the Phoenicians were firmly entrenched in the II millennium BC. NS. But in the northern part of the Eastern Mediterranean, local seafarers - Greeks, Lycians, Carians played an important role. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC NS. the Greeks begin to develop their own colonization activities. Therefore, the Phoenicians pay main attention to the coasts that dominated the sea routes from the Eastern to the Western Mediterranean, especially on the coast of Africa. The Phoenicians also penetrated Sicily and the island of Malta. Separate points were colonized on the coast of Spain, including the coast Atlantic Ocean(Hades, now Cadiz). Already from the VIII-VII centuries. BC NS. there are references to the distant land of Tarshish - probably Tartesse in Spain, beyond the Strait of Gibraltar.
Carthage
The main area of Phoenician colonization was North Africa, where a number of cities were founded on the territory of modern Tunisia, and among them the already mentioned Carthage - in Phoenician "Kart-Hadasht", which means in translation "New city", perhaps, in contrast to the more ancient colony Utica. The ruins of Carthage are located near the modern city of Tunis. Carthage, being a colony of Tire, was itself the metropolis for a number of Phoenician colonies in the Western Mediterranean. Located in a fertile valley on the shores of the Gulf of Tunis, which forms a convenient harbor protected from storms and winds, Carthage had an advantageous geographical position as the center of Phoenician colonization.
Nominally dependent on Tire, Carthage actually enjoyed complete independence. Subjugating all the other Phoenician colonial cities of North Africa, he conquered numerous Libyan tribes and created a state with a significant territory. This state was an oligarchic slave-owning republic. It had significant areas of land suitable for cultivation. In contrast to other Phoenician city-states in Carthage, large agricultural plantations developed on a large scale, where the labor of numerous slaves was exploited. The plantation economy of Carthage played a very important role in the economic history of the ancient world, since it influenced the development of the same type of slave economy, first in Sicily and then in Italy. In the VI century. or maybe in the 5th century. BC NS. in Carthage lived the theoretical writer of the plantation slave economy Magon, whose great work enjoyed such fame that the Roman army, which besieged Carthage in the middle of the II century. BC e., the order was given to preserve this work. And it was really saved. By decree of the Roman Senate, the work of Mago was translated from the Phoenician language into Latin, and then was used by all the theoreticians of agriculture in Rome. For their plantation economy, for craft workshops and for their galleys, the Carthaginians needed a huge number of slaves, selected by them from among prisoners of war and purchased people, as well as from the local population enslaved by Carthaginian usurers.
Carthage early developed into a major center of intermediary trade. Its scope was very wide. Slaves, ivory - from the interior regions of Africa, expensive fabrics and carpets - from the countries of Western Asia, gold, silver - from Spain, tin - from Britain, wax - from Corsica, wine - from the Balearic Islands, oil, wine - from Sicily, and later, the products of Greek artistic handicrafts - this is not a complete list of items of Carthaginian trade.
Carthage acted, as already indicated, the unifier of the numerous Phoenician cities on the northern coast of Africa. The creation of this association pursued, among others, the task of fighting the Greeks, who from the VIII century. BC NS. began to penetrate extremely actively into the western Mediterranean.
A strong federation on the African coast was not enough for the development of trade and to combat the penetration of the Greeks into the Western Mediterranean, but it was also necessary to create strongholds in western regions Mediterranean basin. The beginning of colonization was, as we have seen, laid by the cities of Phenicia, but Carthage developed here a much more energetic colonization activity. In the middle of the VII century. BC NS. the Carthaginians settled in the Balearic Islands and soon afterwards entered Sardinia. At the end of the 7th-beginning of the 6th century. BC NS. begins a stubborn struggle with the Greeks for Sicily, which in total lasted more than three centuries. In the first half of the VI century. BC NS. the Carthaginians conquered a large part of Sicily. At the end of the same century, their active penetration into Spain began, which resulted in the transfer of the old colonies of Tire to the possession of Carthage and the spread of colonization from the coast deep into the Iberian Peninsula.
The formation of the colonial Carthaginian state was far from peaceful. In a number of countries, the Carthaginians met stubborn resistance from local tribes. For example, in Spain, the Iberian tribes fought a long-term fierce struggle with Hades, one of the oldest Phoenician colonies. The city was captured by them, and the Carthaginians had to besiege Hades and take it by storm. The resistance of the local population was met by the Carthaginians in Sardinia.
Nevertheless, the main rival of the Carthaginians during this period were, as it is said, the Greeks. So, at the beginning of the VI century. BC NS. the Carthaginians faced the Greeks from Phocaea, who settled Massalia (now Marseille in the south of France); penetration into Spain was also associated with the struggle against the Greeks, and, finally, the entire First stage the struggle for Sicily is characterized by military clashes with the Greeks. In the course of this struggle, the naval power of Carthage developed, its state apparatus strengthened, adapted not only for the oppression of slaves and the dependent population, but also designed to serve the predatory aspirations of the ruling elite of Carthaginian society.
Phoenicians sea travel
Relying on their colonies, the Phoenician and Carthaginian navigators gradually began to go far beyond the Mediterranean Sea. During the heyday of the Phoenician and Carthaginian navigation, the sea became a means of communication between the three continents of the Mediterranean and distant countries outside Gibraltar. The Phoenicians were the first of the Mediterranean peoples to reach the shores of present-day England and receive tin here. By exchange, they received amber, which was then so valued at that time, delivered here by dry way from the Baltic States to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. Carthaginian sailors, going out into the ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, which they call the "Pillars of Melqart" (the supreme god of Tyrus), also sailed along the western coast of Africa many times. The description of one of such sea expeditions of the brave Carthaginian navigators has come down to us in Greek translation. This is the so-called journey of Hannon, dating from about the 6th or 5th century. BC NS. Although the description of the expedition of the Carthaginian sailor looks like an entertaining adventure novel, nevertheless, all his information, according to the opinion of authoritative researchers, corresponds to reality. It is possible to trace the path of the expedition step by step, comparing the data on this trip with what we know about the geography of the west coast of Africa.
Along with the expeditions to the northwest and southwest, the Phoenician cities sent sea expeditions to the south, with the help of the Egyptians, and sometimes Israel and Judea. Here the Phoenician ships probably reached the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea. The Bible tells about one of such sea voyages when it tells about an expedition to the gold-rich country of Ophir, organized by Hiram, king of Tire, and Solomon, king of Israel. But the most ambitious enterprise should be considered the sea expedition of the Phoenicians, which they made on behalf of the Egyptian king Necho at the end of the 7th century. BC NS. Within three years, they circled Africa and returned through the "Pillars of Melqart", accomplishing this outstanding feat more than two thousand years before Vasco da Gama.
Phoenician culture in the first half of the 1st millennium BC NS.
The general nature of Phoenician culture in the 1st millennium BC NS. remains the same. The main features that distinguished the religion of the Phoenicians of the 2nd millennium also remain generally characteristic of the 1st millennium BC. NS. Deities - the patrons of craft and navigation - are acquiring somewhat greater importance than before. The main god of Tyrus and Carthage, Melkart, begins to play an important role. Such features of the cult as human sacrifice persist even now.
The art of Phenicia of the 1st millennium was little independent. In Phenicia, they imitated mainly Egyptian and partly Assyrian models. However, Phoenician products of artistic handicraft, such as bronze, silver and gold bowls with chased images, were in great demand in the countries of Western Asia and the Mediterranean, and it was through the Phoenicians that art the ancient East exerted a significant influence on the art of Italy and Greece in the first half of the 1st millennium.
The cultural influence of Phenicia was also reflected in the fact that during this period the Phoenician alphabet was spread in the Mediterranean countries.
We know that there was an extensive Phoenician fiction and scientific literature, but its monuments, unfortunately, have not reached us.
The powerful development of an economy based on handicrafts and trade already in the III millennium BC. led the Phoenicians from primitiveness to civilization. Numerous city-states appeared, which never united, because it was simply not profitable for them, because they were trade competitors. therefore Phenicia has never been a single state.
Five cities, located on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the sea in places convenient for the berth of ships, have become major shopping centers in the Middle East. These were - Arwad, Ugarit, Sidon, Tire and Byblos ... These port cities had well-equipped harbors and powerful fortifications.
For the convenience of trade, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean. In the 9th century BC. immigrants from Tire was founded Carthage , which soon became a large trading city itself. Gradually Carthage turned into the richest city, which became the center of a powerful state. Gradually, not only the neighboring Phoenician colonial cities obeyed him, but also some peoples living in Africa and Spain.
The Phoenician colonies have become a meeting place for many peoples. The variety of languages found on the tablets proves this. The Phoenicians moving west did not hate foreigners, which is why their trade was so successful and people of many nationalities settled in their land. Not only Africans, but also Italians, Etruscans, Greeks and probably even Egyptians came to engage in crafts and trade in the Phenician colony.
All Phoenician cities and their colonies, regardless of their size, were surrounded by fortress walls. Clay and brick buildings were mostly two-story, although there were also six-story houses with magnificent bathrooms, floors paved with pink cement interspersed with small marble cubes. In the cities, magnificent temples and palaces were erected.
The city-states of Phenicia zealously sought to maintain their political independence. It should be especially noted that the Phoenicians themselves did not even consider themselves a single people and did not have a single self-name, designating themselves as "people of such and such a city." In each big city there was a separate king, and with him was a council of the most noble inhabitants of this city. The king and council ruled over the city and the surrounding area. Without the permission of the council, the king could not make important decisions. As a result of such disunity, the cities of Phenicia could not withstand the numerous conquerors. The wealth of the Phoenicians attracted the greedy gaze of their neighbors, and first the Egyptians, and then the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks and Romans, ruled over the cities of Phenicia.
City Byblos(Byblos) or as the Phoenicians called it Gebal, counts the oldest city the world. According to some estimates, it is about 7,000 years old. He was the first to establish sea trade with Egypt and, having submitted to the "country of Hapi", became the main center of Egyptian influence in the Middle East. Back in the III millennium BC. the export of Phoenician goods to Egypt was carried out mainly through the Bible. It was the Byblos merchants who later began to supply Greece with papyrus, the main writing material of that time. In the Greek language then appeared the words "biblion" - "book" and "bible" - "books". The Greeks began to call Gubla Byblos or Byblos. Byblos is noted even in the myths of neighboring peoples, it seemed to them such an eternal stronghold. So in one of the versions of the Egyptian myth about the change of seasons, it was in the Bible that the suffering Isis found one of the parts of the body of the god Osiris cut off by Set.
To the north of Byblos was a city Ugarit. He was near the mouth of the river Oronte , directly opposite the northeastern tip of the island Cyprus and at the intersection of sea routes from the Aegean Sea and Asia Minor to Egypt and Asia Minor. It was a fortified seaside city, in which, along with valuable material monuments, numerous tablets were found dating back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, with texts written in the most ancient cuneiform alphabet, consisting of 29 letters.
The southernmost cities of Phenicia were constantly at war with each other Sidon and Tyr, located close to each other. Both cities were protected by rocks from the attack of external enemies. The safest was the location of Tire, the southernmost of the Phoenician cities. 3 thousand years ago Tire was on an island, and its suburbs and cemeteries were on the mainland. According to some legends, the founding of the city is attributed to the goddess Astarte , according to others - her son to the sea god Melkart , whom the goddess gave birth to on an island under an olive tree. The Phoenicians came here on ships, which this god of the sea taught them to build. All the inhabitants of Tire moved to its insular part in the event of an enemy invasion, when it was impossible to save the mainland part of the settlement from destruction. With the help of the fleet, the island could be supplied with water. Thus, Tire was inaccessible to an enemy army that did not have a strong fleet.
The neighboring city of Sidon was founded in the 3rd millennium BC. for a long time it was owned by Egypt. Under the pharaohs, Sidon was the main city of Phenicia, therefore all Phoenicians were often called Sidonians.
None of the Phoenician city-states had the strength to unite the whole of Phenicia within a single state. For centuries, the struggle was only for the predominance of one or another Phoenician city; so, in the middle of the II millennium BC. the city of Ugarit prevailed in the north, and Byblos in the center. In the first half of the XIV century BC. Ugarit lost its significance and, in the end, it was subordinated to the Hittite king and became part of the Hittite state. Byblos at the same time was defeated in an unbearable struggle with the neighboring city-states united against him, since the pharaoh of Egypt Akhenaten left him without his help. Since then, power has passed to the city of Sidon, although Byblos subsequently continued to play a significant role. However, the triumph of Sidon was not long, for about 1200 BC. it was destroyed by the "sea peoples" who, after the defeat of the Hittite state, devastated the whole of Phenicia and the coast of Palestine.
VOCABULARY:
Competition- rivalry, the struggle to achieve the greatest benefits, advantages.
Letter- a sign corresponding to a sound or a simple combination of sounds.
Alphabet- a set of letters arranged in a specific order.
QUESTIONS:
1. How was the lifestyle of the Phoenicians different from the lifestyle of the Egyptians or Babylonians? How did the cities of Phenicia differ from the cities of Egypt and Mesopotamia?
2. Why did the Phoenician cities grow rich rapidly in the II-I millennia BC?
3. Think why the Phoenicians founded colonies?
4. Some scholars believe that the word "Phenicia" has roots in the Greek language (from the Greek. "Foyna" - crimson people); others prove the Egyptian origin of the name of the country (from the word "fenechu" - shipbuilders). Why did the Greeks and Egyptians call the Phoenicians differently? Which version seems to you the most convincing?
5. Using the map, explain why the inhabitants of the city of Ugarit, in addition to Phoenician, used Greek and Hittite, and the inhabitants of Byblos spoke and wrote Egyptian.
6. There is an assumption that Phoenician seafarers were able to visit the shores of distant America. Do you think it was possible?
7. Remember what the god Melqart patronized. Think about what caused such a strange combination of functions in one god.
THEME 17. HISTORY OF ANCIENT JEWS.
In the paragraphs of this topic, you can find answers to the questions:
1. What were the natural and geographical conditions of Palestine.
2. What peoples lived in Palestine.
3. How the oldest monotheistic religion in the world appeared.
4. How the kingdom of Israel was created.
5. What was the picture of the world of the ancient Jews.
Phoenician cities
Individual Phoenician settlements became independent city-states. IN early period the main role was played by Sidon, later Tire took his place. Other cities of Phenicia are Akko, Achziv, Sarepta of Sidon, Berit (modern Beirut), Byblos (Gebal), Tripoli and Arwad. Sometimes the Phoenician cities also include Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra) located to the north of Phenicia.
Name
The name "Phenicia" probably comes from the Greek. φοινως - "purple", possibly associated with the production of purple paint from a special type of molluscs that lived off the coast of Phenicia, which was one of the main industries of local residents.
Another explanation is Greek. Φοϊνιξ - "the land of the Phoenix" (a red solar deity that appeared from the east). [ ] The etymology can be traced in the Date palm section. Probably, the Greeks, who sailed to the shores of Phenicia from the west, saw palm trees in the rays of the rising Sun, vividly reminiscent of the plumage of a mythical bird.
There is also a version that the name comes from the Egyptian word “ fenech"-" builder of ships ", as the Phoenicians really were engaged in navigation and shipbuilding.
For the first time this name is found in Homer and is often mentioned by Greek historians. Homer's name "Phoenicians" is a synonym for "Sidonians". Apparently, Phenicia is the Greek equivalent of the name Canaan. In a later period, in the translation of the Septuagint, the name "Canaanites" is regularly translated in the Gospels as "Phoenicians" (cf. Mk.; Matt.; Acts;;).
History
The coastal position of the Phoenician cities facilitated the development of trade. It has been established that already in the II millennium BC. NS. there were trade links between Phoenician cities and Egypt. In the XIII century BC. NS. Phenicia experienced the invasion of the peoples of the sea. On the one hand, a number of cities were destroyed and fell into decay, on the other, the peoples of the sea weakened Egypt, which led to the independence and rise of Phenicia, where Tire began to play the main role.
The period of the highest boom in Phoenician trade began around 1200 BC. e., when the interior of Syria was occupied by the Arameans. The Phoenicians began to build large (30 m long) keel ships with ram and straight sail. However, the development of shipbuilding led to the destruction of the cedar forests of Lebanon. At the same time, the Phoenicians invented their own writing system. Already in the XII century BC. NS. the colonies of Cadiz (Spain) and Utica (Tunisia) were founded. Then Sardinia and Malta were colonized. In Sicily, the Phoenicians founded the city of Palermo.
Economy
The first Phoenicians were fishermen. Over time, their fishing villages developed into wealthy merchant centers, as they began to use their ships not only for fishing, but also for trade with overseas lands. The Phoenicians created deck rowing ships from Lebanese cedar. In search of cheap raw materials and new markets for sale, the Phoenicians sailed all over the Mediterranean Sea, reached the Atlantic coast of Spain (Tarshish) and even as far as the British Isles, from where they brought tin. Their strongholds were in Spain, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica; but the greatest importance was acquired by the North African colonies, and above all Carthage, the most dangerous enemy of Rome. The Phoenicians also went to the mysterious country of Ophir.
A vivid description of the Phoenician trade is given in the book of Ezekiel. The Phoenicians also carried on a large land trade. It was produced by caravans: the goods were loaded onto camels, which then made a long line of transitions across the steppes. From Tubal and Meshech they brought copper dishes (Ezek.), From Phogarm - horses (Ez.), From Damascus - wine and white wool (Ez.), From Arabia - sheep (Ez.).
In Phoenician manufactories, skillful things were made of metals, ivory and ebony; they made expensive fabrics from wool and silk.
At that time, fabrics dyed with purple paint, which the Phoenicians extracted from sea shells (mollusks) off the coast of Phenicia, were especially highly valued.
Marine expeditions
Around 600 BC NS. by order of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II (according to another version, about 660 BC, by order of the nomarch Necho I), they circled the African continent. The journey from the Red Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar took three years. During this voyage, they began to use oars, which were placed on three decks, and a rectangular sail of about 300 m².
Religion
The Phoenician religion was part of the Semitic cults. The cult was set off by a professional caste of priests who held a privileged position in society. The architecture of the temples of the Phoenician gods was the prototype of the temple of Solomon, which was built with the active help of the Tyrian engineers. The pantheon of Phoenician gods became common to the Semitic peoples. The ancient Jews worshiped the Phoenician Astarte and Tammuz. The Phoenicians especially venerated the Holy Mountains. One of the last adherents of the Phoenician religion was Heliogabalus, who paid special attention to the solar cult and ecstatic worship.
Due to the extensive cultural, economic and political ties with Egypt and, later, Greece, many Phoenician deities have analogues in Egyptian and Greek mythology. The deification of the personality of the ruler or governor of Baal is characteristic, which correlates with the ancient Egyptian religious tradition. Melqart, better known in the Christian tradition as Moloch, also testifies to a similar tradition of deification and veneration of the city ruler. Later, Greek sources began to identify him with Hercules. Often the supreme god acquired the features of a solar deity.
Along with the heavenly male deity, the mother goddess Astarte (the Sidonian deity - 3 Kings) was also worshiped, one of the forms of worship of which was temple prostitution - a one-time sale of her body for money given to the temple of the Goddess.
The Phoenician religion was a synthesis of various traditions. The nomadic Semitic cult of heavenly bodies (the solar bull-headed Sun and the female goddess of the Moon) was layered on the matriarchal Neolithic cult of the Great Mother (akin to Cybele) and the Egyptian couple Isis and Osiris (Adonis).
The sacrifice of children was perceived as the sacrifice most pleasing to the gods; the peoples neighboring with the Phoenicians considered this custom to be proof of the special cruelty of the latter. This type of sacrifice was practiced in especially important cases, the sacrifices of several hundred children are known at the same time. Urns with ashes were buried in a sacred site called tofet. This practice was borrowed from the Phoenicians by the ancient Jews after the conquest of South Canaan. The Bible mentions "leading through the fire" children in the valley of Ginnom (Gehenna) near Jerusalem, in honor of Moloch, under the Jewish kings. The place of worship was, according to the Bible, Tophet in the Hinnom valley (Jer. 32:35).
The issue of child sacrifices and how regularly they were performed in Phenicia has long been a subject of controversy among biblical scholars and archaeologists. Anthropology and history professor Jeffrey Schwartz and his colleagues offered a softer interpretation: "Children were cremated, regardless of cause of death." The remains of 348 burial urns discovered during excavations of the Carthaginian tofet were taken for study.
The examination showed that most of the burials contain the remains of children who died at the age of five months of intrauterine life or died in the first year of life. It is estimated that many babies have died between two and five months of age, and at least 20% of the total- stillborn. Thus, the scientists concluded that the tofet was the burial place for stillborn children and those who died shortly after birth - children of this age could hardly be sacrificed. None of the urns contained enough skeletal material to indicate a double burial. Thus, one cannot speak of mass sacrifices.
Phenicia in the Bible
Phoenician Sidon is called "the firstborn of Canaan" (Gen.). In the era of the Israeli conquest of Canaan, Phoenician Sidon was already called Great (Joshua) and another Phoenician city of Tire was mentioned (Joshua; Ps.; Ps.) - they served as the northern limits of the settlement of the Jews (Judgment). During the reign of King Solomon, Phoenician Sidon owned all of Lebanon and became rich through the sale of cedars (1 Kings), but the famous Phoenician ruler was the King of Tire Hiram (1 Kings). Tire traded "with the nations on many islands" (Ezek.), Ruled from Sidon to Arvad (Ez.). The Phoenicians helped the Israelites build the temple and taught them sailing (1 Kings).
In the New Testament, Phenicia is sometimes called own name(Acts.;), And sometimes is designated as "the limits of Tire and Sidon" (Mk.), Where, according to the Gospels, Jesus Christ expelled the demon from the daughter of a "Syrophenician woman" (Mk.) Or "Canaanite woman" (Mt.). Other inhabitants of the "seaside places of Tire and Sidon" listened to the Sermon on the Mount (Lk.).
Phoenician colonies
The Phoenicians have mastered almost the entire Mediterranean coast. The first object of their colonization was
