Novgorod land activities. Great Novgorod Prince

By the middle of the 12th century, 15 small and large principalities were formed in Kievan Rus. By the beginning of the 13th century, their number increased to 50. The disintegration of the state was not only negative (weakening before the invasion of Tatar-Mongols), but also a positive result.

Rus in the period of feudal fragmentation

In individual principalities and prunes, the rapid growth of cities began, trade relations with the Baltic States and the Germans began to be formed. Changes in local culture were noticeable: the chronicles were created, new structures and so on were erected.

Large regions of the country

The state had several large principalities. Such, in particular, can be considered Chernihiv, Kiev, Severskoye. However, three were considered the largest three in the southwest, Novgorod and Vladimir-Suzdal Principality in the northeast. These were the main political centers of the state of that time. It is worth noting that they all had their own distinctive features. Next, let's talk about what the features of the Novgorod Principality were.

General

The origins of the Novgorod Principality began not completely clear. The oldest mention of the main city of the region belongs to the 859th year. However, it is assumed that at that time the chronicles did not use the weather records (they appeared by 10-11 centies), and they collected those legends that were most popular in the people. After Russia adopted the Byzantine tradition of drawing up the legends, the authors had to make up the stories, depending on the dates on their own, before the start of the weather records. Of course, such dating is inaccurately, so you should not trust it completely.

Principality "Novgorod Earth"

What this region was in denotes "new called fortified settlements, surrounded by the walls. Archaeologists found three settlements that were in the territory that the Novgorod Principality was held. The geographical position of these areas is indicated in one of the chronicles. According to the information, the region was on the left bank of Volkhov ( Where now is the Kremlin).

Over the time of the settlement, the settlements were united in one. Residents built a common fortress. She got the name of Novgorod. The nose researcher was developed already existing point of view that the historical predecessor of the new city was a settlement. It was located somewhat higher, not far from the origins of Volkhov. Judging by the annals, the settlement was a fortified settlement. It was the princes of Novgorod Principality and their governors. Local local historians even expressed a fairly bold assumption that Rurik himself lived in the residence. Considering all this, it is possible to fully argue that from this settlement and the Novgorod Principality went. The geographical location of the settlement can be considered an additional argument. It stood on the Baltic and Volga way and was considered to be quite a large trade and craft and military administrative clause.

Characteristic of the Novgorod Princess

In the first centuries, the settlement was small (by the standards of modern times). Novgorod was completely wooden. It was located on two sides of the river, which was quite a unique phenomenon, since usually settlements were located on a hill and on one shore. The first inhabitants built their homes near the water, but not close to it, due to quite frequent floods. The streets of the city were built perpendicular to Volkhov. A little later, they were connected by the "breakdown" alleys, which were walking parallel to the river. From the left shore, the walls of the Kremlin rose. At that time he was much smaller than the one that stands in Novgorod now. On the other beach in the Slovenian village there were estates and the princely courtyard.

Russian chronicles

The Novgorod Principality is mentioned in the records enough. However, these few information have a special value. In the annals dated 882nd, told about from Novgorod. As a result, two East Slavic major tribes were united: Polyan and Ilmensky Slavs. It is from that time that the history of the ancient Russian state begins. The records of the 912 year say that the Novgorod Principality paid for Scandinavam per year to 300 hryvnia for maintaining peace.

Entries of other nations

Novgorod Principality is also mentioned in the Byzantine chronicles. So, for example, the emperor Konstantin VII wrote about the Russah in the 10th century. In the Scandinavian sagas also appears to the Novgorod Principality. The earliest legends appeared since the reign of Sons of Svyatoslav. After his death between his two sons, Oleg and Yaropolk broke out the struggle for power. In the year 977, a battle occurred. As a result, Yaropolk defeated Oleg's troops and became the Grand Duke, putting his plants in Novgorod. There was another third brother. But fearing to be killed, Vladimir fled to Scandinavia. However, his absence was relatively short-lived. In the 980th year, he returned to the Novgorod Principality with hired Varyags. Then he defeated landing and moved to Kiev. There, Vladimir Sverdow Yaropolka from the throne and became Kiev Prince.

Religion

The characteristic of the Novgorod Principality will be incomplete, if not to talk about the value of faith in the life of the people. Baptism occurred in 989. At first it was in Kiev, and then in Novgorod. The authorities intensified at the expense of the Christian religion and its monotheism. The church organization was built on a hierarchical principle. She became the most powerful tool for the formation of Russian statehood. In the year of baptism in Novgorod was sent by Joamak Korsunyanin (Byzantine priest). But, I must say that Christianity did not immediately fit. Many residents were in no hurry to part with the faith of their ancestors. According to archaeological excavations, many pagan rites have survived until 11-13 centuries. And, for example, the carnival is celebrated today. Although several christian coloring is granted this holiday.

Activity Yaroslav

After Vladimir became Kiev Prince, he sent her son to Novgorod to the Son, and after his death - Yaroslav. With the name of the latter, an attempt to get rid of the influence of Kiev. So, in 1014, Yaroslav refused to pay tribute. Vladimir, having learned about it, began to collect a squad, but during the preparation suddenly died. At the throne, Svyatopolk appeared. He killed his brothers: Svyatoslav Drevlyansky and subsequently considered the face of Holy Gleb and Boris. Yaroslav was in a rather difficult position. On the one hand, he was absolutely not against seizing power in Kiev. But on the other, his squad was not strong enough. Then he decided to turn to Novgorod to the speech. Yaroslav urged the people to capture Kiev, returning, thus, all that was selected in the form of Dani. Residents agreed, and after some time in the battle of love, Svyatopolk was broken on his head and fled to Poland.

Further development of events

In 1018, along with a friend of Boleslav (his father-in-law and king of Polish), Svyatopolk returned to Russia. In the battle, they broke thoroughly to Yaroslav (he fled with four deugers from the field). He wanted to go to Novgorod, and then planned to move to Scandinavia. But the inhabitants did not give him to do it. They chose all the rooks, gathered money and a new army, giving the princess to continue to fight. At this time, confident that quite tightly sits on the throne, Svyatopolk quarreled with the Polish king. Unfoliated support, he lost the battle on the alte. Yaroslav, after the battle, let go of the Novgorod residents, giving them special letters - "Truth" and "Charter". They had to live on them. Over the next decades, the Novgorod Principality also depended on Kiev. First, Yaroslav sent his son to Ilya as a governor. He then sent Vladimir, who in 1044 laid the fortress. Next year, on his order, the construction of a new stone cathedral was launched instead of a wooden Sofia (which burned). Since then, this temple symbolizes Novgorod spirituality.

Political system

He folded gradually. In history there are two periods. The first existed the feudal republic, where the prince ruled. And in the second - the Office belonged to the oligarchy. During the first period in the Novgorod principal, there were all the main bodies of the state-owl. The highest institutions were considered the Boyarsky Council and Evening. The executive authority was endowed with a thousandth and princely courts, landing, headlights, moays and carriers by wipers. Vese was of particular importance. It was considered the supreme power and had a greater force here than in other principalities. Evening decided issues of an internal and foreign policy, expelled or chose the ruler, Posal and other officials. It was also the highest judicial authority. Another body was the Board of Boyar. In this body, the entire city management system was focused. The Council was attended by: famous boyars, elders, thousands, positors, archbishop and prince. The rule of the ruler itself was significantly limited in functions and scope, but at the same time, of course, occupied the leading place in the management bodies. At first, the candidacy of the future prince was discussed on the Board Board. After that, he was invited to sign a contractual diploma. It regulated the legal and state status and obligations of the authorities in relation to the ruler. Prince lived with his courtyard in the suburb of Novgorod. The ruler did not have the right to publish laws, to proclaim the war or peace. Together with the landing station, the prince commanded the army. The restrictions did not allow the rulers to be fixed in the city and put them in a control area.

Novgorod land (or Land Novgorodskaya) - One of the largest territorial statements in the ancient Russian state, and then a Moscow state that existed to 1708 with the center in Novgorod.

During the period of the greatest development reached the White Sea and spread to the Ural Mountains in the East. Covered almost the entire modern North-West of Russia.

Administrative division

Administratively by the end of the Middle Ages was divided into five, which in turn were shared on half (Pleas), parish, county (preoccupation), grades and mills, and in the annoyance, the beginning of this division was put in the X century Princess Olga, who divided the Novgorod land to the seats and Set lessons. In the "Tale of Bygone Years", a definition is given as "Great and Abundant Earth."

Judging from the "Tale of Bygone Years" and archaeological data to the times of the arrival of Rurik in 862, large settlements were already Novgorod (probably a chain of settlements from the origins of Volkhov and Rurikov settlement up to the Hoping town, opposite the Krechevitz), Ladoga, Izborsk and possibly Belosero. Scandinavians were probably called this territory of Gardarika.

The P Penta system was finally formed by the XV century. In each five, there were several courtes (counties), in each precession (county) - for several polls and volosts.

Five: Wipe, near Lake Nevo (Lake Lake); Obony, to the White Sea; Bezhetskaya, to the Musta; Country, up to Lovati; Shelon, from Lovy to the meadow)

and Novgorod parish: the cloud, along the Northern Dvina from Onega to Mezeni, Perm - on the exhaust and top. Kame, Pechora - along the Pechora River to the Ural Range and Ugra - for the Ural Range.

Some territories of the region of the late Novgorod colonization were not included in the five division and formed a number of volosts that were in a special position, and five cities with suburbs did not belong to any five. In the position of these cities, there was a feature that they first consisted in joint ownership of Novgorod: Wolib-Lamb, Bezhzhiki (then Gorodetsk), Torzhok with great princes Vladimirsky and then Moscow, and Rzhev, Great Luke with Princes Smolensk and then Lithuanian when Smolensk was captured by Lithuania. For Obuen and Bezhetsky Pyatnin, in the north-east there was a volost of the cloud, or Dvinskaya Earth. She was called Worder, because he was behind the wolf-watershed, separating the Ovega pools and the Northern Dvina from the Volga basin. The flow of the Perm Land was determined with its tributaries. For Dvina Earth and Perm Next to the northeast, the surroundings of Pechora on both sides of the river of this name were, and from the eastern side of the Northern Ural Hare was the urg parish. On the north shore of the White Sea was the volost of the Tre, or the TERSKAYA.

In 1348, Pskov was provided by the autonomy of Novgorod in part of the selection of landans, while Pskov recognizes the Moscow Prince its head and agrees to elect to the Pskov Principle of individuals, pleasing to the Great Prince. From 1399, these princes are called Moscow governors. Vasily II achieves the right to appoint Pskov governors at its discretion, and they bring the oath not only Pskov, but also the Great Prince. At Ivan III, PSKovichi refuse the right to shift the princes appointed to them. Since 1510, Pskov - Vasili Vasily III.

Settlement

The settlement of the territory of the Novgorod land began in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Valdai hill from the times of Paleolithic and Mesolitis, along the border of the Valdai (Ostashkovsky) glaciation, and in the north-west of the peiled, in the area of \u200b\u200bthe future territorial center - since the times of Neolithic.

During the times of Herodood about 25 centuries ago, the land from about the Baltic to the Urals completely or partially mastered the Androfagi, the neury, Melanchlene (Smolyan, Budins, Fissagties, Iirki, Northern Scythians in the Volga-Kama region, which are often localized depending on the acedon.

Under Claudia Ptolema in the second century n. e. These land was controlled by Veneny, Stavani, Aorses, Alans, Boruski, Tsarist Sarmaty and even more than a dozen large and small nations. Perhaps continued Roksolanov, Rosomons (Guard of the Ruler of Scythia and Germany), Thiuda (Chud, Vasi-In-Aband, Mens, Mordens and other peoples along the Balto Volga way to 4 centuries. N. E. Entered the power of Germany. Descendants of these Peoples partly entered the ethnos marked by medieval Russian sources.

In the initial part of the "Tale of Bygone Years" in the Lavrentiev Chronicle of 1377, there is the opinion of a medieval chronicle of the more ancient settlement of the peoples:

Also here are the main actions of the epic "Tale of Slovene and Ruse and the city of Slovensk" and the epics about Sadko.

The presence of the migration so-called nostic communities is assumed archaeologically and through the study of toponymics, of which several thousand years ago, Indo-Europeans were distinguished in the district (Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bin particular - future Slavs and Balts) and Finno-Ugry. This polyethnicity is confirmed by ethnogenetic, genodeography.

Traditionally it is believed that in the VI century, the cryavic tribes came here, and in the VIII century, a tribe of Ilmensky came in the process of the Slavic settlement of the Eastern European Plain. On the same territory, the Finno-Ugric tribes lived, who left the memory of themselves in the names of numerous rivers and lakes, although the interpretation of the Finno-Ugric toponymy, exclusively, as Dlavyansky is probably erroneous, and in doubt by many researchers.

The time of the Slavic settlement date, as a rule, according to the type of Kurgan groups and individual mounds located on this territory. Pskov's long mounds are traditionally correlated with curvacons, and mounds in the shape of a hill with Sloves. There is also the so-called kurgan hypothesis, based on which various assumptions are possible about the paths of population of this territory.

Archaeological studies in Old Ladoga and Rurikov, a settlement show the presence of the residents of these first large settlements, including Scandinavians, traditionally referred to in the Old Russian (medieval) literary sources in the Old Russian (medieval) literary sources.

Demography

The presence of migration hypothetical so-called Nostratic communities here is assumed archaeologically and by studying toponymics, of which several thousand years ago, Indo-Europeans were distinguished in the district (Indo-European languages \u200b\u200bin particular - future Slavs and Balts) and Finno-Ugry. This polyethnicity is confirmed by ethnogenetic, genodeography.

In addition to the Slavic population, a noticeable part of the Novgorod land was settled in various Finno-Ugric tribes, which were at different stages of culture and standing in various relations to Novgorod. Wask Pyatina Along with the Slavs was populated with water and Izhoro, which have long been in close connection with Novgorod. You, who lived in Southern Finland, was usually in the hostility with Novgorod and more inclined to the side of the Swedes, while the neighboring Karela usually held Novgorod. A long time ago, Novgorod came into a collision with a miracle that inhabited Liflandia and Estlandia; With this miracle, Novgorod is a constant struggle, which later passes into the struggle of Novgorod residents with Livonian knights. The cloud was inhabited by Finno-Ugric tribes, they were often called the Zavorotsky miracle; Later, Novgorod colonists rushed into this edge. The TEXCHACE was populated with vocabies. Further, Perm and Zyryan lived in the north-east.

The center of Slavic settlements was the surroundings of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov River, Ilmenie Slovene lived here.

History

Ancient period (up to 882)

Novgorod land was one of the centers of the formation of the Russian state. It was in the Novgorod land that Rurikovich dynasty began to prince, and state education emerged, the so-called Novgorod Rus, which was taken to begin the history of Russian statehood.

As part of Kievan Rus (882-1136)

After 882, the Center for Russian Earth gradually shifts to Kiev, but Novgorod land retains its autonomy. In the X century, Ladoga was attacked by the Norwegian Yarrika Yarric. In 980, Novgorod Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (the Baptist) at the head of the Varyaja squad will overthrow the Kiev prince Yarozor, in 1015-1019, Novgorod Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich Wise overthrew the Kiev Prince Svyatopolka Okyanne.

In 1020 and in 1067, Novgorod land was attacked by Polotsk Izaslavich. At this time, the governor is the son of the Kiev Prince - possessed even greater powers. In 1088, Vsevolod Yaroslavich sent a minor grandson of Mstislav (son Vladimir Monomakh) to the reign in Novgorod. At this time, the Planting Institute appears - Prince's companions, whom the Novgorod community elected.

In the second decade of the XII century, Vladimir Monomakh took a number of measures to strengthen the position of the central government in Novgorod Earth. In 1117, without taking into account the opinion of the Novgorod community, Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich was planted to the Novgorod throne. Some boyars opposed such a decision of the prince, in connection with which they were caused to Kiev and thrown into prison.

After the death of Mstislav the Great in 1132 and deepening tendencies of fragmentation, the Novgorod Prince lost to support the central government. In 1134, Vsevolod was expelled from the city. Returning to Novgorod, he was forced to conclude a "row" with Novgorod, restricting his powers. On May 28, 1136, in connection with the discontent of Novgorod, the actions of Prince Vsevolod was enclosed in custody, and after that, he was expelled from Novgorod.

Republican period (1136-1478)

In 1136, after the expulsion of Vsevolod, Mstislavich in Novgorod land established republican rule.

In the days of the Mongolian invasion, Novgorod lands were not conquered on Russia. In 1236-1240 and 1241-1252 In Novgorod, Alexander Nevsky printed, in 1328-1337. - Ivan Kalita. Until 1478, the Novgorod Princely Table held predominantly Suzdal and Vladimir Princes, then the Moscow Great Princes, rarely - Lithuanian, see Novgorod Princes.

The Novgorod Republic was captured, and its lands are annexed by the Moscow king Ivan III after the Shelon Battle (1471) and the subsequent hike to Novgorod 1478.

As part of a centralized Russian state (from 1478)

Conquer Novgorod in 1478, Moscow inherited his former political relations with neighbors. The legacy of the Independence period was the preservation of diplomatic practice, in which the North-Western neighbors of Novgorod - Sweden and Livonia - supported diplomatic relations with Moscow through the Novgorod governors of the Grand Prince.

In the territorially, the Novgorod land in the era of the Moscow Kingdom (XVI-XVII centuries) was divided into 5 puzzles: Wipskaya, Shelon, Obuch, Country and Bezhetsky. The smallest units of administrative division at that time were the grades for which the geographical location of settlements was determined, the population and their applied property were calculated.

The reign of Vasily III

On March 21, 1499, the son of King Ivan III Vasily was declared Grand Duke Novgorod and Pskov. In April 1502, the Grand Duke in Moscow and Vladimir and All Russia, Ivan III became the co-program, and after the death of Ivan III, October 27, 1505 - the sole monarch.

The reign of Ivan Grozny

• Russian-Swedish War 1590-1595
• Okrichnina, Novgorod pogrom
• Ingermanlandia

Time of Troubles. Swedish occupation.

1609 In Vyborg, the Government of Vasily Shuisky concluded a Vyborg Treaty with Sweden, according to which the Korean county was transferred in exchange for military assistance to the Swedish crown.

In 1610, Ivan Odoyevsky was appointed in Novgorod.

In 1610, Tsar Vasily Shuisky was lowered and Moscow swore Korivichu Vladislav. In Moscow, a new government was formed, which began to lead to the oath of Kingdom and other cities of the Moscow state. The Novgorod was sent to bring to the oath and to protect against the Swedes who were at the north in the north and from the thieves of I. M. Saltykov. Novgorod and, probably, at the head of them and Oryoevsky, the former in good relations with the Novgorod Metropolitan Isidor, who had a great influence on Novgorod, and, apparently, and the most used among the Novgorod residents respect and love, agreed to let Saltykov, and swear to King than will receive from Moscow a list with the approved armored certificate; But having received a diploma only after they took a promise with Saltykov that he would not bring to the city of Poles.

Soon in Moscow and in all over Russia there was a strong movement against the Poles; At the head of the militia, who settled his task to expel Poles from Russia, became Prokoki Lyapunov, together with some other persons who had a temporary government, which, having entered into the country's office, began to send a governor around the cities.

In the summer of 1611, Swedish General Jacob Dugardi came to Novgorod with his army. He entered into negotiations with the Novgorod authorities. He asked the governor, the enemies they are the Swedes or friends and whether to comply with the Vyborg Treaty, concluded with Sweden with the Tsar Vasily Shuisky. The governors could only answer that it depends on the future king and that they were not right to answer this question.

The Government of Lyapunov in Novgorod was sent by Voivode Vasily Buturlin. Buturlin, arriving in Novgorod, began to behave differently: immediately began negotiations with Dugadi, offering the Russian crown to one of the sons of King Charles IX. Negotiations started, which were dragged, and in the meantime, Buoturlin, with Odoevsky, there were distributed: Buturlin did not allow cautious Odoevsky to take action for the protection of the city, allowed Duchadi, under the pretext of negotiations, go to the Volkhov and led to the suburban monastery itself, and even allowed Novgorod Trade People supply Swedes with different supplies.

The Swedes realized that they were presented to them a very convenient case to master Novgorod, and on July 8, they told the attack, which was reflected only due to the fact that the Novgorod residents had time to burn the ambulance in Novgorod. However, Novgorodians lasted in Siege for a short time: on the night of July 16, the Swedes managed to break through to Novgorod. The resistance they were rendered to them, since all the roasted people were under the authorities of Bourning, who, after a short battle, retired from the city, whipping Novgorod merchants; Odoevsky and Metropolitan Isidore were locked in the Kremlin, but, without having no combat reserves, no military reserves, should have been in negotiations with Duchadi. A contract was concluded, according to the terms of which Novgorod found the Swedish king with their patron, and Duchadi was pushed into the Kremlin.

By the middle of 1612, the Swedes took the entire Novgorod land, except Pskov and GDOV. Unsuccessful attempt to take Pskov. Swedes stopped hostilities.

The prince of Pozharsky lacked troops to fight at the same time with the Poles and Swedes, so he began negotiations with the latter. In May 1612, the ambassador of the Government of Government Stepan Tatishchev was sent from Yaroslavl to Novgorod, with diplomas to the Novgorod Metropolitan Ishidor, Boyarin Prince Ivan Odenovsky and the commander of the Swedish troops of Jacob Degadi. Metropolitan Isidor and Boyarin Odoevsky asked how they were doing with the Swedes? The government wrote to Duchadi that if the King of Swedish gives his brother to the state and paint it into the Orthodox Christian faith, then they are happy to be with Novgorod in the same advice. Odoyevsky and Duchadi replied that they would soon send their ambassadors to Yaroslavl. Returning to Yaroslavl, Tatishchev announced that there was nothing to wait for the Swedes. Negotiations with the Swedes about the candidate of Karl-Philippe in the Moscow kings have become for Pozharsky and mining the reason to convene the Zemstvo Cathedral. In July, the promised ambassadors were arrived in Yaroslavl: The igumen of the Virgin Monastery Gennady, Prince Fyodor Obolensky and from all five, from the nobles and from the Poshesky people - for a person. July 26, Novgorod appeared before the Pozharsky and stated that "Korolevich is now on the road and will soon be in Novgorod." The speech of the ambassadors ended with the proposal to "be with us in love and connections under the hand of one sovereign."

Then a new embassy was sent from Yaroslavl to Novgorod. He was entrusted with the assistance of the Novgorod Metropolitan Isidor to conclude an agreement with the Swedes "So that the peasantry was silence and peace." It is possible that in this regard, it was raised in Yaroslavl and the question of the election of the King of the Swedish Royal, recognized by Novgorod. However, the royal election in Yaroslavl did not take place.

In October 1612, Moscow was released and there was a need to choose a new sovereign. From Moscow to many of Russia, including in Novgorod, diplomas on behalf of the liberators of Moscow - Pozharsky and Trubetsky were sent out. In early 1613, the Zemsky Cathedral was held in Moscow, at which a new king was elected - Mikhail Romanov.

The Swedes left Novgorod only in 1617, only a few hundred inhabitants remained in a fully ruined city. During the events of the vague time, the borders of the Novgorod land were significantly reduced due to the loss of border lands with the Sweden of the Land in the Stolban World of 1617.

As part of the Russian Empire

• Novgorod province

In 1708, the territory entered the Ingermanland (C 1710 St. Petersburg province) and the Archangelogodskaya province, and from 1726 the Novgorod province was allocated, in which there were 5 provinces: Novgorod, Pskov, Tverskaya, Belozerskaya and Velivakovskaya.

Remarks

• The concept of "Novgorod Earth" is sometimes not always true (depending on the historical period) include the areas of Novgorod colonization on the North Dvina, in Karelia and Polar.

• Period of political history Novgorod land starting with the coup of 1136 and a sharp limit of the role of the prince, to the victory of Moscow Prince Ivan III over Novgorod, in 1478, by a majority of Soviet and modern historians call - "Novgorod feudal republic".

Agriculture.

In the economy of the Novgorod Republic, agriculture had a primary role - the medieval society was agrarian. The most important source of knowledge about agriculture is archeology. Through a comprehensive study of grain, seeds of weeds and agricultural tools found during excavations, it was found that the level of development of agriculture in the Novgorod Earth was very high in the XI - XII centuries.

From the cultivated cultures, the first place belonged to winter rye, which indicates the predominance of seeds of winter weeds (the fact is that there are related plants for each culture).

Wheat ranked second in Novgorod farming. Judging by the seeds of spring weeds, in the XII century in the Novgorod Earth, the spring wheat was grown mainly. To a much lesser extent than rye and wheat, barley and oats are sown.

The appearance of a culture of winter rye is a faithful sign of the folding of the giving agriculture system. Under marvelous soil conditions, only a steam field can be the predecessor of a field with winter rye, which is a defining element of this system. One of its forms is a two-pole - alternation of steam and winter rye. Since it was established that wheat was cultivated on the ancient Nodynivodskogo spring, we can talk about the existence in the XII century three-round crop rotation, the most common in the steam system of agriculture. True, there were still a lost marriage and overlapping agriculture system, as well as some transitional forms of the steam system, such as the Pepling, when sowing bread and pairs alternated without any order.

Agricultural machinery used by the Oldenoven farmers responded to the level of development of agriculture of that time. During the excavations in Novgorod, coulters were found, the design of which proves that they were used for the processing of alignment of early older soils. In the cultural layer of the XIII century, a compound of the so-called reinforced design was found, differing from the usual slightly smaller dimensions, a greater thick and narrower working part. Such coulters were intended for processing heavy soils and forest clearing. This means that the sliding system of agriculture has not yet disappeared by that time.

The land was treated with multi-makers, more often three sucks, soeches. The appearance of such skeins was obviously due to the transition to fatal agriculture using harness. Reeling bread with sickles.

The farming has been closely associated with farming, which also played an important role in the farm Novgorod. If agriculture was the main occupation of the rural population of the Novgorod Republic, then the citizens could also be engaged in cattle breeding. This is evidenced by archaeological data. In all layers of ancient Novgorod, a huge number of animal bones was discovered by excavations. A wide dissemination of cattle breeding in Novgorod is evidenced by a cultural layer, rich in manure. Novgorod residents bred a large and small horned cattle, pigs, horses.

In addition to cattle breeding, both rural and the urban population of Novgorod land was engaged in vegetable growing and fruit. Gardens and gardens were probably the affiliation of many urban estates. In any case, the seeds of vegetables and fruits are not a rare discovery during excavations. In the layers of the XIII century, seeds of cucumbers were discovered. It can also be believed that in the ancient Novgorod they grown cabbage - in the layers of the XIII century, the slaves were found - manual guns for planting cabbage. Under 1215, a turnip is mentioned in the chronicle, which was obviously very common in Novgorod. In the layers of the XII century, seeds of garden dill were found.

From fruit trees was the most common cherry. Cherry bones during excavations are found very often, and the greatest amount in the layers of the XII century. In Novgorod, also grown apple tree.

From berry shrubs, black currants and raspberries were bred, the seeds of which are often found during the excavations.

Despite the fact that agriculture of Veliky Novgorod was, as far as the conditions were allowed, developed, it could not provide all the needs of the Novgorod population. As noted in the introduction, the scarcity of soil and the nature of the climate was encouraged by Novgorod to actively occupy craft and trade. In addition, producing goods, Novgorod could sell them to the West without intermediaries. Thus, the prerequisites for the development of the crafts in the Novgorod Republic were rather significant.

The chronicle call the following handicraft specialty: shirt, tanner, silver, kotelnik, oponik, clove, blacksmith. Silvernikov called artisans-jewelers. Shchele, cloves and boilers were masters of different specialties in blacksmithing. Speakers were called artisans engaged in a certain type of weaving (later they became known as felt). The Novgorod residents achieved special success in a carpentry: they were known in Russia as skillful carpenters.

At the end of the brief version of the Russian truth, the so-called "Matnikov lesson" is placed. Mosnikov, apparently, called builders of bridge or bridges. In the conditions of the raw Novgorod climate, the streets of the city without a bridge would be impassable and non-coming, especially in the spring and autumn. Bridges were releasing approximately every 15-20 years, sometimes they were repaired, and because they served longer. Thus, the disadvantage of the workshops did not experience, and this specialty appeared early (the most ancient Novgorod bridges belong to the middle of the century). Quite often, it was necessary to build bridges that were constantly suffering from fires, even the Great Bridge through Volkhov was repeatedly buried. The so-called "Charter of Prince Yaroslav about bridges", which refers to the 60s of the XIII century, about large attention to the construction of bridges.

Mentioned in the chronicles craft professions are not exhausted all types of crafts in ancient Novgorod, there were much more of them. To find out what was the level of craft development, how diverse handled professions were possible, it was possible only after systematic archaeological works were carried out in Novgorod.

The excavations of Novgorod, which began in 1932 and continuing so far, showed that Novgorod was the largest handicraft center of his time. This conclusion was made on the basis of the study of remnants of craft workshops, opened by excavations, and products of Novgorod artisans. Of course, not all craft workshops left after themselves traces, for which it is possible to reliably establish what their inhabitants were engaged. It is possible to determine the craft workshop, first of all, by a large number of production residues, as well as for defective products, semi-finished products and tools. As a result of the excavations produced in different parts of the city, remnants of craft workshops were discovered. This suggests that the majority of the population of ancient Novgorod was engaged in various crafts.

The XII century and the first half of the XIII century were the heyday of the craft in many ancient Russian cities. But the heavy burden of Tatar yoke could not not affect the production spheres of Russia. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of people, including artisans, were killed or enclosed in un. As a result, the craft came into decline. Novgorod the Great escaped the ruin, having tried tribute.

However, if in a number of cities destroyed by the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, the period preceding him was the time of the highest heyday of the medieval craft (Domongolsky level handicraft production in these cities could not achieve at a later time), then it is impossible to say this. The process of developing productive forces in the Novgorod feudal republic was not interrupted, and in the second half of the XIII century they continued to develop on the uplink. The Novgorod craft, like Novgorod himself, reached its heyday, reached in the XIV century.

The high level of iron processing facilitates the progress of many other crafts, which could not be successfully developed without the appropriate toolkit. Based on the study of various tools, it can be argued that in Novgorod, in addition to the masters of all sorts of blacksmith specialties, labeling, tokari, carpentry, carpenters, woodwork, wood cutters, coslozes, leather goods, shoemakers, tailors, jewelers. The study of a huge number of household items and other finished products, as well as semi-finished products and defective products, helps to supplement the list of specialties of Novgorod artisans. A wide variety of both finished products and tools attract attention.

Obviously, artisans in Novgorod specialized in the production of certain types of products. Moreover, sometimes the same master was engaged in various types of crafts. The shoemaker, for example, was a leaky for a long time, which is confirmed by joint findings of the balances of the other production. Only in the XII - XIII centuries, the shoe craft separated from the leather. The shield, besides the knowledge of a blacksmith, was to have the skills of processing copper, wood and skin, since the shields were made of all these materials. But at the same time, a narrow specialization (cloves, kelches and others) developed in a blacksmith craft.

A variety of metal decorations: bracelets, robusts, fibulas, suspension, beads - made highly qualified jewelers. It has been established that most of the jewelry discovered during excavations in Novgorod is a product of local production. This is confirmed by the finds of jewelry workshops, tools and semi-finished products. Masters-jewelers owned a number of complex technical techniques: casting, free forging, drawing, rolling, embossing, chasens, engraving, soldering, gilding, laid enamel, thermal processing of copper and bronze.

A huge amount of leather shoe and skin cutting is evidence of a wide distribution in Novgorod shoemakers.

Developed was a pottery production. The most frequent finds in the excavations are numerous debris of pottery dishes.

Significant development received weaving in ancient Novgorod. When excavations, many fragments of various tissues were found in all layers. Based on the study of textile samples, it was established that before the middle of the XIII century, a vertical weaving machine was served by the main weapon of production, but also a more productive horizontal weaving camp was also known in Novgorod, as evidenced by the findings of its details. Tips made fabrics from the already finished yarn, linen and woolen. Spinning in Novgorod was known from the earliest times (during the excavations a lot of wooden spindles, strawar, drilling, straight trunk) were found.

Craftsmen engaged in processing of wood also made up a very numerous group of Novgorod masters. A huge variety of wooden products found during excavations (spoons, halves, bowls, carved vessels, discs, dishes), speaks of a high level of development of woodwork craft. In addition to turning tools, the lathe dates are found. Often there are billets of spoons, unfinished and spoiled wooden buckets, bowls, wipes.

Most often comb, knife handles, various decorations, sections, checkers, chess figures, buttons, and so on were made of bones. Processed bone pieces, sculpting slices of horns, semi-finished ridges are found in all Novgorod layers. The bone treatment technique was high, as evidenced by the finds of both high-quality bone products and tools with which they were manufactured.

A large group of finds in Novgorod make up glass products, and, first of all, fragments of glass bracelets. Until recently, it was believed that the overwhelming majority of the bracelets were made in the workshops of the ancient Kiev, from where they spread throughout Russia. The existence of local bracelets in Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and other cities was only assumed.

Using the archaeological excavations data, the researchers found that in Novgorod there was their own bracelet production (in addition to the Kiev importation) and that it appeared in the Domongolian time. It was also established that initially Novgorod bracelets were made of lead-silica glass, which in its composition did not differ from glass known in other cities, but in it in the form of a microprymest, antimony oxide was always present. The appearance of its own production of bracelets in Novgorod is associated with the relocation from Kiev masters-bracelers who did not have the competition in their homeland. The first bracelers appeared in Novgorod near the middle of the XII century. In addition, when excavations found bracelets from potassium-lead-silica glass.

At the turn of the XII and XIII centuries in Novgorod there were already two glass-flow schools. Firewalls of the first school cooked lead-silica glass N made green, yellow and brown bracelets from it. The wizards of the second school cooked a glass of potassium-lead-silica and made bracelets of all colors known in Russia, producing predominantly turquoise, purple and blue bracelets that could not make their competitors - the first school glasswers. This indicates the famous specialization in bracelet production.

Some craft professions have to be judged only by insignificant real findings. A number of specialties did not leave archaeological traces at all.

This includes bread jackets, halts, various specialty tailors, which we can learn from the wrist books of the XVI century and which existed, obviously, at earlier time, since the need for their products existed before.

Trade.

Trade has played an important role in the economy of the Old Russian cities. Russian merchants traded with the Baltic States and the Arab East, with Byzantium and Western European countries. Even in the Domongolsky time, a number of large craft and shopping centers were formed in Russia, of which Novgorod was allocated in the north. Handicraft products were supposed to find sales markets, and not only in the city itself, but also in nearby districts, and in more remote places. If at first an artisan was simultaneously a merchant, then in the future a special class of merchants was separated. The merchants specialized in trade, so the emergence of this class contributed to the development of external and internal trade relations.

Trading ties within the Novgorod land undoubtedly existed long ago, and they arose before the foreign trade relationships, but to trace them quite difficult because of the extreme scarcity of chronicle reports. The village was little interested in the city chronicler, and other cities mentioned them only in connection with any important political events. It is almost impossible to trace these ties, as it is impossible to determine the difference between many local items made in different cities of the Novgorod land, for example, iron knives made in Novgorod, Pskov or Rousse.

You can only distinguish objects made by rural artisans, from products of highly skilled urban masters.

In Novgorod, as in the Old Russian village, natural economy dominated. The main needs of the rural population was satisfied within their own farms, and the necessary things that needed in the farm and everyday life, as a rule, from rural artisans. Only high-quality steel tools, weapons, some types of jewelry, jewelry had to purchase in the city. Exchange in rural areas occurred, most likely, in the simplest form, when the blacksmith (or another rural artisan) received meat, grain, fish, etc. for his products, grain, fish, etc.

Agricultural products that were sold for money were made from the village for sale in the city. Buying and selling was "on the bargain", the city market, which was in every city. It was usually established here and prices for goods, oscillating depending on the various circumstances, mainly depending on the crops and faults. The chronicle repeatedly indicates the rise in prices, mainly on bread, in hungry years.

Sometimes freezing or rains, who caused another crop, covered the entire territory of the Novgorod land. In such cases, Novgorod received bread from a trading or from other regions of the Novgorod Republic. The political situation often influenced the supply of bread. So, in a lack of town 1215. In Torzok, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was sitting in the conflict with Novgorod, who "do not let into the city is not a war." Bread prices at the Novgorod trade, of course, rose.

In the hungry years, bread was so expensive that many were simply unable to buy it. A part of the population, fleeing from hunger, left Novgorod to other lands.

Residents of Novgorod diluted cattle, which was also subject to trade.

Numerous products of highly qualified urban kuznetsov were sold at the trade. Knives, keys, locks, axes enjoyed permanent population in demand. Thus, the activities of Novgorod artisans were primarily aimed at meeting the needs of the inhabitants of Novgorod himself and nearby regions.

Foreign trade connections Novgorod were extensive. They can be judged by archaeological, and in written sources. To this day, several documents are preserved, characterizing the commercial relations of Novgorod with the West. One of these documents is the negotiated company of Novgorod with the Gothic shore, Lyubotee and the German cities (1139 - 1199).

The main partners of Novgorod in Western Trade in the XII - XIII centuries were Gotland, Denmark and Lubeck.

In the middle of the XII century. In Novgorod, there was already a shopping courtyard of the Gothda merchants with the Church of St. Olaf.

Russian merchants on Gotland also had their yards and church, which was built, obviously, Novgorod. This is evidenced by the frescoes of the Gotland Church, which are almost completely similar to the frescoes of one of the Novgorod churches.

Visby's city on Gotland in the XII century was the center of trading activities throughout the Baltic Basin. He was in the nominal dependence on Sweden. In 1170 - 1270, when a colony of German merchants, immigrants from Westphalia, Visby reached their heyday, was firmly established.

And although the German merchants during this period were also the Germans to distinguish them from German merchants from the mainland German cities, the Russians called them goths or Varyags. The Germans mentioned in the chronicles under the 1188 year (this is the first mention of their mention), should be considered the Swedes: since we are talking about Swedish cities, the inhabitants of them obviously must be the Swedes. Usually, the Swedes were called "winds".

In the late 80s of the XII century, Novgorod has established trade relations with Lommecom. Appearing in Novgorod, the German merchants also created their yard and built the church of St. Peter. In 1187, the Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa complained Luccite, in which Russian and other merchants were given the right of duty-free trade in Lübeck. This allows you to assume the existence of a constant Russian (most likely, Novgorod) colony in Lübeck. Trading with Lommecom and German cities developed very intensively and at the end of the XIII century. Proticted paramount importance, Danes and Goths were pushed into the background.

The composition of imports from Western Europe to Novgorod is not easy to install. We almost do not know written sources. From archaeological materials with confidence you can only be called amber. Products from amber in Novgorod are very numerous (more than 2000 copies). Amber was brought in Novgorod most often in the untreated form and processed here by local artisans. The smallest number of amber finds are collected in the layers of the XIII century.

Moreover, the amber imported into Novgorod not only from the Baltic states, but also from the Dnieper, where its deposits were also. A sharp reduction in the import of amber in the XIII century. It is explained by the fact that as a result of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, the delivery of goods in Novgorod in the Dniprovsky route ceased. From the Baltic States, Amber at that time was also not imported, since throughout the XIII century Novgorod was in hostile relations with the Teutonic Order. At the beginning of the 40s, the war was held between them, during which trading relations with the Baltic States were completely discontinued.

The imports of imports from the West are decorations (however, very few).

The Novgorod was imported to some grades of fabrics, first of all cloth. It has been established that in the XII century in Novgorod imports, English tissues of high quality prevailed. However, Flemish fabrics appear in the XIII century, which in the future fully capture the local market. In addition to Sukon, in Novgorod, expensive Byzantine fabrics were imported and expensive. Under 1228, the Pavolok is mentioned among the gifts who were visited by Novgorod Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich in Pskov.

In the XII-XIII centuries of high levels in Novgorod reached jewelry craft. In a number of workshops, a large amount of copper was found in the form of finished products, semi-finished products, production waste, ingots and simply pieces of mel. It is known that copper was not mined on the territory of the Novgorod Land. Therefore, it was necessary to import it from abroad. The metal in the form of raw materials was supplied to Novgorod Gothic and German (Lubek) merchants independent of the Teutonic Order. Trade in non-ferrous metals did not interfere with the hostile relations of Novgorod with the Order.

In the first half of the XIII century. In the north of Europe, salt trading began to develop in the North Baltic area. Novgorod participated in it as a buyer. Of all imported goods, salt was the subject of the most massive consumption. It was not only a necessary food product, but also in large quantities was used in a leather business.

The foreign trade of the Novgorod Republic was not limited to the Western direction, it was carried out with southern countries. Archaeological data suggest that in the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod was associated with trade relations with the North Caucasus, Central Asia, Iran and, maybe with Byzantium. This is evidenced by the finds of clearly southern origin. The shell of walnuts was detected during excavations in various layers of different times. The largest number of finds falls on the XII century, and starting from the 40s of the XIII century. The shell of walnuts is rare. Finds of almonds are single. As walnut, so and almonds could be imported from Byzantium, Crimea or from the Caucasus.

Imported are products from the Samsit. Camshet is a southern tree, it still grows on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. In Novgorod, it was imported, obviously by Volzhsky or Dniprovsky. Sugite ridges that exit in Novgorod for five centuries are found during excavations, and the bowl of everything in the layers of the XIII century. And very rare - in the layers of the XII century. At that time, the struggle of the Russian principalities with Polovtsy aggravated, which made it difficult for merchants to the Volga trading path. In Novgorod, the woodshet wood was brought in untreated form, and the ridges were made by local artisans. This conclusion was made on the basis of the absolute similarity of the sshit ridges in shape and sizes with some types of bone ridges of local Novgorod production. In addition, the technique of cutting teeth on many wooden and bone ridges is absolutely identical. Not only ridges were made of the samshet. In the layers of the XIII century. A small round of the brushing box is found, which has not yet sharpened the inner cavity. Obviously, this is a semi-finished product of the product, for any reason not processed to the end, thrown or lost by the Novgorod Master. Frequent findings of the samshite ridges in Novgorod indicate that they were conventional items that could buy any resident of the city, and not luxury objects available only to people wealthy.

In general, from distant countries on Russia, it was most often imported by luxury items. In the Houselombol layers of ancient Novgorod, debris dear was found for the time of imported irrigation dishes. It was used only by the prosperous circles of the Novgorod society.

In the late XII - early XIII century. In Novgorod, a white-linked faience dishes with a white opaque irrigation and painting cobalt (blue) and manganese (Lilanevo violet) were brought to Novgorod. These were, as a rule, bowls and dishes decorated with plot ornaments in combination with geometric. At the bottom of the inside, birds were often depicted, and the walls of the whin were decorated with oblique wide parallel lines. In the layer of the second half of the XII century. Found a part of a chandelier dish with Arabic inscription.

The center for the production of faience irrigation ceramics with painting chandelier and cobalt was Iran. Novgorod copies are also undoubtedly Iranian, origin. The latest findings of such dishes belong to the time until 1240. From the middle of the XIII century only the Golden Corrodian ceramics are found. This suggests that since the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, the importation of Iranian dishes on Russia ceased, since the state of Tatar-Mongols formed on the Volga is an affected Horde - began to control the Volga trading path, whose value fell.

One of the articles of Russian imports has long been various spices that enjoyed a wide demand. From the West and from the East, wine was also imported. The findings with the Mediterranean testify to the finds of Greek sponges.

Rus exported to various countries and their products. Unfortunately, we do not have almost no sources indicating the composition of Novgorod exports. In the chronicles, the adventures of the Novgorod merchants returned "from behind the sea" are sometimes reported. Obviously, they traveled behind the overseas product not with empty hands, but carried their goods that were traded by the Sea.

What were these goods? First of all, the fur. Novgorod land has long been famous for his hunting grounds. The fur was very valued abroad, both in the east and in Europe, and were the most important article of Russian exports. According to the testimony of Arabic writers, Rus supplied Fur Bobrov, black foxes, sables, protein and other fur animals.

Pashnina came to Novgorod in the form of Dani, which Novgorods took from the northern tribes subject to them.

The number of goods exported from Novgorod abroad relates wax. Candles were made of it, the demand for which in Christian countries was great. In addition, the wax was widely used in the craft, in particular, in jewelry (casting along the wax model). The wax began to be taken out in the Domongol Time - the Corporation of travelers existed in Novgorod, obviously, already in the XII century. In the Novgorod land itself, Borthernsky has been developed less than in Northeast Russia, so Novgorod, although he traded his wax, first of all, played the role of the transit center in the wax trade imported from the neighboring principalities.

Novgorod land

Novgorod Great and its territory. The political system of Novgorod the Great, i.e. Senior city in his land, was closely connected with the location of the city. It was located on both shores of the Volkhov River, not far from the source of her Lake Ilmen. Novgorod was made up of several Slobod or towns, which were independent societies, and then connected to the city community. The traces of this independent existence of the components of the Novgorod were preserved and later in the distribution of the city on the ends. Volkhov divides Novgorod into two halves: on the right - on the eastern bank of the river and the left - on the West Bank; The first was called Tradebecause it contained the main city market, bargaining; The second wore name Sofia Since then, at the end of the city, according to the adoption of Christianity, Novgorod, the Cathedral Church of St. Sofia. Both sides were combined with a large Volkhov bridge, which was not far from the bargaining. To the trading adjoined the area called Yaroslavl DvorBecause here there was no time from Jaroslav, when he reigned in Novgorod during his father's life. On this area rose power, the platform from which Novgorod dignitaries treated speeches to the people in the eve of the people. Near the extent was the euding tower on which the velocol was hung, and the evening office was placed at the bottom. The trading side is south. Slaven end received its name from the ancient Novgorod village, which became part of Novgorod, Slavna. City bargaining and yaroslavl yard were in the Slavenian end. On the Sofia side, immediately on the transition through the Volkhov Bridge, was keynets, wedgened place where stood the Cathedral Temple of St. Sofia. The Sofia side was divided into three end: Nerevesky to North, Zagodsky To the west I. Goncharian, or Lyudy, south, closer to the lake. The names of the ends of Goncharsky and Plotnitsky indicate the handicraft nature of the ancient Slobod, of which the ends of Novgorod were formed.

Novgorod with its five ends was a political focus of an extensive territory, to him spent. This territory consisted of parts of two digits: from p Pyath and volosts, or land; The combination of those and others was an area, or land, st. Sofia. In Novgorod monuments, before the fall of Novgorod and the five, were called lands, and in more ancient times - rows. Figina were as follows: on SZ from Novgorod, between the rivers Volkhov and the meadow, stretched towards the Finnish Bay of Five Volskayawho received its name from the Finnish tribe inhabited here Wheel or That's; On the spray from Volkhov went far to the White Sea on both sides of the Lake of Pyatina Obony; To the SD between the rivers of the monster and flowed five Country; To the UZ between rivers and the meadow, on both sides of the Sheloni River, went Shelonian five; At the departure for five Obluch and the village extended far to V and S. Figina Bezhetskayawho received its name from the village of Bezhkov, who was once one of its administrative centers (in the current Tver province). Originally, five consisted of the oldest and nearest possessions to Novgorod. Possessions more remote and later acquired did not enter the plastic division and formed a number of special volostswho had a slightly different device from the pile. So, the city of Wolf-Laman and Torzhok with their districts did not belong to any five. Behind the five Obonyskaya and Bezhetskaya extended to the CV Zavolochye, or Dvina land. She was called Wonoberly, because he was behind the wolf, behind an extensive watershed, separating the pools of Onega and Northern Dvina from the Volga basin. The flow of the River with its tributaries was determined Perm land. For Dvina Earth and Perm further to the northeast there were parishes Pechora on the Pechora River and on the other side of the Northern Ural Range Ugra. On the north shore of the White Sea was an parish Ter, or TERSKAYA. Such were the main parish of Novgorod, who were not part of the Pilthy division. They were early acquired by Novgorod: so, already in the XI century. Novgorod residents went for the tribute for Dvina to the Pechora, and in the XIII century they collected tribute on the Torskogo shore.

Novgorod's attitude to princes. At the beginning of our history, Novgorod land on the device was completely similar to other areas of Russian land. Similarly, the relationship of Novgorod to princes differed little from those in which other senior cities of the regions. At Novgorod since the first princes left him for Kiwev, it was imposed in favor of the Grand Duke Kiev. Over the death of Yaroslav Novgorod land was attached to the great principality of Kiev, and the Grand Duke usually sent there to manage his son or the closest relative, appointed to the assistants to him Planting. Until the second quarter of the XII century. In the life of the Novgorod land, there are unnoticed by no political characteristics that would have highlighted it from a number of other regions of Russian land. But from the death of Vladimir Monomakh, these features are developing more successfully, which became the basis of Novgorod Volost. The successful development of this political separation of Novgorod land helped part of its geographical position, part of its external relations. Novgorod was a political center of the edge, which was the remote North-West angle of the then Rus. Such a remote position of Novgorod put it outside the circle of Russian lands, formerly the main scene of the activities of the princes and their friends. It dismissed Novgorod from the immediate pressure from the prince and his squad and allowed the Novgorod everyday to develop freely, at the greater square. On the other hand, Novgorod lay close to the main river basins of our plain, to the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina, and Volkhov joined it with a water with the Finnish bay and the Baltic Sea. Thanks to this proximity to the large trading roads, Rus Novgorod has become early in versatile trade turnover. Having become on the outskirts of Russia, with several sides, surrounded by hostile foreigners and, moreantly, engaged in predominantly foreign trade, Novgorod always needed Prince and his squad for the defense of their borders and trade routes. But it was in the XII century that the confusing princely abacus the authority of the princes, Novgorod needed Prince and his squad much less than needed before and began to need. Then there were two dangerous enemy, the Livonian Order and the United Lithuania in the Novgorod borders. In the XII century There was no other enemy yet: the Livonian Order was founded at the very beginning of the XIII century, and Lithuania began to unite since the end of this century. Under the influence of these favorable conditions, the relations of Novgorod to Princes, and its management, and its social system.

By the death of Monomakh, Novgorod managed to achieve important political benefits. Princely gravestones were accompanied by frequent shifts of princes in the Novgorod table. These gravestones and shifts helped Novgorods to make two important principles in their political system, which became guarantors of their liberty: 1) selectivity of the highest administration, 2) row. Contract with princes. Frequent shifts of princes in Novgorod were accompanied by both changes in the personnel of the Higher Novgorod administration. Prince of Rules Novgorod with the assistance of the Kyiv assistants appointed by him or the Great Prince, Posadani and Moltsky. When the prince left the city voluntarily or unwillingly, and the landangen appointed by him usually accustomed to his position, because the new prince ordinously appointed his landanger. But in the intervals between the two princes of Novgorod, remaining without a higher government, got used to choosing to fix the position of Planting and demand from the new prince approval by him in office. So the progress of the case began in Novgorod, the custom of choosing landing. This custom begins to act immediately by the death of Monoma, when, according to the chronicles, in 1126, Novgorod residents "gave landing" to one of their fellow citizens. After the choice of Planting, he became a permanent right of the city, which Novgorod residents were very valued. The change in the very character of this position, which has occurred due to the fact that it was not in the princely yard, but in the evening area: from the representative and guardian of the interests of Prince in front of Novgorod, the election parlor was to turn into a representative and the guardian of the interests of Novgorod in front of the prince. After and another important post of Massale also became elected. Local bishop had important in Novgorod government. Until half of the XII century. He was appointed and handcapped Russian Metropolitan with the Cathedral of the Bishops in Kiyev, therefore, under the influence of the Grand Duke. But since the second half of the XII century, Novgorod began to choose from the local clergy and their lord, going to "all the city" in the evening and sending elected to Kiev to Metropolitan for ordination. The first such elected bishop was the igumen of one of the local Arkady monasteries, elected by Novgorod in 1156. Since then, only the right to handraffer the candidate sent from Novgorod. So, in the second and third quarter of the XII century. The highest Novgorod administration has become elected. At the same time, Novgorod began to more accurately determine their relations to the princes. The gravestics of the princes gave Novgorod the opportunity to choose between princes-rivals and impose well-known obligations on their chosen one that constrained his power. These obligations set forth in rays, contracts with prince, which determined the importance of the Novgorod Prince in local government. Unclear traces of these rows, fastened with the cross kissing from the prince, appear in the first half of the XII century. Later, they are more clearly designated in the story of the chronicler. In 1218, the famous Mstislav Mstislavich, Prince Toropetsky, ruled from Novgorod. His Smolensky Rodain, Svyatoslav Mstislavich, arrived at his place. This prince demanded a change of election Novgorod Postener Tverdislav. "For what? - asked Novgorod. - What is his wine? " "So, without guilt," said Prince. Then Tvorridislav said, turning to the one: "I'm glad I, that there is no guilt on me, and you, brothers, and planting, and in the princes of liberty." Then the veche said the prince: "Here you are depriving a husband of my position, and after all, you kissed our husband without blame for your husband." So, already at the beginning of the XIII century. The famous rights of Novgorod residents fastened the princes of godkom kissing. The condition does not deprive the Novgorod exponent's position without guilt, i.e. WITHOUT CUT, is in later contracts one of the main provisions of Novgorod Volost.

Political benefits that Novgorod who have achieved, set forth in contractual certificates. The first dimensions, we have reached us, not earlier than the second half of the XIII century. Their three: they set out the conditions on which Rules of Novgorod Earth Yaroslav Tverskaya. Two of them were written in 1265 and one - in 1270. The later contractual certificates repeat only the conditions set forth in these directions of Yaroslav. Studying them, we see the foundation of the political device of Novgorod. Novgorod residents obliged the princes to kiss the cross, on which their fathers and grandfathers kissed. The main common duty that fell on the prince was that he rules, "held Novgorod in ancient on duties", i.e. According to old customs. Therefore, the conditions set forth in the Miroslav's grades were not an innovation, but the Testament of the Starny. The contracts determined: 1) the judicial and administrative relations of the Prince to the city, 2) the financial relations of the city to the prince, 3) the relations of the prince to Novgorod trade. The prince was in Novgorod the highest judicial and government authorities. But all judicial and administrative actions, he made not one and not at personal discretion, but in the presence and with the consent of the electoral Novgorod landanner. At the lowest positions, replaced by no choice, but according to the prince's appointment, the prince elected people from the Novgorod society, and not from their squad. All such posts distributed from the consent of the landangen. Prince could not take away from the post of position at the elected or appointed official. Moreover, all judicial and government actions committed personally in Novgorod and could not dispose of anything, living in his lotion: "And from the Suzdal Earth, we read in the contract," NOVAGORODS NOT RADUATE, NEVES NEVOES (NORTS) TIP. In the same way, without landing, the prince could not be judged, no one could give out literacy. So the entire judicial and government activity of Prince was controlled by the representative of Novgorod. With petty suspicion, Novgorod was determined their financial relations to the prince, its income. Princeought received gift From the Novgorod land, we are walking in Novgorod, and I could not take it, walking from the Novgorod land. The tribute was obtained by the prince only from the Zavolochye, the conquered edge, which was not part of the 20th division of the Novgorod region; Yes, and this tribute to the prince usually gave to the deposit of Novgorod. If he collected her himself, then he sent two collectors in the cloud, which the collected tribute could not take directly into the Duke's ship, and turned out first to Novgorod, where she was transmitted to the prince. Since the Tatar invasion and Novgorod was imposed by the Ordini output - tribute. Tatars then instructed the collection of this output called black Bor. Povali, vigorous tax, great prince Vladimirsky. The Novgorod residents themselves gathered a black boron and passed him to their prince, which delivered him to the Horde. In addition, the prince enjoyed in Novgorod land with famous landfills, fishing, gestures, animal gones; But by all these races he used on exactly certain rules, in the urgent time and in conditional sizes. With such accuracy, the relations of Prince and to Novgorod trade were identified. Trade, mainly external, was the vital nerve of the city. The prince was needed by Novgorod not only for the defense of the borders, but also to ensure trade interests; He had to give in his prince the free and safe way to the Novgorod merchants. It was precisely defined, what duties charge the prince with each trading Novgorod rook or from the trade warp, who were in his principality. German merchants were too early in Novgorod. In the XIV century there were two courtyards of overseas merchants in Novgorod: one belonged to Hanseatic cities, another, Gothic, - merchants from the island of Gotland. These courtyards were even two Catholic churches. Prince could participate in the trade of the city with overseas merchants only through Novgorod intermediaries; He could not shove the courtyards of foreign merchants, put their attachments to them. So the foreign trade of Novgorod was fenced from arbitrariness from the prince. Connected by such obligations, the prince received a certain feed for its combat and government services for his combat and government services. I remember the value of the prince, the leader of the squad, in the ancient shopping cities of Rus IX W.: It was a hired military guardian city man and his trade. The Novgorod prince of specific time had the same meaning. Such a value of the prince in the free city is expressed by the Pskov chronicles, which one Novgorod Prince of the XV century calls "the governor and the prince to be killed, about whom they were standing and boring." The value of the prince, like mercenary, Novgorod tried to support contracts to the end of their liberty. So the relations of Novgorod were identified for princes under contracts.

Control. Vese. Novgorod government was built in connection with the definition of the city's relations to the prince. This relationship, we saw, were determined by the treaties. Thanks to these treaties, the prince gradually performed from the local society, losing organic ties with him. He with his buddy entered this society only mechanically, as a third-party temporary force. Due to the political center of gravity in Novgorod, it was supposed to move from the princely yard to the Venerable Square, on Wednesday of the local society. That is why, despite the presence of Prince, Novgorod into the specific century was actually the city republic. Further, in Novgorod we celebrate the same military device, which is still to the princes in other senior cities of Russia. Novgorod was thousand - Armed regiment under the team of a thousand cargo. This thousand shared on hundreds - Military parts of the city. Each hundred with his elected Sotska represented a special society, which was located a well-known share of self-government. In wartime, it was the Recruit District, in peaceful - police district. But a hundred was not the most small administrative part of the city: she was subdivided into streetsfrom which each with its elected ulitsky Older also accounted for a special local world used by self-government. On the other hand, hundreds folded into larger alliances - ends. Each urban end consisted of two hundred. The head of the end was elected konchain The elder, who led the current cases of the end under the supervision of the Konchangsky gathering or the Wern who had administrative power. The union of ends and was the community of great Novgorod. Thus, Novgorod represented a multiplodge connection of small and large local worlds, of which the latter were compiled by adding the first. The cumulative will of all these allied worlds was expressed in the general evening of the city. Bacht convened sometimes the prince, more often someone from the main urban dignitaries, landan or communal. It was not a permanent establishment, it was convened when there was a need. Never had a permanent period for its convocation. Evening gathered on the ringing of the Bell, usually on the square, called the Yaroslavl Courtyard. It was not on the composition of his representative institution, did not compute from deputies: everyone who considered himself a full citizen was fled to the Venevnaya Square. Evening usually consisted of citizens of one senior city; But sometimes there were residents of the junior cities of the Earth, however, only two, Ladoga and Pskov. Questions to be discussed by the Wern were offered to him with degree Higher dignitaries, power plantman or thousands. These issues were legislative and constituent. The eve of new laws decided, invited Prince or expelled him, chose and judged the main city dignitaries, disassembled their disputes with the prince, solved questions about the war and the world, etc. At the eve of its composition, it could not be a proper discussion of the issue, no correct vote. The decision was made on the eye, it is better to say, in the ear, rather at the strength of screams than in most votes. When the party was divided into parties, the sentence was developed by a violent way, through a fight: mastered side and was recognized by the majority (a kind of form field, God of God). Sometimes the whole city was divided, and then two Weipes convened, one at a regular place, on the trading side, another on Sofia. It is commonly discorded that both Wesh, moving against each other, converged on the Volkhov bridge and began to fight, if the clergy did not have time to deal with opponents in time.

Postener and thousands. Wafer's executive bodies were two higher elected dignitaries, who conducted current management and court cases - posadan. and thousands. As long as they occupied their posts, they were called degrees. standing to degrees, and by leaving positions joined the category of landans and thousands old. It is quite difficult to distinguish between both dignitaries. It seems that the landan was a civil ruler of the city, and the thousandth - military and police. That is why the Germans in the specific centuries called the landing burggraph, and a thousand-duke. Both dignitaries received their authority from the pocket for an indefinite time: some ruled year, others are less, other - for several years. It seems not before the beginning of the XV century. There was a certain period for classes their posts. At least one French traveler, Lannua, visiting Novgorod at the beginning of the XV century, speaks of the landing and a thousand, that these dignitaries replaced annually. Posadner and Tychyatsky rules with the help of a whole state of subordinate to the lower agents.

The village of Lord. Veche was a legislative institution. But by nature, it could not properly discuss the questions offered to him. It was necessary to have a special institution that could pre-develop legislative issues and offer finished draft laws and decisions. Such a preparatory and administrative institution was the Novgorod Council of the Lord, Herrenrath, as His Germans called, or lord, as he was called in Pskov. The Lord of the Volnoye City developed from the ancient boyars of the Duma of Prince with the participation of the elders of the city. The chairman of this council in Novgorod was a local lord - Archbishop. The Council consisted of the princely governor, from the power plant landing and the thousands, from the Starost of the Konchangsky and Sotskih, from the old towns and the thousands. BSE These members, except for the Chairmen, were called boyars.

Regional governance. The regional control was closely associated with the central control. This connection was expressed in that every five-Novgorod land in management depended on the urban end to which was attributed. A similarity of the territory of the territory to the ends of the city also existed in the Pskov Earth. Here, the old suburbs have long been distributed among the ends of the city. In 1468, when many new suburbs accumulated, it was also decided to share them on the lot between the ends, two suburbs for each end. Five, however, was not a whole administrative unit, did not have one local administrative centers. She decayed administrative districts called Moscow time half, with a division on the counties; Each County had its own special administrative centers in a famous suburb, so the Konchangsky government was the only connection connected to a five administrative integer. The suburb with his county was the same local self-government world, which were the Novgorod ends and hundreds. His autonomy was expressed in the local suburban evening. However, this veche was supervised by the landing station, who was usually sent from the senior city. Forms in which the political dependence of the suburbs from the senior city was expressed, opened in the story about how Pskov became an independent city. Until half of the XIV century, he was a suburb of Novgorod. In 1348, under a contract with Novgorod, he became independent of him, began to be called younger Brother his. Under this Treaty, Novgorod residents refused to send the right to PSCO PSCOs and to cause Pskovichi to Novgorod to Civil and Church. It means that the main city appointed landing in the suburbs and there was also a supreme trial over the triggers. However, the dependence of the suburbs from Novgorod is always very weak: the suburbs sometimes refused to accept the Pames, who sent the main city.

Classes of Novgorod society. As part of Novgorod society, it is necessary to distinguish the classes of urban and rural. The population of Novgorod the Great consisted of boyar, people, merchants and black people.

The head of the Novgorod Society stood a boyars. It was compiled from the rich and influential Novgorod surnames, whose members of the Princes ruled by Novgorod were appointed to senior positions on local management. By the appointment of the prince of posts, which in other areas were given to the princely boyars, and Novgorod know learned the meaning and the title of Boyar and kept this title and after when he began to receive their government powers not from the prince, but from the local Wanch.

Not so clearly acts in the Novgorod monuments of the second class lives, or living, of people. It can be noted that this class stood closer to local boyars than to the lower layers of the population. The living people were, apparently, the capitalists of the middle hand, who did not belong to the primary government nobility. The class of merchants called merchants. They already stood closer to the city common, weakly separated from the mass of urban black people. They worked with the help of boyar capital, or were credited from the boyars, or their trading affairs as clarists. Black people There were minor artisans and workers who took work or money to work as the highest classes, boyars and lives. This is the composition of society in the main city. The same classes meet both in the suburbs, at least the most important.

In the depths of rural society, like urban, see halopov.. This class was very numerous in the Novgorod Earth, but it is invisible in Pskov. The free peasant population in the Novgorod Earth consisted of two discharges: from the funerals that have undergone state land Novgorod the Great and polovnikovwho rented land owners. The name of your midnight received from the usual in ancient Russia conditions of the landing rental - to process the land upolved, from half of the harvest. However, in the Novgorod land of the specific time, the midnight removed the Earth in private owners and on more preferential conditions, from the third or fourth snop. Halfs were in Novgorod Earth in a more printed state, relatively with free peasants in Prince Rus, stood in a position close to the holopam. This gaze was expressed in two conditions, which Novgorods contributed to contracts with princes: 1) Halop and midnight without a gentleman not to judge and 2) Novgorod horses and midlovans who fled to the Duke's ship, issue back. In this regard, Pskov land differed sharply from Novgorod. In the first isami, as the peasants who rented private lands called there, usually with loan, cottagewere free blades that enjoyed the right transition from one owner to another. There, even a debt commitment did not attach an urgent to the landowner. In the Russian truth, the purchase, which fled from the owner without paying, became his full hob. According to the Pskov Pravda, the monument that received the final form in the second half of the XV century, the paint, ran away from the owner without paying, was not punished with imprisonment when he returned from the race; The owner could only with the participation of the local authority to sell the property abandoned by a fugitive and, thus, reward himself for a non-refundable loan. If the fugitive property has laid on it, Mr. could look for surcharge on the grasp, when he returned. In such respects, the peasants were found to the gentlemen and in the Prince of Russia's specific centuries. So, in the free Novgorod land, the rural population worked on the Lord's lands was put into greater dependence on landowners than anywhere in the then Rus.

Another feature of the Novgorod, as well as the Pskov land tenure, was the class of peasant owners who do not meet in the Prince of Russia, where all the peasants worked either on state-owned or in private gentlemen. This class was called semcamu., or satterns. These were generally small landowners. Saders or themselves treated their lands, or gave them to lease to the peasants of the midst. By the nature of the occupation and the size of the economy, the sides did not differ from the peasants; But they owned their lands on full property rights. This rural class of self-players formed mainly from the citizens. In the Novgorod and Pskov Earth, the land ownership law was not the privilege of the highest service class. Urban inhabitants acquired small rural areas in property not only for the bakery, but also for the purpose of industrial operation, breeding flax, hops and forest borties, catching fish and beast. This was the composition of society in the Novgorod Earth.

The political life of Novgorod the Great. Forms of political life in Novgorod, as in Pskov, were democratic. All free ordinary people had equal voices in the evening, and the free classes of society did not distinguish with sharp political rights. But trade that served as the basis of the national economy in these free cities gave the actual domination to those classes that possessed trade capital, the Boyars and live people. This dominance of trading aristocracy in the democratic forms of the state device was found in both the management and political life of Novgorod, causing a lively struggle of political parties; But at different times the nature of this struggle was not the same. In this regard, the inner political life of the city can be divided into two periods.

Until the XIV century, the princes were often replaced in Novgorod, and these princes competed with each other, belonging to hostile princely lines. Under the influence of this frequent change of princes in Novgorod, local political circles were formed, which stood for different princes and led the heads of the richest boyars of the city. It can be thought that these circles were under the influence of trade connections of the Boyar houses of Novgorod with those or other Russian principalities. So, the first period in the history of the political life of Novgorod was marked by the struggle of the princely parties, more precisely, the struggle of competing with each other Novgorod trading houses.

From the XIV century A frequent change of princes in the Novgorod table ceases, together with this, the nature of the political life of Novgorod is changing. From the death of Yaroslav I to the Tatar invasion, the Novgorod chronicle describes up to 12 stern in the city; Of these, only two were not associated with princeless shifts, i.e. Did not cause the struggle of local political circles for one or another prince. From the Tatar invasion until John III entry into the cerebral table in the local chipping, more than 20 smut are described; Of these, only 4 are associated with princeless shifts; All others had a completely different source. This new source of political struggle, which opens from the XIV century, was social distribution - the struggle of the lower poor classes of Novgorod society with the highest rich. Novgorod society is divided since then two hostile camps, of which in one stood best or drizzling, people, as the Novgorod chronicle calls the local rich to know, and in the other people young, or smaller. black. So from the XIV century. The struggle of trading firms in Novgorod replaced the struggle of public classes. This new struggle had its root also in the political and economic stroke of the city. A sharp property inequality between citizens is a very common phenomenon in large shopping cities, especially with republican forms of the device. In Novgorod, this property inequality in political equality, during the democratic forms of the device felt particularly sharply, produced an annoying date to the lower classes. This action was intensified by the gravity of the economic dependence of the lowest working population from the Boyar-Capitalists. Due to this in the lower classes of Novgorod society, an irreconcilable antagonism was developed against the highest. At the head of these two social parties, rich boyars were stood, so that young people in Novgorod acted under the leadership of some noble boyars houses, which became at the head of Novgorod common people in the fight against their boyars brother.

So Novgorod boyars remained the head of the local political life in all the continuation of the history of the Volnoye City. Over time, all local government has fallen into the hands of a few noble homes. Of them, the Novgorod veche chose Pames and thousands of people; Their members filled the Novgorod Government Council, which, in fact, gave the direction of local political life.

Features of the economic situation and political life of Novgorod helped to root into its strictly important disadvantages that prepared a slight drop in his liberty in the second half of the XV century. That were: 1) lack of internal public unity, distribution classes of the Novgorod society, 2) lack of land unity and government centralization in the Novgorod region, 3) economic dependence on the lower prince of Russia, i.e. Central Great, from which Bread Novgorod was received with his non-cholerous region, and 4) the weakness of the military unit of the commercial city, whose militia could not stand against the princely regiments.

But in all these disadvantages it is necessary to see only the conditions of lightness, with some Palp Novgorod, A NE reasons for its fall; Novgorod would be, if it was even free from these shortcomings: the fate of his liberty was decided not by one or another weak part of its system, but a more general cause, wider and oppressive historical process. By half the XV century. The formation of the Great Russian Nationality has already ended: it lass only political unity. This nationality was supposed to fight for their existence in the East, in the south and in the West. She was looking for a political center, about whom could collect their strength for the hard struggle. So the center was made Moscow. Meeting of the specific dynastic aspirations of Moscow princes with the political needs of the whole Great Russian population and decided the fate not only Novgorod the Great, but also other independent political worlds, which still remained in Russia to half the XV century. The destruction of the female parties was a victim, which required the overall benefit of the whole land, and the Moscow Sovereign was the performer of this requirement. Novgorod, with a better political device, could lead a more stubborn struggle with Moscow, but the result of this struggle would be the same. Novgorod would inevitably be under the blows of Moscow. Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

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Novgorod Principality is one of the three largest principalities, along with Galico-Volynsky and Vladimiro-Suzdal, which existed during the time of Ancient Russia. His mention in the annals is almost minimal, but participation in history is incommensurable.

The capital of the Principality is the Great Novgorod, famous for his artisans and merchants. As one of the main enlightenment centers and the largest shopping center of Europe, he for many centuries retained the status of the northern and southern borders.

Main cities of the Novgorod Principality: Vologda, Torzhok, Old Ladoga, Polotsk, Beloozero, Rostov, Izborsk.

Geographical position

The natural and geographical conditions of the Novgorod Principality were due to its territorial placement. Stretching for many kilometers, it occupied the huge spaces of the northern part of European Russia. The bulk of the lands were located between the Ilmensky and the Church of the Lake.

Most of the thick taiga forests covered, but with them - the endless tundra. The territory where the principality was located, a multille of the abundance of forests, lakes and swamps, which, coupled with harsh climatic conditions, made the soil of the poor and non-frost. However, this was compensated by large stocks of wood and building stone, and marsh soil was a real storage room of iron ores and salts.

The Novgorod Principality had a way out of many large river paths and seas, nearby ran. All this gave excellent ground for the development of trading.

Princess political device

Novgorod Principality was different from and its unique political system. The republican form of government originated in the principality at the very beginning of the XII century and remained for several centuries, which made it one of the most developed principalities. The absence of the ruling prince dynasty made it possible to preserve unity and avoid fragmentation. This historic period is called republican.

But democracy in the Novgorod Principality was elitar. The power was concentrated in the hands of several influential boyars.

A large role in the public role of Veliky Novgorod was played by the People's Assembly - the evening, formed after the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod. It possessed very broad powers: declared war, imprisoned the world, solved completely solid-caliber questions.