What is absolute zero temperature? What is the physical meaning of absolute zero?

> Absolute zero

Learn what it's equal to absolute zero temperature and the value of entropy. Find out what the temperature of absolute zero is on the Celsius and Kelvin scales.

Absolute zero– minimum temperature. This is the point at which entropy reaches its lowest value.

Learning Objective

Understand why absolute zero protrudes natural indicator zero point.

Main points

Absolute zero is universal, that is, all matter is in the ground state at this indicator.
K has quantum mechanical zero energy. But in interpretation kinetic energy may be zero, but the thermal one disappears.
The lowest temperature in laboratory conditions reached 10-12 K. The minimum natural temperature was 1 K (expansion of gases in the Boomerang Nebula).

Terms

Entropy is a measure of how uniform energy is distributed in a system.
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that studies heat and its relationship with energy and work.

Absolute zero is the minimum temperature at which entropy reaches its lowest value. That is, this is the smallest indicator that can be observed in the system. This is a universal concept and acts as the zero point in the system of temperature units.

Graph of pressure versus temperature for different gases with constant volume. Note that all graphs extrapolate to zero pressure at one temperature

A system at absolute zero is still endowed with quantum mechanical zero-point energy. According to the uncertainty principle, the position of particles cannot be determined with absolute accuracy. If a particle is displaced at absolute zero, it still has a minimum energy reserve. But in classical thermodynamics, kinetic energy can be zero, and thermal energy disappears.

The zero point of a thermodynamic scale, such as Kelvin, is equal to absolute zero. International agreement has established that the temperature of absolute zero reaches 0K on the Kelvin scale and -273.15°C on the Celsius scale. The substance exhibits quantum effects at minimum temperatures, such as superconductivity and superfluidity. The lowest temperature in laboratory conditions was 10-12 K, and in the natural environment - 1 K (rapid expansion of gases in the Boomerang Nebula).

Rapid expansion of gases leads to minimum observed temperature

The limiting temperature at which the volume of an ideal gas becomes equal to zero is taken as absolute zero temperature. However, the volume of real gases at absolute zero temperature cannot vanish. Does this temperature limit make sense then?

The limiting temperature, the existence of which follows from the Gay-Lussac law, makes sense, since it is practically possible to bring the properties of a real gas closer to the properties of an ideal one. To do this, you need to take an increasingly rarefied gas, so that its density tends to zero. Indeed, as the temperature decreases, the volume of such a gas will tend to the limit, close to zero.

Let's find the value of absolute zero on the Celsius scale. Equating volume VV formula (3.6.4) zero and taking into account that

Hence the absolute zero temperature is

* More accurate absolute zero value: -273.15 °C.

This is the extreme, lowest temperature in nature, that “greatest or last degree of cold”, the existence of which Lomonosov predicted.

Kelvin scale

Kelvin William (Thomson W.) (1824-1907) - an outstanding English physicist, one of the founders of thermodynamics and the molecular kinetic theory of gases.

Kelvin introduced the absolute temperature scale and gave one of the formulations of the second law of thermodynamics in the form of the impossibility of completely converting heat into work. He calculated the size of molecules based on measuring the surface energy of the liquid. In connection with the laying of the transatlantic telegraph cable, Kelvin developed the theory of electromagnetic oscillations and derived a formula for the period of free oscillations in a circuit. Behind scientific merits W. Thomson received the title of Lord Kelvin.

The English scientist W. Kelvin introduced the absolute temperature scale. Zero temperature on the Kelvin scale corresponds to absolute zero, and the unit of temperature on this scale is equal to a degree on the Celsius scale, so absolute temperature T is related to temperature on the Celsius scale by the formula

(3.7.6)

Figure 3.11 shows the absolute scale and the Celsius scale for comparison.

The SI unit of absolute temperature is called the kelvin (abbreviated K). Therefore, one degree on the Celsius scale is equal to one degree on the Kelvin scale: 1 °C = 1 K.

Thus, absolute temperature, according to the definition given by formula (3.7.6), is a derived quantity that depends on the Celsius temperature and on the experimentally determined value of a. However, it is of fundamental importance.

From the point of view of molecular kinetic theory, absolute temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the chaotic movement of atoms or molecules. At T = O K the thermal movement of molecules stops. This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.

Dependence of volume on absolute temperature

Using the Kelvin scale, Gay-Lussac's law (3.6.4) can be written in a simpler form. Because

(3.7.7)

The volume of a gas of a given mass at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

It follows that the ratio of volumes of gas of the same mass in different states at the same pressure is equal to the ratio of absolute temperatures:

(3.7.8)

There is a minimum possible temperature at which the volume (and pressure) of an ideal gas vanishes. This is absolute zero temperature:-273 °C. It is convenient to count the temperature from absolute zero. This is how the absolute temperature scale is constructed.

Absolute zero (absolute zero) - the beginning of the absolute temperature, starting from 273.16 K below the triple point of water (the equilibrium point of three phases - ice, water and water vapor); At absolute zero, the movement of molecules stops, and they are in a state of “zero” motion. Or: the lowest temperature at which a substance contains no thermal energy.

Absolute zero Start absolute temperature reading. Corresponds to –273.16 °C. At present, in physical laboratories it has been possible to obtain a temperature exceeding absolute zero by only a few millionths of a degree, but according to the laws of thermodynamics, it is impossible to achieve it. At absolute zero, the system would be in a state with the lowest possible energy (in this state, atoms and molecules would perform “zero” vibrations) and would have zero entropy (zero disorder). The volume of an ideal gas at the point of absolute zero must be equal to zero, and to determine this point, the volume of real helium gas is measured at sequential lowering the temperature until it liquefies at low pressure (-268.9 ° C) and extrapolates to the temperature at which the volume of gas in the absence of liquefaction would become zero. Absolute temperature thermodynamic scale is measured in kelvins, denoted by the symbol K. Absolute thermodynamic the scale and the Celsius scale are simply offset from one another and are related by the ratio K = °C + 273.16 °.

Story

The word “temperature” arose in those days when people believed that more heated bodies contained a larger amount of a special substance - caloric - than less heated ones. Therefore, temperature was perceived as the strength of a mixture of body matter and caloric. For this reason, the units of measurement for the strength of alcoholic beverages and temperature are called the same - degrees.

Since temperature is the kinetic energy of molecules, it is clear that it is most natural to measure it in energy units (i.e. in the SI system in joules). However, temperature measurement began long before the creation of the molecular kinetic theory, so practical scales measure temperature in conventional units - degrees.

Kelvin scale

Thermodynamics uses the Kelvin scale, in which temperature is measured from absolute zero (the state corresponding to the minimum theoretically possible internal energy of a body), and one kelvin is equal to 1/273.16 of the distance from absolute zero to the triple point of water (the state in which ice, water and water pairs are in equilibrium). Boltzmann's constant is used to convert kelvins into energy units. Derived units are also used: kilokelvin, megakelvin, millikelvin, etc.

Celsius

In everyday life, the Celsius scale is used, in which 0 is the freezing point of water, and 100° is the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure. Since the freezing and boiling points of water are not well defined, the Celsius scale is currently defined using the Kelvin scale: a degree Celsius is equal to a kelvin, absolute zero is taken to be −273.15 °C. The Celsius scale is practically very convenient because water is very common on our planet and our life is based on it. Zero Celsius is a special point for meteorology, since the freezing of atmospheric water changes everything significantly.

Fahrenheit

In England and especially in the USA, the Fahrenheit scale is used. In this scale, the interval from the temperature itself is divided into 100 degrees. cold winter in the city where Fahrenheit lived, to the temperature of the human body. Zero degrees Celsius is 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and a degree Fahrenheit is equal to 5/9 degrees Celsius.

The currently accepted definition of the Fahrenheit scale is: temperature scale, 1 degree of which (1 °F) is equal to 1/180 of the difference between the boiling point of water and the melting point of ice at atmospheric pressure, and the melting point of ice is +32 °F. Temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is related to temperature on the Celsius scale (t °C) by the ratio t °C = 5/9 (t °F – 32), 1 °F = 5/9 °C. Proposed by G. Fahrenheit in 1724.

Reaumur scale

Proposed in 1730 by R. A. Reaumur, who described the alcohol thermometer he invented.

The unit is the degree Reaumur (°R), 1 °R is equal to 1/80 of the temperature interval between the reference points - the melting temperature of ice (0 °R) and the boiling point of water (80 °R)

1 °R = 1.25 °C.

Currently, the scale has fallen out of use; it survived longest in France, the author’s homeland.

Comparison of temperature scales

Description	Kelvin	Celsius	Fahrenheit	Newton	Reaumur
Absolute zero		−273.15	−459.67	−90.14	−218.52
Melting temperature of a mixture of Fahrenheit (salt and ice in equal quantities)			0	−5.87
Freezing point of water (normal conditions)		0	32	0
Average human body temperature¹		36.8	98.2	12.21
Boiling point of water (normal conditions)		100	212	33
Solar surface temperature	5800	5526	9980	1823

Normal human body temperature is 36.6 °C ±0.7 °C, or 98.2 °F ±1.3 °F. The commonly quoted value of 98.6 °F is an exact conversion to Fahrenheit of the 19th century German value of 37 °C. Since this value is not within the normal temperature range according to modern ideas, we can say that it contains excessive (incorrect) precision. Some values in this table have been rounded.

Comparison of Fahrenheit and Celsius scales

(o F– Fahrenheit scale, oC– Celsius scale)

oF	oC		oF	oC		oF	oC		oF	oC
-459.67 -450 -400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -190 -180 -170 -160 -150 -140 -130 -120 -110 -100 -95 -90 -85 -80 -75 -70 -65	-273.15 -267.8 -240.0 -212.2 -184.4 -156.7 -128.9 -123.3 -117.8 -112.2 -106.7 -101.1 -95.6 -90.0 -84.4 -78.9 -73.3 -70.6 -67.8 -65.0 -62.2 -59.4 -56.7 -53.9		-60 -55 -50 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -19 -18 -17 -16 -15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5	-51.1 -48.3 -45.6 -42.8 -40.0 -37.2 -34.4 -31.7 -28.9 -28.3 -27.8 -27.2 -26.7 -26.1 -25.6 -25.0 -24.4 -23.9 -23.3 -22.8 -22.2 -21.7 -21.1 -20.6		-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19	-20.0 -19.4 -18.9 -18.3 -17.8 -17.2 -16.7 -16.1 -15.6 -15.0 -14.4 -13.9 -13.3 -12.8 -12.2 -11.7 -11.1 -10.6 -10.0 -9.4 -8.9 -8.3 -7.8 -7.2		20 21 22 23 24 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 125 150 200	-6.7 -6.1 -5.6 -5.0 -4.4 -3.9 -1.1 1.7 4.4 7.2 10.0 12.8 15.6 18.3 21.1 23.9 26.7 29.4 32.2 35.0 37.8 51.7 65.6 93.3

To convert degrees Celsius to Kelvin, you must use the formula T=t+T 0 where T is the temperature in kelvins, t is the temperature in degrees Celsius, T 0 =273.15 kelvins. The size of a degree Celsius is equal to a kelvin.

Absolute zero corresponds to a temperature of −273.15 °C.

It is believed that absolute zero is unattainable in practice. Its existence and position on the temperature scale follows from extrapolation of observed physical phenomena, and such extrapolation shows that at absolute zero the energy of thermal motion of molecules and atoms of a substance should be equal to zero, that is, the chaotic movement of particles stops, and they form an ordered structure, occupying clear position in the nodes of the crystal lattice. However, in fact, even at absolute zero temperature, the regular movements of the particles that make up matter will remain. The remaining oscillations, such as zero-point oscillations, are due to the quantum properties of the particles and the physical vacuum that surrounds them.

At present, in physical laboratories it has been possible to obtain temperatures exceeding absolute zero by only a few millionths of a degree; to achieve it itself, according to the laws of thermodynamics, is impossible.

Notes

Literature

G. Burmin. Assault on absolute zero. - M.: “Children’s Literature”, 1983.

When the weather report predicts temperatures near zero, you shouldn’t go to the skating rink: the ice will melt. The melting temperature of ice is taken to be zero degrees Celsius, the most common temperature scale.
We are very familiar with the negative degrees Celsius scale - degrees<ниже нуля>, degrees of cold. The lowest temperature on Earth was recorded in Antarctica: -88.3°C. Even lower temperatures are possible outside the Earth: on the surface of the Moon at lunar midnight it can reach -160°C.
But arbitrarily low temperatures cannot exist anywhere. The extremely low temperature - absolute zero - corresponds to - 273.16° on the Celsius scale.
The absolute temperature scale, the Kelvin scale, originates from absolute zero. Ice melts at 273.16° Kelvin, and water boils at 373.16° K. Thus, degree K is equal to degree C. But on the Kelvin scale, all temperatures are positive.
Why is 0°K the cold limit?
Heat is the chaotic movement of atoms and molecules of a substance. When a substance is cooled, thermal energy is removed from it, and the random movement of particles is weakened. Eventually, with strong cooling, thermal<пляска>particles almost completely stops. Atoms and molecules would completely freeze at a temperature that is taken to be absolute zero. According to the principles of quantum mechanics, at absolute zero it would be the thermal motion of particles that would cease, but the particles themselves would not freeze, since they cannot be at complete rest. Thus, at absolute zero, particles must still retain some kind of motion, which is called zero motion.

However, to cool a substance to a temperature below absolute zero is an idea as meaningless as, say, the intention<идти медленнее, чем стоять на месте>.

Moreover, even achieving exact absolute zero is almost impossible. You can only get closer to him. Because by no means can you take away absolutely all of the thermal energy from a substance. Some of the thermal energy remains at the deepest cooling.
How do you achieve ultra-low temperatures?
Freezing a substance is more difficult than heating it. This can be seen even from a comparison of the design of a stove and a refrigerator.
In most household and industrial refrigerators, heat is removed due to the evaporation of a special liquid - freon, which circulates through metal tubes. The secret is that freon can remain in a liquid state only at a sufficiently low temperature. In the refrigerator compartment, due to the heat of the chamber, it heats up and boils, turning into steam. But the steam is compressed by the compressor, liquefied and enters the evaporator, replenishing the loss of evaporated freon. Energy is consumed to operate the compressor.
In deep cooling devices, the cold carrier is an ultra-cold liquid - liquid helium. Colorless, light (8 times lighter than water), it boils under atmospheric pressure at 4.2°K, and in a vacuum at 0.7°K. An even lower temperature is given by the light isotope of helium: 0.3°K.
Setting up a permanent helium refrigerator is quite difficult. Research is carried out simply in baths with liquid helium. And to liquefy this gas, physicists use different techniques. For example, pre-cooled and compressed helium is expanded, released through a thin hole into a vacuum chamber. At the same time, the temperature decreases further and some of the gas turns into liquid. It is more efficient not only to expand the cooled gas, but also to force it to do work - move the piston.
The resulting liquid helium is stored in special thermoses - Dewar flasks. The cost of this very cold liquid (the only one that does not freeze at absolute zero) turns out to be quite high. Nevertheless, liquid helium is used more and more widely these days, not only in science, but also in various technical devices.
The lowest temperatures were achieved in a different way. It turns out that the molecules of some salts, for example potassium chromium alum, can rotate along magnetic force lines. This salt is pre-cooled with liquid helium to 1°K and placed in a strong magnetic field. In this case, the molecules rotate along the lines of force, and the released heat is taken away by liquid helium. Then the magnetic field is abruptly removed, the molecules again turn in different directions, and the expended

This work leads to further cooling of the salt. This is how we obtained a temperature of 0.001° K. Using a similar method in principle, using other substances, we can obtain an even lower temperature.
The lowest temperature obtained so far on Earth is 0.00001° K.

Superfluidity

A substance frozen to ultra-low temperatures in baths of liquid helium changes noticeably. Rubber becomes brittle, lead becomes hard like steel and elastic, many alloys increase strength.

Liquid helium itself behaves in a peculiar way. At temperatures below 2.2° K, it acquires a property unprecedented for ordinary liquids - superfluidity: some of it completely loses viscosity and flows through the narrowest cracks without any friction.
This phenomenon was discovered in 1937 by the Soviet physicist Academician P. JI. Kapitsa, was then explained by Academician JI. D. Landau.
It turns out that at ultra-low temperatures the quantum laws of the behavior of matter begin to have a noticeable effect. As one of these laws requires, energy can be transferred from body to body only in well-defined portions - quanta. There are so few heat quanta in liquid helium that there are not enough of them for all the atoms. The part of the liquid, devoid of heat quanta, remains as if at absolute zero temperature; its atoms do not participate at all in random thermal motion and do not interact in any way with the walls of the vessel. This part (it was called helium-H) has superfluidity. As the temperature decreases, helium-P becomes more and more abundant, and at absolute zero all helium would turn into helium-H.
Superfluidity has now been studied in great detail and has even found useful practical use: with its help it is possible to separate helium isotopes.

Superconductivity

Near absolute zero, extremely interesting changes occur in the electrical properties of some materials.
In 1911, the Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes made an unexpected discovery: it turned out that at a temperature of 4.12 ° K, electrical resistance in mercury completely disappears. Mercury becomes a superconductor. The electric current induced in a superconducting ring does not die out and can flow almost forever.
Above such a ring, a superconducting ball will float in the air and not fall, like a fairy tale<гроб Магомета>, because its gravity is compensated by the magnetic repulsion between the ring and the ball. After all, a continuous current in the ring will create a magnetic field, and it, in turn, will induce an electric current in the ball and with it an oppositely directed magnetic field.
In addition to mercury, tin, lead, zinc, and aluminum have superconductivity near absolute zero. This property has been found in 23 elements and more than a hundred different alloys and other chemical compounds.
The temperatures at which superconductivity appears (critical temperatures) cover a fairly wide range - from 0.35° K (hafnium) to 18° K (niobium-tin alloy).
The phenomenon of superconductivity, like super-
fluidity has been studied in detail. The dependences of critical temperatures on internal structure materials and external magnetic field. A deep theory of superconductivity was developed (an important contribution was made by the Soviet scientist Academician N. N. Bogolyubov).
The essence of this paradoxical phenomenon is again purely quantum. At ultralow temperatures, electrons in

superconductor form a system of pairwise bound particles that cannot release energy crystal lattice, spend quanta of energy to heat it. Pairs of electrons move as if<танцуя>, between<прутьями решетки>- ions and bypass them without collisions and energy transfer.
Superconductivity is increasingly used in technology.
For example, superconducting solenoids are used in practice - coils of superconductor immersed in liquid helium. Once induced current and, consequently, a magnetic field can be stored in them for as long as desired. It can reach a gigantic size - over 100,000 oersted. In the future, powerful industrial superconducting devices will undoubtedly appear - electric motors, electromagnets, etc.
In radio electronics, ultra-sensitive amplifiers and generators are beginning to play a significant role. electromagnetic waves, which work especially well in baths with liquid helium - there the internal<шумы>equipment. In electronic computing technology, a brilliant future is promised for low-power superconducting switches - cryotrons (see Art.<Пути электроники>).
It is not difficult to imagine how tempting it would be to advance the operation of such devices into the region of higher, more accessible temperatures. IN Lately the hope of creating polymer film superconductors opens up. The peculiar nature of electrical conductivity in such materials promises a brilliant opportunity to maintain superconductivity even at room temperatures. Scientists are persistently looking for ways to realize this hope.

In the depths of the stars

And now let's look into the realm of the hottest thing in the world - into the depths of the stars. Where temperatures reach millions of degrees.
The random thermal motion in stars is so intense that entire atoms cannot exist there: they are destroyed in countless collisions.
A substance that is so hot can therefore be neither solid, nor liquid, nor gaseous. It is in the state of plasma, i.e. a mixture of electrically charged<осколков>atoms - atomic nuclei and electrons.
Plasma is a unique state of matter. Since its particles are electrically charged, they are sensitive to electrical and magnetic forces. Therefore, the close proximity of two atomic nuclei (they carry a positive charge) is a rare phenomenon. Only at high densities and enormous temperatures collide with each other atomic nuclei able to get close. Then thermonuclear reactions take place - the source of energy for stars.
The closest star to us, the Sun, consists mainly of hydrogen plasma, which is heated in the bowels of the star to 10 million degrees. Under such conditions, close encounters of fast hydrogen nuclei - protons, although rare, do occur. Sometimes protons that come close interact: having overcome electrical repulsion, they fall into the power of giant nuclear forces attraction, swiftly<падают>on top of each other and merge. Here an instantaneous restructuring occurs: instead of two protons, a deuteron (the nucleus of a heavy hydrogen isotope), a positron and a neutrino appear. The energy released is 0.46 million electron volts (MeV).
Each individual solar proton can enter into such a reaction on average once every 14 billion years. But there are so many protons in the bowels of the light that here and there this unlikely event occurs - and our star burns with its even, dazzling flame.
Deuteron synthesis is only the first step in solar thermo nuclear transformations. The newborn deuteron very soon (on average after 5.7 seconds) combines with another proton. A light helium nucleus and a gamma ray appear electromagnetic radiation. 5.48 MeV of energy is released.
Finally, on average once every million years, two light helium nuclei can converge and combine. Then a nucleus of ordinary helium (alpha particle) is formed and two protons are split off. 12.85 MeV of energy is released.
This three-stage<конвейер>thermonuclear reactions are not the only one. There is another chain of nuclear transformations, faster ones. The atomic nuclei of carbon and nitrogen participate in it (without being consumed). But in both options, alpha particles are synthesized from hydrogen nuclei. Figuratively speaking, the hydrogen plasma of the Sun<сгорает>, turning into<золу>- helium plasma. And during the synthesis of each gram of helium plasma, 175 thousand kWh of energy is released. Great amount!
Every second the Sun emits 4,1033 ergs of energy, losing 4,1012 g (4 million tons) of matter in weight. But the total mass of the Sun is 2,1027 tons. This means that in a million years, thanks to radiation, the Sun<худеет>only one ten-millionth of its mass. These figures eloquently illustrate the effectiveness of thermonuclear reactions and the gigantic calorific value of solar energy.<горючего>- hydrogen.
Thermonuclear fusion is apparently the main source of energy for all stars. At different temperatures and densities of stellar interiors, different types of reactions occur. In particular, solar<зола>-helium nuclei - at 100 million degrees it itself becomes thermonuclear<горючим>. Then even heavier atomic nuclei - carbon and even oxygen - can be synthesized from alpha particles.
According to many scientists, our entire Metagalaxy as a whole is also the fruit of thermonuclear fusion, which took place at a temperature of a billion degrees (see Art.<Вселенная вчера, сегодня и завтра>).

Towards the artificial sun

Extraordinary calorific value of thermonuclear<горючего>prompted scientists to achieve artificial implementation of nuclear fusion reactions.
<Горючего>- There are many hydrogen isotopes on our planet. For example, the superheavy hydrogen tritium can be produced from the metal lithium in nuclear reactors. And heavy hydrogen - deuterium is part of heavy water, which can be extracted from ordinary water.
Heavy hydrogen extracted from two glasses of ordinary water would produce as much energy in a thermonuclear reactor as is now produced by burning a barrel of premium gasoline.
The difficulty is to preheat<горючее>to temperatures at which it can ignite with powerful thermonuclear fire.
This problem was first solved in the hydrogen bomb. Hydrogen isotopes there are ignited by explosion atomic bomb, which is accompanied by heating of the substance to many tens of millions of degrees. In one version of the hydrogen bomb, the thermonuclear fuel is chemical compound heavy hydrogen with light lithium - light lithium deuteride. This white powder, similar to table salt,<воспламеняясь>from<спички>, which is an atomic bomb, instantly explodes and creates a temperature of hundreds of millions of degrees.
To initiate a peaceful thermonuclear reaction, one must first learn how to heat small doses of a sufficiently dense plasma of hydrogen isotopes to temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees without the services of an atomic bomb. This problem is one of the most difficult in modern applied physics. Scientists around the world have been working on it for many years.
We have already said that it is the chaotic movement of particles that creates the heating of bodies, and the average energy of their random movement corresponds to the temperature. To heat a cold body means to create this disorder in any way.
Imagine two groups of runners rushing towards each other. So they collided, got mixed up, a crush and confusion began. Great mess!
In much the same way, physicists initially tried to obtain high temperatures - by colliding high-pressure gas jets. The gas heated up to 10 thousand degrees. At one time this was a record: the temperature was higher than on the surface of the Sun.
But with this method, further, rather slow, non-explosive heating of the gas is impossible, since the thermal disorder instantly spreads in all directions, warming the walls of the experimental chamber and the environment. The resulting heat quickly leaves the system, and it is impossible to isolate it.
If gas jets are replaced by plasma flows, the problem of thermal insulation remains very difficult, but there is also hope for its solution.
True, plasma cannot be protected from heat loss by vessels made of even the most refractory substance. In contact with solid walls, hot plasma immediately cools down. But you can try to hold and heat the plasma by creating its accumulation in a vacuum so that it does not touch the walls of the chamber, but hangs in emptiness, not touching anything. Here we should take advantage of the fact that plasma particles are not neutral, like gas atoms, but electrically charged. Therefore, when moving, they are exposed to magnetic forces. The task arises: to create a magnetic field of a special configuration in which hot plasma would hang as if in a bag with invisible walls.
The simplest form of such plasma is created automatically when strong pulses of electric current are passed through the plasma. In this case, magnetic forces are induced around the plasma cord, which tend to compress the cord. The plasma is separated from the walls of the discharge tube, and at the axis of the cord in the crush of particles the temperature rises to 2 million degrees.
In our country, such experiments were performed back in 1950 under the leadership of academicians JI. A. Artsimovich and M. A. Leontovich.
Another direction of experiments is the use of a magnetic bottle, proposed in 1952 by the Soviet physicist G.I. Budker, now an academician. The magnetic bottle is placed in a cork chamber - a cylindrical vacuum chamber equipped with an external winding, which is condensed at the ends of the chamber. The current flowing through the winding creates a magnetic field in the chamber. Its field lines in the middle part are located parallel to the generatrices of the cylinder, and at the ends they are compressed and form magnetic plugs. Plasma particles injected into a magnetic bottle curl around the field lines and are reflected from the plugs. As a result, the plasma is retained inside the bottle for some time. If the energy of the plasma particles introduced into the bottle is high enough and there are enough of them, they enter into complex force interactions, their initially ordered movement becomes confused, becomes disordered - the temperature of the hydrogen nuclei rises to tens of millions of degrees.
Additional heating is achieved by electromagnetic<ударами>by plasma, compression of the magnetic field, etc. Now the plasma of heavy hydrogen nuclei is heated to hundreds of millions of degrees. True, this can be done either for a short time or at low plasma density.
To initiate a self-sustaining reaction, the temperature and density of the plasma must be further increased. This is difficult to achieve. However, the problem, as scientists are convinced, is undoubtedly solvable.

G.B. Anfilov

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What is absolute zero temperature? What is the physical meaning of absolute zero?

Learning Objective

Main points

Terms

Kelvin scale

Dependence of volume on absolute temperature

Kelvin scale

Celsius

Fahrenheit

Reaumur scale

Notes

Literature

see also

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