The subject and task of source learning. Historical sources
2.2. Mass sources
For the new and modern time, mass sources are not specific, but during this period their number is growing, which makes it difficult (from a technical point of view). Due to the complication of social processes, as well as the inclusion in the historical action of new layers of the population, mass sources begin to play an increasingly prominent role in the source base of research. The role of mass sources is increasing not only as the research object approaches to our time, but also with the development of the most historical science, which seeks not to be limited to a political history, and therefore, a narrative of events directly described in historical sources, and more and more appeals to the study individual facts, and processes, to a multidimerous reconstruction of historical reality.
In historiography, there are several approaches to the problem of mass sources. Comparison of two main points of view - B. G. Litvaka and I. D. Kovalchenko - not only matters to a better understanding of the problem, but also makes it possible to once again clarify the difference in scientific approaches based on different definitions of the concept of "historical source".
B. G. Litvak offers the following system of signs of mass sources: 1) the ordinary circumstances of origin; 2) homogeneity, similarity or repeatability of the content; 3) "Singleness of the form, to standardization"; The presence of a legally established, as well as the usual or folding formulation.
Immediately, we note that the proposed features are a certain system: each subsequent sign is due to the previous one. The first indicates the occurrence of mass sources in everyday life, their belonging to the primary information reservoir, usually not used by historians. And the point here is not only not so much that when the primary data is generalized (for example, in the field of office work), some of the information is lost, and that the information is subject to. The similarity, the repeatability of the content does not mean it identity (in this sense, the tram ticket is not a sample of mass sources). For mass sources, with the homogeneity of the description objects, a different measure of their properties is characteristic. For example, in the acts of purchase and sale to Earth, the same type of transactions are recorded, however the size of the site and its cost in different acts are different.
I. D. Kovalchenko, unlike B. G. Litvaka, proposes when determining the concept of "mass sources" to consider first of all what social phenomena they reflect. In the preface to the collective monograph, "mass sources on the socio-economic history of Russia of the period of capitalism" I. D. Kovalchenko writes: "The sources characterizing such objects that form certain public systems with the relevant structures are massacre. Mass sources reflect the essence and interaction of mass objects that make up these systems, and consequently, the structure, properties and state of the systems themselves. "
It is clear that the definition of B. G. Litvaka is within the source of the paradigm, at the base of which there is an understanding of the historical source as a person / product of culture. With this approach, the focus is on the circumstances of the generation of mass sources in everyday life and information laid in them at the time of creation.
The definition of I. D. Kovalchenko practically does not take into account the nature of mass sources: nothing is said about the nature of the source itself, we are talking about the peculiarities of the reflected source of phenomena. This definition corresponds to a source-edge paradigm, in which everything is understood as a historical source, which provides information about the past of human society. Obviously, in this definition, nothing is said about the substance of the historical source, but only indicates the function of a certain unknown object. That is why it remains not clear what should be an object so that it can give information about the historical event. Similarly, the definition of mass sources, which I. D. Kovalchenko gives a question: What should sources be in order to give information about mass phenomena? And if, when determining the historical source, the answer to this question is usually intuitive, then when qualifying the mass sources does not occur.
Here is a consistent reasoning. Its absence leads, in particular, to the inclusion of mass sources of statistical materials, apparently, on the basis that if a set of numbers are given in the source, the mass phenomenon is reflected. The fact that statistics can distort the phenomenon are completely unrecognizable, well known even from everyday experience. You can, of course, argue that a distorted reflection is still reflected. But in historiography, cases are described when statistics do not reflect the phenomenon that it seems to be reflected. We give only one example. Historians often use crop statistics, hoped from applications to the governor's reports, however, noting the inaccuracy of the data. However, in 1964, V. K. Yatsunsky showed that all the statistics of yields arise immediately at the level of the governor's report. At least, not the fact that primary materials are not found, but also sources containing travel information, which means that the statistics of crops are the fruit of the Creativity of the provincial officials. The B. G. Litvaka approach excludes statistics from among mass sources, because it does not meet the first sign - does not arise in everyday life. In particular, B. G. Litvak writes: "Even the primary statistical observation is fundamentally different from the primary mass source, since the latter has no scientific and statistical specification, it does not have the goal of studying this phenomenon or fact, but only registers it or spontaneously arises As part of this fact. "
Thus out the differences in these definitions, turn to the attempt to reconcile them in historiography. Naturally, she is doomed to failure. The main argument in favor of combining these two groups is the ability to apply the methods of mathematical statistics to them. The logic is as follows: if you can use a single method, then these sources have a significant common feature. An unbiased view immediately allows you to see that the cognitive situation is turned upside down. Researchers who adhere to such a point of view, in fact, claim: not the method depends on the nature of the object, and the nature of the object depends on the method that we use. Even with the full recognition of the importance of research tools in the process of research, such a position, being brought to a logical end, is absurd. Why do the authors themselves do not see it? The reason is all the same: inattention to the nature of the historical source, its substance.
But other objections are also possible, by the way, more substantiated. Indeed, indeed, in the same case - both when handling mass sources, and when working with statistical data, it is used, and at first glance, the methods of mathematical statistics are successfully. Isn't it an external sign that should force the researcher to refer to the search for the deep internal community? But methods of mathematical statistics, as well as other, so-called quantitative methods, in their own mathematical component, are not a technique, but the research techniques for which, in contrast to the technique, indifferent to both the research methodology and the nature of the studied object.
The adequacy of the use of a particular technique to solve a specific research task also requires justification. And, no matter how paradoxically, the use of methods of mathematical statistics to mass sources has fewer restrictions than to the sources of statistical.
Thus, it is obvious that the assignment of certain historical sources to mass - their qualitative, and not a quantitative characteristic. The mass is not identical to the multiplicity, the concept of mass is opposed by the concept of not one, but the uniqueness of the historical source. Therefore, one or several historical sources that have come down to our time belong to the mass, if they arose in everyday life, have homogeneous content and shape, a standardization. How to find out if this characteristics have the only preserved source? Such possibilities give a study of historical sources of other species, most often legislative. For example, in the XVIII century. The procedure for the preparation of formulas in all movements of officials in service was legally established, and since 1764, such lists had to be drawn up twice a year. Detecting in the archive single formal lists up to the beginning of 1780 each other and every time I am convinced that they were not at some special occasions, namely, in those cases that were provided for by the legislation, we will take these few lists to the group of mass sources.
Special attention should be paid to this, since the indiscretions of the conceptual apparatus of historical science, as well as the introduction of the concept of "mass sources" in scientific circulation only in the late 1970s, lead to the fact that the definition of "mass" in scientific and educational literature often refers to those Sources that are preserved in large quantities. For example, you can find phrases like: "In the XIX century. The memoirovka becomes a mass source. " A modern researcher must strictly distinguish between the ordinary use of the word "mass" and its terminological use.
A clear distinguity of mass sources from statistics makes us include a separate, although small, chapter on accounting documentation, which, along with acts, is the most extensive group of mass sources. Returning to the position of B. G. Litvaka, distinguishing mass sources and statistics, we can say that the accounting documentation "registers fact", and the actual sources "arise as part<…> Fact. At the same time, the accounting documentation tends to outgrade into statistical systems.
This text is a familiarization fragment. From the book History of Russia from Rüric to Putin. People. Events. Dates Author Anisimov Evgeny ViktorovichMass repressions Closed and open processes over the leaders of the party and the state were only the top of the terrible Iceberg terror. He consisted in mass arrests, "simplified" proceedings, references, departure to the camps, executions are not units, but hundreds of thousands of various
From the book Vervolph. Shards of the brown empire author Ruth FraigerMass repressions of the Allies As we see, if the "Vervolphs" were detained with weapons in their hands, they were either shot in place, or transferred to military courts. More difficult things were if they managed to hide. Allies have always suspected that they were covered by the local population.
From the book History of Russia [for students of technical universities] Author Shubin Alexander Vlaslenovich§ 6. Mass movements of the loss by all the layers of civil liberties did not have to turn into an explosion explosion. This process stretched to the lives of several generations, and social memory is erased pretty quickly. In fact, all social layers
From the book Sobibor - Myth and Reality author Count JurgenChapter 12. Mass burials 1. Report "Commission for the Investigation of German Crimes in Poland" (1947) in the report published in 1947, the report of the Commission for the Investigation of German Crimes in Poland on human remains on the territory of the former camp Sobibor
From the book of the owner. Stalin and Stalin's dictatorship approval Author Glevnuk Oleg VitalevichMass operations Order No. 00447 was submitted for the approval of the Politburo on July 30, 1937 by the Deputy Jobs on the NKVD M. P. Frinovsky, appointed responsible for the operation. Depending on the region, the operation was prescribed to start from August 5 to 15 and finish in
From the book of the Ancient East Author Neemirovsky Alexander ArkadyevichMass speeches during these years did not cost without excitement, which had a place in Zhinan and some other southern districts. A proposal to collect in the central regions of 40 thousand people to suppress these foci of perturbation met objections Lee Gu. This step, he believed, weakened
From the book Book 1. Western Myth ["Antique" Rome and "German" Habsburgs are the reflection of the Russian-Horde history of the XIV-XVII centuries. Heritage of the Great Empire in the cult Author3.3. Mass murders attributed to the Live de Ree, and mass murders who were committed to the Bible Samson Gilles de Ra were accused of mass killings of allegedly children and women. It is possible that in fact it was about murders during military campaigns, which in biographies
Author Williamson GordonMass executions In Poland, the first mass executions of the Polish population took place in Poland after its seizure of the Wehrmacht in September 1939. The Polish intelligentsia and Jews were the main objects of execution. In the spoken later speech, Himmler said that this task was difficult,
From the book of the SS - tool terror Author Williamson GordonMass executions in Oradere in the West, however, both warring parties in the conduct of hostilities were rarely published for the generally accepted framework and did not go to the barbarism, which was the norm in the East. Nevertheless, there were a number of incidents that stained the reputation even
From the book. Domestic history: Cheat Sheet Author author unknown86. Terror and mass repressions of the 30s in the early 30s. The process of creating a totalitarian vehicle machine was completed. In the conditions of the monopoly of state property and the alienation of the employee from the means of production in the acute lack of capital the possibility of material
From the books of the pawn in someone else's game [the secret history of Ukrainian nationalism] Author Berdnik MiroslavaThe massacres of the Jews are a particularly bloody page in the history of nationalist movement - complicity in the extermination of Jews in Ukraine. Even in the decisions of the second Great Collection of the OUN-B in Krakow, it was said: "Jews in the USSR are the loyal support of the dominant
From the book Russian nationalism and the Russian Empire [campaign against "enemy subjects" during the First World War] by the author of Lor EricOther mass operations enemy subjects, German colonists who had Russian citizenship, and Jews together constituted most of the population, isolated and forcibly deported during the war, however, other categories of Russian
From the book of the victim of the Black October, 1993 Author Shevchenko Valery AnatolyevichMass executions In addition to the shelling of the Parliament Building from Tanks, BMP, BTrov, Avtomatnaya and Sniper Fire, which continued all day, and in the White House, and shoots, both direct defenders of parliament and citizens, accidentally
From the book of Jeanne d'Ark, Samson and Russian history Author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich3.3. Mass murders attributed to the Live de Ree, and mass murders who were committed to the Bible Samson Gilles de Ra were accused of mass killings of allegedly children and women. It is possible that in fact it was about murders during military campaigns, which in biographies
From the book of life and the morals of Tsarist Russia author Anishkin V. G. From the book of the party shot Author Rogovin Vadim ZakharovichI "Mass operations" of one of the main milestones of the Great Cleaning was the June Plenum of the Central Committee of 1937, who suppressed any resistance to Stalin's terror in the Central Committee of the Party. This plenum providing emergency powers to the NKVD authorities opened a series so
The rational view of the historical process organically implies a systematic approach - the study of complex developing objects in the unity and integrity of the components of their elements. In system studies, informational problems are put forward on the fore. The concept of mass sources is connected with the information support of systemic studies in historical science.
The source studies on the study of mass sources began to grow rapidly in the 70s of the last century. They were mainly investigated by quantitative analysis methods. At the same years, the study of mass sources in theoretical directions was conducted: the definition of the concept, classification, characteristics, study methods. Academician I.D. Kovalchenko gave them the following definition. "Mass, - he wrote, - are sources characterizing such objects of reality that form certain social systems with the relevant structures. Mass sources reflect the essence and interaction of mass objects that constitute these systems, and consequently, the structure, properties and state of the systems themselves. "I.D. Kovalchenko performed a clear watershed between the source and data. The source, in his opinion, is a higher-level system. , and the data is a certain subsystem resulting from targeted research activities. In the essence of "mass sources" and "mass data" - these are two parallel systems, of which the first for the historian - the researcher is much more important. However, the researcher before useing mass data, It is simply obliged to pre-work with the primary source of information, otherwise there may be a danger to disclose frankly inaccurate data in a scientific or social environment.
In Western historical science, the concept of "source" is not at all, therefore there is no such and the subject area. European scientists represent sources as mass data and, accordingly, pragmatically relate to them, they are simply processed as a result of research, the depth of the source is lost from here. It should be noted that in Western European science there is no distinction between the concepts of "mass data" and "sources", since mass data is only a subsystem that arises from the results of the research activities of specialists.
Determination of the concept of "mass source"
The definition of the concept of "mass sources" began to make up even in the late 50s - early 60s of the 20th century. IN AND. Strelsky wrote that "there are sources of unique, fully reflecting the main, the most important and characteristic features of the question of the question. There are sources of mass, illustrating the regularity of the first kind of patterns and not adding anything significantly important to the facts already established." It follows from this that V.I. Strelsky contrasted unique sources of mass, believing that basic patterns can be determined only when studying universal sources. It should be noted that the separation of sources for mass and unique, which is now present in historical science, is quite relative. The orientation on a system-structural approach means that the development of evidences contained in the sources should be approached with several other theoretical and methods of logical positions. Therefore, it would be more correct to talk about the development of sources as mass facilities.
In modern historical science, you can now observe a significant increase in interest in mass sources, which differ in a large degree of information recoil and adequate reflection of reality and characterize the objects studied objects for a variety of features. Nevertheless, to the number of poorly developed issues at this stage of development of this science, it is primarily to determine the concept of "mass sources" and the principles of their classification. Thus, individual scientists believe that this concept is not for quantitative, but for the qualitative characteristics of sources.
Agreeing with the fact that the term "mass" is usually used in the opposite meaning of the term "unique", we need to also take into account the quantitative side of the mass documentation, since the combined unit of the mass is very small interest for any researcher, and represents the greatest interest The combination of these sources in which all the patterns of socio-economic development can be studied. Therefore, the term "mass" is also evidence of the presence of a specific complex of sources, which is a certain system, which contains a significant amount of information representing the scientific interest.
Views B.G. Litvaka for the concept of "mass source"
Outstanding Scientist-source B.G. Litvak believed that it was impossible to oppose mass sources unique, as this definition moves mass sources to secondary roles. He believed that the main in the source is:
source form;
goals of creating a source;
the circumstances of the appearance of the source.
B.G. Litvak also believed that the facts and phenomena were considered to be treated in historical reality, which are limited to experts. In form, they can be attributed to the "Formory - Standard". This scientist identified the main signs of mass documentation, which, in his opinion, are:
original ordinary (everyday events);
singleness of the shape, standard to the standard;
the primacy of the document (proximity to the fact in reality);
uniformity and repeatability of the document content.
In his opinion, the main criterion of the mass source is the degree of proximity to the fact of reality. With all the fact that mass sources may contain a variety of information, B.G. Litvak shared them into 3 groups on the following features:
displays the part or fragment of the fact;
displays the entire fact of the entire fact;
they themselves are part of the fact.
To mass sources B.G. Litvak attributed the following historical documents:
documents of the Boyar land tenure in Russia (writer and census books);
contracts between landowners and peasants, statutory letters (after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861);
reports of the governors and the complaints of the peasants;
solutions of volost and rural ships;
church chronicles and lives of saints;
letters and personal documentation;
photos, works of art (painting, graphics), etc.
Historical source - Any object directly reflecting the historical process attracted by a historian for the knowledge of the past. The last part of this phrase is key. It is used historian The object may be a historical source, since only the historian has receptions of seizure from this object of information.
Working with a historical source includes three stages:
analysis (disclosure of information capabilities of the source from critical positions);
synthesis (Evaluation of the source as a historic phenomenon, determining its place in a number of similar phenomena).
Subjectability of the source.The source is part of human culture, therefore he is subjective. In this regard, you first need to know under what circumstances and thanks to whom the source - once, part of the reality that we study - appeared. Therefore, the historian considers the social conditions under which the source could appear, trying to make a psychological portrait of the author of the source, submit it goals, assess the degree of credibility of the source. This stage is the interpretation stage - discussed in detail in the work of the famous Russian historian and sociologist A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky "Methodology of History". To solve the tasks of interpretation A.S. Lappo Danilevsky proposes to use methods Psychological interpretation, technical, typening, individualizing. Considering the source, the historian should always remember that this source is created by a person, and therefore he does not reflect the event as it really was. The event is this as he saw the author of the source and how he wants to see the researcher. The modern historian, in essence, does not even interpret the event, but interprets the interpretation of this event made to it. Accordingly, it is necessary to refer to the source critically, to consider it "in the historical environment where he originated," as A. P. Schap. And how to reconstruct this environment, as not on the same sources? Sources can be spoiled, lost, falsified, and always they are subjective. The deeper the historian looks in the past, the smaller he has a chance to objectively interpret this past, since less than the historical sources themselves, and the available written sources are usually copies (I would like to believe that accurate) more ancients. Little example: the most ancient list of the Tale of Bygone Years, on the basis of which I interpreted almost all the ancient political history of Russia until the XII century, the famous Russian historian S.M. Solovyov dated the XIV century. Even if we are an idea of \u200b\u200bthe past, by analyzing the sources available at our disposal at our disposal, there are no guarantees that in a short time another source for the question of interest to us, which will refute our conclusions.
There are many options for the classification of historical sources. Most used of them - allocation categories Sources according to the method of encoding and storing information:
real - various material remains of human culture (structures, tools of labor and weapons, decorations, etc.);
fine -from rock paintings to modern film or disks;
oral -legends, fairy tales, etc.;
behavioral - customs, games, etc.;
phonic -sound entries.
All written sources can be divided into three groups:
literary (chronicles, tale and legends, memoirs, letters, diaries, periodicals, journalism);
legal (contracts, legislative acts, depriving documents);
economic and statistical (reviews, reports, data vaults).
Species classification of written sources.One of the options for classifying written sources is to divide them on views. In this case, the attribute of the selection is the goal that is placed before the document. The species classification makes it possible to reveal and trace the evolution of sources. Sources are highlighted by a great set: letters, acts, executing property rights, chronicles, drawings, memoirs, reports notes, collections of laws, etc. etc. Types of written sources disintegrate into countless subspecies. All this creates certain inconveniences in the synthesis of a historical source, so it is customary to allocate species for any era. For example, sources on the history of Russia of the Imperial period can be divided into the following types: public legal acts; Private legal acts; publicism; Detamental documents; periodicals; memoirs; Epistolar sources; Personal diaries, etc.
Written domestic sources on the history of Russia in emergence seems to be possible to divide into three parts - by periods: sources of the XI-XVII centuries; Sources of XVIII-XIX centuries; Sources of the twentieth century Each of these periods relative to historical sources has its own characteristics.
The first period - the XI-XVII centuries. - characterized by small sources. Of the same, the chronicles (chronographs) are known to be priority. In addition to the chronicles, the most important written historical sources of this period are legislative monuments (Russian truth in various editions, judicicity, vessels, Cathedral Code), original literature (military stories, tales, messages, teachings, saints), journalistic works (mainly - XVI-XVII centuries).
Russian chronicles. The first period begins in the XI century, because By this time, the first dated writing sources on the history of ancient Russia belong to the XI century. Ancient Russian chronicles considered Tale of temporary years(PVL), written, as they think, the monk of the Pechersk Monastery Nestor In the XII century On the basis of not preserved chronicle arms of the XI century. Most Russian chronicles (currently known more than two hundred chronicles) PVLs have a primary part of its part. PVL brings a description of historical events before the beginning of the XII century. (1110-1118, depending on list). The original PVL has not survived, which came to us ancient list (Copy) was made in the XIV century. In the manufacture of lists, their authors were made to the chronicle, therefore it was very difficult to determine what was the initial text (this is true and relative to other annals). Today, the most complete is the Lavrentiev and Ipatiev Lists of PVL (named so on the annals, part of which they are), also called the second and third editions of PVL.
The chronicles of the XII-XV centuries. It came to us fragmentary. Among the well-preserved - the chronicles of the Galician-Volyn Land (Ipatievsky and others), Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (Lavrentievskaya and others), Novgorod, Pskov, Moscow. Very little is known about the chronicle, for example, Ryazan and Polotsk. Late Russian chronicles (XVI-XVII centuries) differ significantly from the chronicle of the previous time. At this time, there was already a single communional chronicen traditional tradition, associated with the Tsarist Office (facial arch, Nikonovskaya LTO).
For the period of the XVIII-XIX centuries. The cardinal differences from the previous stage in terms of characteristics of historical sources are characteristic. The chronicles and lives and lives are ceased to be written, but memoirs, fiction, scientific compositions, including historical, periodic printing, statistics, is significantly changing the nature of regulatory acts and depriving materials. Significantly increases the number of sources. The main feature of the period is the emergence of sources originally intended for publication.
Regulatory acts of the XVIII-XIX centuries.One of the main types of sources through the period of the XVIII-XIX centuries. - legislative acts and adjacent to them materials of office work. The complexity associated with these sources is that there was no established forms of regulatory documents, and the very concept law It was not formed. The formal sign of the law from the times of Peter I remained the imperial signature, but this rule is already in the XVIII century. Violated "declared declarations", and in the XIX century. Also, the laws of the State Council, approved verbally. Starting from the XVIII century. Noticeably the desire of the state in detail to regulate the life of society and the privacy of subjects. Also, regulatory acts were subject to publication and publication, so no other source can compete with them according to the degree of prevalence.
All variety of legislative acts of the XVIII-XIX centuries. It is divided into several basic types: manifesto(extremely important legislative acts, for example, - Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom of February 19, 1861); decrees(ordinary legislation, differ in diversity); charters(Special legislation regulating any field of activity, for example, is the military charter of 1716); regulations and institutions(legislative acts of a constituent nature that determined the organization, the composition, competence and regulatory activities of state institutions, for example, is the General Regulation of 1720). In a separate look, acts related to the peasant reform of 1861 can be distinguished. authorized diplomas and recompusing acts. Development materials are divided into gUARD CERTIFICATIONS, WARNING CLEAN PRODUCTIONS, DECTOR PRODUCER PRODUCTIONSetc . State office work, as the most voluminous, in turn is divided into forensic, military, diplomatic,documents providing implementation of management decisionsand document Drive.
Sources of XX centuries. Even more numerous. The same types of written sources are maintained as in the previous stage, but the features associated with them are distinguished. In the legislation, the importance of international treaties, in statisticEphemepisi as a method for obtaining statistical data prevail over the others, in periodic printing periodic periodics prevails over a journal, periodic printing spurs with journalism. The main feature of all written sources of the twentieth century. - unification of shapes.
Features of the sources of the Soviet period. Significant part of the twentieth century. Russia falls on the Soviet period. Sources of Soviet times have their own specifics. Home of them - total ideological. The specifics of the Soviet legislation flows out of the overall feature of the Soviet political system - the lack of separation of the authorities. The CPSU documents are important for the characteristics of the Soviet era (documents of the highest bodies of the party; documents of the CPSU leaders (works of V.I. Lenin); works of other CPSU leaders), campaigning documents. The periodic seal of the Soviet period is divided into three four groups: party seal (the main edition is "True"); Soviet seal (the main edition is "Izvestia"); Printing public organizations (the main publications - "Labor" (trade unions), Komsomolskaya Pravda (Komsomol)); Scientific publications of academies of sciences and higher educational institutions. Despite the detailed control of the Communist Party, there were observed materials, which are a very interesting group of sources of this period. It belongs to the so-called. samizdat, as well as alternative print(In the last years of the existence of the USSR).
So, historians for the reconstruction of the past enjoy historical sources. Since the historical source is always subjective, there are special methods for extracting information from it. Each period of Russian history in terms of forms and content of historical sources, and therefore, and in relation to working with them, has its own specifics. The specificity at certain time stages has the development of the most historical science.
Topic 8. Africa
BJIOK Extraction of Knowledge and Skill
Exercise 1.Using table 1 in "Annexes", apply Africa to the country's contour map, which have received political independence after the Second World War. Specify the dates of obtaining independence and compare the country of North and Tropical Africa in this regard.
AdditionalWith the help of a "business card" on the temple of the textbook, select the corresponding
tore per- "Couples" of Africa and Foreign European countries, approximately equal to
denia (for pleasure).in size.
Task 2. Using atlas and tables and tables 3-5 "applications", carry out the classification of Africa countries to the degree of their wealth of minerals. Make a table according to the following form:
Make conclusions about the secure of these countries with raw materials and fuel for the development of heavy industry.
Additional For the same sources, determine the main territorial combinations
tel mineral. Describe the composition of the fossil in each of them; denia ( Try to tie it with the tectonic structure of the territory. Apply falted). Combining minerals on the contour card.
Task 3. With the help of Figures 7, 8 and 9, Tables 6, 7 and 8 in "Annexes" and Atlas Card, specify and add the characteristic of the land, aquatic and agroclimatic resources of Africa contained in the text of the textbook.
Task 4. Using Table 3, give the quantitative characteristic of the "urban explosion" in Africa. What conclusions can be done on the basis of these calculations?
Additional Prepare a report on the topic: "Population of Africa". Use
tel Text and drawings of the topics 3 and 8 textbook, atlas maps, application tables, denia (complicated). Additional literature.
Task 5. Analyze Figure 77. Using Africa's economic map in atlase, specify exactly which ore, non-metallic minerals, food products and agricultural raw materials define the monocultural specialization of each of the countries specified on the schedule.
Task 6. On the physical and economic cards of Africa in atlase, determine: 1) the main areas of the Mining and Mining Industry of Africa and their specialization, 2) the main areas of commodity farming and their specialization, 3) Transfrikan transport highways. Use also drawings of the topics of the textbook.
Additional Using atlas maps, make a table "zonal specialist
tel Export and consumer crops in
denmark (Creative!) Africa "as follows:
Make all possible conclusions from the analysis of this table.
Task 7.Using the textbook text and the Cairo plan in the atlas, prepare the message
(creativeon the topic "Cairo - Arabic of North Africa". Use also
code!)additional sources of information.
AdditionalImagine that you have taken a journey through the Nile from Aswan to
telmouth. Describe your trip in a letter to Comrade. Try to do denmark (for So, the colorful image of this territory arose.
pleasure).
Task 8.How do you think you need to take to prevent in the future
(Creative!).repeat "Sachel tragedy"? Give the rationale for your project.
AdditionalIn his novel "Five weeks in the balloon" Jules Verne told about
teltraveling in Africa in a balloon. "Repeat" the route of this denmark (fortravels. In which countries are and what pleasure).described by the writer areas of Africa today?
Total1. (Work in the notebook.) Compare North, Tropical Africa countries and
task 9.South Africa for some indicators characterizing their population and economy. Determine the traits of similarities and differences. Take the necessary data in the form of a table.
2. Compare the main industries of North Africa and South-West Asia. What conclusion can be made of this comparison?
3. Compare the main export agricultural crops of tropical Africa and South Asia. What conclusion can be made of this comparison?
4. To demonstrate in the class, prepare a small album "Geography of Africa on postage stamps".
Answer the questions:
1. Why the proportion of the population to the coasts of the oceans and the seas in Africa is expressed less than in Foreign Asia?
2. Why is it not used to export industrial products from the Congo River?
3. Why are Cairo called "diamond buttons, a fastening delta"?
4. Why are Senegal called the "peanut republic"?
Are the following statements are correct: ^ Sh
1. Most countries in Africa achieved independence in the second half of the XX century.
2. Africa is the highest birth rate and high mortality in the world.
3. For countries in Africa, high rates of urbanization are characterized.
4. The main mineral fossil Nigeria is bauxites.
Choose the correct answer:
2. The most important types of minerals of North Africa are ... (coal, iron ore, bauxite, oil, natural gas, phosphorites).
3. The least developed countries in Africa include ... (Algeria, Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Somalia, South Africa).
4. The main export agricultural crops of tropical Africa are ... (wheat, millet, cotton, citrus, peanuts, coffee, cocoa, natural rubber, sisal).
Can you:
1. Apply the following countries to the contour map of the world in memory: Libya, Algeria, Sudan, Ghana, Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, Madagascar?
2. Show on the map The following cities mentioned in the text and on the maps: Cairo, Kinshasu, Addis Ababa, Nairobi, Lagos, Dakar, Luanda, Johannesburg?
3. Explain the meaning of the following concepts and terms: monoculture, natural economy, apartheid?
4. Indicate which countries listed below are the main manufacturers and exporters of Cocoa: Côte d "Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Angola?
Determine the countries to which the following statements relate:
1. A country located on the island of 1,600 thousand km 2.
2. Countries inside the territory of South Africa.
3. The country underlying the average river Niger and has no way out to the seas.
4. The country, the capital of which is the city of Nairobi.
5. A country where 98% of the population is concentrated in the territory that occupies less than 4% of its total area.
1. The copper belt stretches from Zambia to the south-eastern part ....
2. ... - The largest producer in Africa and exporter of oil, member of OPEC.
3. South Africa produces ... all products manufacturing Africa.
Methodical keys to the topic 8
What you need to remember
1. Political map and peoples of Africa. (Geography, Grade 7.) 2. Features of the physico-geographical position, relief, minerals, climate, waters, soils and vegetation of Africa, natural zones within its limits. (Geography, Grade 7.) 3. Ancient Egypt. (History, Grade 5.) 4. The main content of the national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa at the end of the XIX - early XX century. (History, Grade 8.) 5. Material Part I of this textbook. 6. Concepts and terms: Colony, Bantustane, Platform, Desert, Savannah, Equatorial forest, Kimberlite tube, National Park.
What you need to know
Leading ideas of the topic 8.
The transformation of the socio-economic structure of Africa requires great effort from both African peoples and the entire world community.
The main scientific knowledge of the topic 8:
1. Characteristic features of the economic and geographical position, geography of natural conditions and resources, population, industry, agriculture, environmental problems in Africa. 2. Presentation of monoculture. 3. The image of North Africa. 4. Image of tropical Africa. 5. Brief overview characteristic of South Africa. 6. Keywords Topics: 1) Colonial type of industry farm structure, 2) Monoculture, 3) Arabic type of city.
What you need to be able to
1. Using the textbook and atlas, to independently produce the necessary knowledge for the characteristics. 2. Implement the comparative characteristics of industries, regions and cities. 3. Prepare a report summary on a given topic.
Topic 9. North America
Knowledge and skills
The task1. Using the textbook text and the atlas card, give the US EGP characteristic. Is it really profitable? Why do you think so? Apply a typical plan of the Country EGP (region) characteristic. 222.
Task 2.Using the textbook text and drawings 83-86, give the characteristic of the largest
(creativeurban agglomerations and megalopolis of the United States. Calculate the fraction of three
code!)megalopolis in the square and population of the country, compare the density indicators of the population in Megalopolis with the middle country, draw conclusions. Select 3 positions and digital data from text and drawings that are appropriate to use when the urbanization characteristic in the United States.
AdditionalMake a crossword center "States and city of the United States".
task (for pleasure).
Task 3.Using the data tables and drawings of the topic 5 and the tables of "applications", make the necessary calculations, in the notebook of column (strip) or circular charts showing the share of the United States in global industrial and agricultural production on certain types of products. Analyze them.
Task 4.Using the text of the textbook and the US mineral resource card in the Atlas, prove that US mineral resources contribute to the development of the multi-industry industry. Illustrate the following textbook phrase: "The main wealth of the eastern part is the fuel mineral resources, Western - ore." Apply a typical plan characteristic of natural prerequisites for the development of the industry of the country (region) on with. 222.
AdditionalUsing data on reserves and mining of coal, oil, natural gas, iron
telore in the United States, calculate the security of them (in years). Using denia (data in the text of the textbook and in Table 1, calculate the US share in the world falted).deployed reserves of coal, oil, natural gas, iron ore. What conclusions can be made from this analysis?
Task 5.Using Figure 87, name the five main "petroleum" states of the United States. Determine in which of them oil production is carried out on the continental shelf. Try to explain the configuration of the current system of oil pipelines, the causes of the constructions of the Transalelyansky oil pipeline, which was built in the 70s. Figure 25, determine where the US is imported from oil and petroleum products. What is this explained? Apply a typical plan characteristics of the industry of the country (region).
Task 6.Using Figure 88, in the notebook a constructive reference table "Main Areas of Black Metallurgy" in the following form:
Task 7.Figure 28, determine from which countries of the United States imports iron ore. What is it caused?
Use the US economic map and the world engineering card in the atlas to specify the characteristics of the mechanical engineering contained in the text of the textbook. Determine on them the largest centers of this industry. Illustrate the position of the textbook that the main engineering areas coincide with US megalopolis.
AdditionalUsing the same cards, make a contempt and reference book in the notebook
teltable "Structure of mechanical engineering in the largest centers of this industry denia (complicated).in USA".
Task 8.Using the text, Figure 89 and other patterns of the textbook, as well as the US economic card in the atlas, make a contemptive reference table "Industrial belts of the United States" in the following form:
Word and write down the conclusions.
Task 9. Figure 90 Describe the placement of US crop production. Method for overlaying Figure 90 and Cards of administrative-territorial division of the United States in Atlace Determine: 1) Two main "wheat" state (one in spring, the other in winter wheat), 2) the main "corn" state.
Task 10. Using the plans of the central parts of New York and Washington in the atlas and
(creative Additional sources of information, prepare a message about cultural
code!) Historical and architectural attractions of one of these cities. As a "guide", spend a small "excursion" in the city.
Task 11.. Based on the textbook and drawings of the Tutorial and Atlas Card, give a brief
(creative A written description of one of the US macroers (according to own
code!) choice).
Additional Imagine that you have taken "Travel" on the USA - along
tel Parallel 40 ° C. sh. and along the meridian 100 ° z. D. Describe routes.
denmark (for pleasure). Use additional literature.
Task 12. Carefully view textbook and tables and tables
(creative "Applications". Choose from them all relevant to Canada. Use
code!) Atlas cards in Canada. Based on these materials, add the brief socio-economic characteristics of this country given in the textbook. Apply a typical plan characteristics of a separate country on with. 329.
Task 13. 1. (Work in the notebook.) Using the materials of the topic 9, name the main
(Final). Typology features of the population and farms of the United States and Canada. Imagine them in the form of the following table:
Work with this table, make a generalization.
2. (Work on the contour card.) Apply to the contour map of North America (by choice): 1) the largest cities, 2) the main seaports, 3) transcontinental railways. You can expand this list at your own discretion.
3. Determine what types of thematic maps in the textbook and atlas you used when studying this topic. Which of them came for you new?
4. According to the textbook and Figure 81, give a description of the central business district of the American city.
Self-control unit and mutual control
Explain why:
1. The Northeast of the United States received the name "Workshop of the Nation".
2. A significant part of the heavy industry of the United States and Canada is concentrated in the Great Lakes area.
3. US aluminum plants are located in the valleys of the Tennessee and Columbia rivers.
4. Specialization of US agriculture and Canada varies as early as the East to the West.
5. Florida, California and Hawaii attract the largest number of tourists.
6. In the United States and Canada, in recent decades has increased interest in the development of the districts of the North.
What problems arise:
1. In connection with the accelerated industrialization of the South and West USA?
2. Due to the fact that the US economy begins to increasingly depend on the import of oil, iron ore and other types of raw materials and fuel?
Do you agree with the following statements:
1. Megalopolis "Boswash" - the largest urbanized zone in the USA?
2. Recently, Alaska has become an important area of \u200b\u200boil production in the United States?
3. In the USA and Canada, the farm type of agriculture dominates?
4. The US transport system refers to the same type as the transport system of foreign Europe?
5. The River of St. Lawrence connects the Great Lakes with New York?
6. Is the world's largest airport in Atlanta?
7. The population of Canada is 1/2 from the US population?
Can you:
1. Find on the map of the city of USA, referred to in the main text of the topic 9, and to place them from the east to the west?
2. Create examples of "milk", "corn", "wheat", "orange", "pineapple", "apple", "cotton" states of the United States?
3. Apply New England on the contour card, Far West, California?
4. To say which of the above indicators characterizes the share of West in the area of \u200b\u200bthe whole country (in%): 20, 36, 49, 64?
5. List the types of mineral raw materials for which Canada is a global manufacturer and exporter?
Use the textbook text and card to answer questions:
1. In which parts of the United States is most likely employmentpeople in: 1) oil production, 2) aircraft and space industry, 3) cultivation of broiler chickens?
2. By what transcontinental railways can you cross the United States and Canada in the latitudinal direction?
3. What natural, socio-economic and historical reasons contributed to the development of the Northeast of the United States?
Imagine:
1. What have you visited one of the large cities of the United States or Canada. Describe it.
2. What you wanted to get acquainted with the US industry. Which cities you need to visit to visit: 1) Aviation Plant, 2) a large enterprise for the production of electronic products, 3) automotive factory, 4) petrochemical plant, 5) in black metallurgy combine?
3. That you have the opportunity to work on: 1) a cattle breeding ranch, 2) tobacco plantation, 3) sawmill. In which states of the United States or the province of Canada you should go for this?
Fill in the pass in the following phrases:
1. The US economy capital is considered ..., but with him more and more competes ....
2. Most of the territory of the Midwest goes to ... and ..., two main water arteries of North America.
3. To the number of important crops of the south of the United States refers ....
4. In the Canadian province ... Most residents speak French.
Methodical keys to the topic 9
What you need to remember
1. Political map and peoples of North America. (Geography, Grade 7.) 2. Features of the physico-geographical position, relief, minerals, climate, water, soil and vegetation of North America. (Geography, Grade 7.) 3. Features of the historical development of North America at the end of the XIX-first half of the XX century. (History, 8, 9 classes.) 4. Materials of part I of this textbook. 5. Concepts and terms: Reserve, farmer.
What you need to know
Leading ideas of the topic 9:
1. As a result of the collapse of the World Socialist System and the Soviet Union, the US role in world politics and economics increased. 2. New relations between Russia, other countries with economies in transition and the United States have become an important factor in international stability, changed the entire global political situation for the better.
The main scientific knowledge of the topic 9:
1. Characteristic features of EGP, the geography of natural resources and the US population. 2. The overall characteristics of the US economy. 3. Basic features of the geography of industry, agriculture, transport, United States, the main industrial and agricultural areas. 4. US macrojection and the appearance of each of the four macroers. 5. Brief economic and geographical characteristics of Canada. 6. Keywords Topics: 1) North American City Type, 2) "Second Economics", 3) Gross National Product, 4) Postedy Specialization, 5) North American Type of Transport Network, 6) Industrial belt, 7) Agricultural belt, 8) Foold Type of development area.
What you need to be able to
1. Give the characteristic of urban agglomerations and megalopolis. 2. To give a characteristic industry in the industry. 3. Giving a brief economic and geographical characteristics of the country. 4. Make a written economic and geographical description.
Instructions and plans for mastering self-study skills
1. Plan Characteristics of the Industry Industry of the Country (Region):
1. The value of the industry and the size of its products. 2. Natural prerequisites for industry development. 3. The structure of the industry. 4. The main factors affecting the placement of the industry, and the main features of its geography; Industrial industrial areas. 5. The dependence of the industry from export and import. 6. General conclusion; Prospects for the development of the industry.
2. Plan characteristics of a separate country:
1. Basic features of EGP. 2. Economic assessment of natural conditions and resources. 3. The main features of reproduction, structure and location of the population. 4. General characteristics of the economy. 5. The main features of the placement of industry. 6. The main features of agriculture. 7. Basic traits of transport geography. 8. Main Economic Areas. 9. The role and geography of external economic relations. 10. General conclusion; Prospects for development.
One of the main problems of source learning and in general humanitarian knowledge is the concept of a source. A really historical source acts as a single object of different sciences about man and society. It creates the basis for interdisciplinary research, for the unification of humanitarian sciences.
The theory of the source, successful by their achievements enriches the practice of historians and humanist specialists, reveals nature, essence, the specifics of the reflection of reality, features of information and the very concept of source. The latter is largely the starting point in understanding the rest. Of course, the definition of the object being studied does not disclose the entire depth of the event or process, however, is a significant element of its knowledge.
It is worth agreeing with the statement of the historian and the source Lion Nikolayevich Pushkarevathat any definition is always relative. It is unlikely to cover all the varieties of sources, all their signs and properties. In addition, every definition is not perfect, unable to exhaust our ideas about the source and, even more so, can not replace his study.
Moreover, understanding and definitions of the source cannot remain frozen, once and forever. They develop in unison with the development of the science and society as a whole. Indeed, with the deepening and concretization of our knowledge, the ideas about the object studying are also changed. Moreover, than a free society and science, the more obvious and fruitful these changes.
As the history of source studies is evidenced, that is, the process of developing this science, the definitions of the source have accumulated a lot. Different researchers explained in different ways the concept of "historical source". Often, the same definition was invested by a different understanding of the terms used.
In general, the question of the source as the basis of historical research, according to L.N. Pucarev, stood in Russia in the second quarter of the XVIII century. Many believe that historical knowledge begin to turn into science in the era of the Global Social Transformation of Peter I. In particular, this was expressed in the fact that the process of collecting and publishing major sources was significantly intensified. First of all, the chronicles and the lawsuit.
The very concept of the source has not yet been developed. Definitions have not yet existed. They arose much later. However, the first works in domestic history have gave lists and a brief description of the materials used, such as the same chronicles. This began to make Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev in his "History of the Russian from the most ancient times," and after some time, Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov in his historical works and above all "ancient Russian history."
The term itself, that is, the word source, and more precisely the phrase "Source of Russian History" was introduced into the science of the German and Russian historian August Ludwig Schleser. In 1761 at the invitation of academician Gerhard Friedrich Miller He came to Russia. In 1761-1767 Worked at the Imperial Academy of Sciences. As you know, was one of the authors of the so-called "Norman theory" of the emergence of Russian statehood. Led scientific controversy with M. V. Lomonosov.
In 1765 A.L. Shachzer became an honorary academician, including for the study and publication of Russian chronicles. It should be noted that he assigned the role of the discoverer of Russian history, which should transfer to Russia those techniques of criticism of historical sources, which have already been mastered in the West. Returning to Germany, this historian wrote the work of "Experience of studying Russian chronicles", where for the first time and used the term "source", in German Guelle.
It would seem that introduced into the scientific turnover, the word was leaning in domestic science for quite a long time. According to modern historiograms, summarizing the works in Russian history appeared in the XVIII century, they were without him.
Actively and meaningful, this term was used by domestic scientists from the beginning of the XIX century, but for now without clarification and definitions. In particular, the historian Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin In his famous, multi-volume work "The History of the Russian State" wrote a special section, which called "about the sources of Russian history until the XVIII century."
It is believed that in the 30s of the 1960s of the XIX century, the word, and behind it, the concept of "source" was widely implemented into the practice of teaching history in higher educational institutions in Russia. It was extremely important because it has led to the fact that young researchers initially began to think about the problem of a historical source, and both practical and theoretical aspects. By the way, about the difference between the source from scientific literature for the first time quite clearly said Konstantin Nikolaevich Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Head of the St. Petersburg Historic School in the introduction to the Russian history course, but he did not give any definition.
Perhaps, only by the end of the XIX century historians came close to the development of the definition of a historical source. Moreover, both foreign and domestic scientists. Accordingly, it is at this time that the formation of source studies as a special historical discipline. Indeed, since the conceptual apparatus will soon be a certain orientation, the science begins.
Theory of source learning has been reflected primarily in the works of the German historian, professors Ernst Bernheim.In 1889 he wrote a book on the methodology of the story, which the "textbook of the historical method" called and gave one of the first definitions of the historical source. According to E. Bernieim, source is a material from which science draws knowledge.
Moreover, he emphasized that the historical source and origin, and on use is associated with human activity. It is embodied in the work of the author who wrote the text, and the cognitive work of the historian, this text studies. In addition, this activity, as emphasized E. Bergeim, is predetermined by "internal reasons", in other words, "mental causality", that is, consciousness, thinking, feeling, emotions, will of people.
Thus, the source was perceived and assessed as a separation of the spiritual environment in which he originated as the result of human mental activity. In our opinion, the elements and the approach approach are beginning to be formed here, which modern researchers will be called cultural.
Undoubted and very tangible contribution to the development of theory and practice of source studies made a bright, original historian Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky. In 1894, he began to read a course of lectures on the emergence of students of Moscow University, in which he worked almost all his life, being a professor, and then a valid member of the Academy of Sciences.
Of course, the main labor of life V.O. Kluchevsky became the "course of Russian history" in 5 parts, however, he paid great attention to the problems of source studies, perfectly realizing that the historian is unthinkable without a historical source. Naturally, the course of lectures dedicated to the theory of the source could not do without the definition of the object being studied.
V.O. Westchevsky gave a figurative, and even beautiful interpretation of a historical source. it written or real monuments, which reflected the fastened lives of individuals and whole societies.Information of these two groups of sources, he considered the most useful and applicable to study the events and phenomena of the past. But, in particular, to verbal evidence treated very skeptical.
Perhaps, within the framework of modern source and historical knowledge, such a definition looks somewhat tough and not complete. Since such a long-known source groups, as ethnological, linguistic, oral and others remain beyond the edge of the sources. At the same time, it is thought, it is necessary to admit that the most popular and applicable according to the information are for historians precisely written and real sources. Therefore, in the center of the attention of the source science as science is predominantly written materials.
In the late XIX - early XX centuries. Many historians, and Western and domestic, shared the ideas of positivism. Without going into various aspects of this complex philosophical direction, we only note that positivism is a doctrine that announced the only basis for true knowledge of specific sciences.
Historians-positivists equated historical facts to the facts of accurate, empirical sciences. And largely proceeded from the fact that, since the story is akin to specific sciences, the historical process is also known, and the work of historians is quite objective, provided that the right attitude towards sources.
Positivists, according to O.M. Medushevskaya and a number of other researchers, were two famous French historians Charles Victor Langlua and Charles Senobos. The course of lectures read in Sorbonne, who had the purpose of letting students know about what constitutes and what should be the study of history, lay down the basis of the book "Introduction to the study of history". She was written in 1897 and published in 1898. This book was noticed and appreciated not only in France, but also in other countries, including in Russia. Her authority among historians was very high.
You can agree with the statement of those who believe that the work of S.V.Langlua and Sh. Senobos not only expressed its time, but contains knowledge that has not lost its value so far. These scientists were not only theorists, but also practitioners, not only knew how to study the story, but also knew how to do it. From here, apparently, the clarity and availability of the presentation, understandable and professional researchers and inexperienced in a conversation about the sources of readers, which, unfortunately, is a big rarity for such a publication.
In the literature, the concept of a historical source is usually considered as broader than the concept of the document. Even among the written sources, not everyone has the status of documents, not to mention the existence of real, oral, ethnological and other materials.
At the same time, the merit of S.V.Langluua and S. Senobos is that they shared their unique experiences, showed how to master the skill of the historian, how to separate false from the true one. Moreover, without incline the level of complexity of the process itself, it was shown simply and fascinating. Their ideas were undoubtedly a step forward, however, a positivist approach, directed mainly to impartial state stating, did not allow the opportunity to study the source intently, systemically.
In domestic and western science at the end of the XIX - early XX century, the so-called expansion interpretations of the source appeared. Today, that is, at the beginning of the XXI century, this approach is formulated, as already noted, S.O. SMIDT, but he had predecessors. In particular, in 1899, the historian and lawyer from Kazan Nikolai Pavlovich Zagoskin In the work on the history of law, in fact, first made a definition covering all the variety of sources. According to him, all that is able to serve as a means to the knowledge of the last life of the people, thereby acquires the importance of sources to the knowledge of the history of this people.
One of the first attempts to the wide interpretation of the source belongs to the German historian Aloiza Maister,which in 1906 in his work "the main characteristics of the historical method" concluded that source is all something from what we can learn historical knowledge.
The expansion interpretation of the source was also offered the famous French historians, the leaders of the Annals School, named by the magazine they published - Lucien Fevr and Mark Block. The historical source was associated with "traces" of any activity of people and considered history as a science covering social, psychological, moral, religious, political, economic and other aspects of a person's life in the past and present. For example, L. FEVR noted, that the ingenuity of the historian allows him to use everything - words, signs, landscapes, tiles, agricultural shapes, weed herbs, gathering, examination with geologists with geologists.... And then continued - in short, it is necessary to use everything that it was in a person, depended on the person, served as a person, expressed man, marked the presence of his activity, his tastes and forms of his being.
It is unlikely that it is necessary to challenge the fact that in Russia the pre-revolutionary, the speakers has developed a solid and systematic doctrine of sources. And, perhaps, the main role in this was played by one of the most versatile historians of the end of the XIX - early XX century. Alexander Sergeevich Lappo-Danilevsky. It is surprising that it was equally a wonderful historian, a philosopher, a lawyer, an economist, mathematician. Scientific achievements of the scientist were properly evaluated. He became a professor at the University of St. Petersburg, at the age of 36 years old was elected to the actual members of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
Undoubtedly, it was a man and researcher of the European warehouse, who knew the modern historical and philosophical thought of Germany, France, England, agreed to develop and creatively applied it in his scientific activity. Being a Western, he considered Russia a European country passing the difficult path of becoming cultural and science.
From 1906, the University of St. Petersburg introduced a mandatory course of the "History Methodology", which was commissioned to read Alexander Sergeevich. Apparently, during the teaching, it was tested and honored to the source, later the "Methodology of History" (1910-1913) were tested and honed in the fundamental work. It can be said that the researcher created an original, in many respects innovative teaching about sources and practically proved its scientific consistency.
Indeed, engaged in the domestic history, A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky studied a variety of sources - the annals, laws, acts, statistics, memories. And in practice showed how his theories work, approaches, methods of study outlined in the "History Methodology" work. In general, it is undoubted that the scientist has created a scientific school, the ideas of which were supported and began to apply many historians, lawyers, lawyers of Russia and the West.
A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky presented his vision of the historical source. In his opinion, this is a realized product of a human psyche, suitable for studying facts with historical meaning.To understand the source-edge concept of the historian, it is important and this statement is each source is an individualized result of creativity of this public group or a given person.
Thus, the scientist perceived the source as a result of human activity, and believed that he was able to reflect life only subjectively, through the prism of his psychology. Alexander Sergeevich was a representative of historical idealism, i.e. Such an interpretation of history, which its driving, sees creative power in the human consciousness, in the spiritual side of life.
The carrier of this movement and development, considered the historian, is the human personality, manifesting itself in an individual and collective. Therefore, the basis for the study of sources, he put the principle of recognition of someone else's animation and the procedure for psychological interpretation of studied texts - interpretation.
It must be admitted that the theory of source studies A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky, proposed by them methods for studying the sources still retain their relevance and in demand in historical science and in humanitarian knowledge as a whole. And at one time, domestic and western researchers knew his views well and evaluated them very high. In particular, Charles Viktor Langlou in one of the letters of A.S.lappo-Danilevsky wrote that he considers him the best, most knowledgeable historian of science.
Unfortunately, in Soviet historiography for many years, indifferent, and even negative attitude towards the methodological research of the scientist. According to political trends, he condemned as a bourgeois historian and source. However, justice triggered in modern domestic science, undoubtedly, the interest in personality and books of this unique and highly professional historian.
In general, in different years of the Soviet period, sources, including in terms of searching for definitions of a historical source, developed in different ways. Perhaps, by the end of the 1920s, a certain continuity of young Soviet science with Western and domestic pre-revolutionary continued continuity remained. However, soon in accordance with the political situation and the ideology of that time, many scientific relations were interrupted. The time of isolation and self-insulation came, which generally had a negative impact at the level of development of source studies and in general humanitarian knowledge.
But science does not exist from scratch and under all negative conditions and trends still freely or involuntarily relies on the achievements of predecessors. Therefore, as definition of the concept of "historical source" and in Soviet times, such terms were used as "materials", "actual materials", "residues", "traces of the past".
In 1930, the historian P.Sar.in its work, "sources and methods of historical research" led a new wider concept of the source. It looked like that - materials for which we can learn past human society are called historical sources.
Next, there was a significant addition, from a modern point of view, a slightly politicized sense - if we talk about historical sources in general, then everything created by the human society, both in the field of material culture and ideology, is historical sources. In the future, P.Sar clarified and supplemented his definition, noting that it is worth including geographical conditions, climate, soil, social diseases, etc. in the number of sources. Of course, such an understanding uniquely can be attributed to the number of expansion interpretations of the source.
A year later, in 1931 the author was published S.N. Bibkovsky"Methods of historical research", where he dared to give his vision of the source. In our opinion, to determine it is somewhat verbally, but with a substantive and search engine viewing point of view. According to this Soviet historian, historical source "generally" or a historical source in wide sense serves every monument of past life. In more narrow and special The sense of the source should be considered a monument of past life, independently and chronologically for the first time, compared with other, which have come down to us by monuments, reflecting one or another historically, an event or a phenomenon, or at least a detail of a historical fact, events or phenomena.
Historian, appreciating the complexity and diversity of sources, tried to distinguish between the concept of the source and event, source and primary source, that is, the material that appears at the time or very close to the event. These are important and fundamental comments take into account the features of sources undoubtedly affecting the relations of researchers to them. Thus, with the entire political and ideological non-free, who reigned in historical science, were researchers who made their tangible contribution to the theory and practice of source studies.
Famous historian Boris Dmitrievich Greek,in 1934-37 The lectures of Russian history at the historical faculty of the Leningrad State University, made a certain step forward in the clarification of the term "source". He explained that the historical source in a wide understanding of the term is literally everything, from where we can learn about the information you are interested in, i.e. All that serves as a means of historical knowledge. Will this written document or legend, or a real monument - anyway, since it is used by us as a means to study - it will be a historical source.
Perhaps the most common and popular in the domestic science of the 1940s 1940s, was the definition of the source proposed by a large Soviet historian Mikhail Nikolayevich Tikhomirov.He was academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Professor of the Moscow State University, head of the Department of Sources, Dean of the History Faculty. The area of \u200b\u200bhis scientific interests was extremely wide. This is the history of Russia from ancient times until the XIX century, a number of auxiliary historical disciplines, as well as sources.
M.N.Tikhomirov read a course of lectures on the source for students of Moscow State University, the result of which was the result of the source student of the USSR history in two volumes, the first edition of which appeared in 1940. Then from repeatedly reprinted. In the first volume, there was a review of domestic written sources from ancient times until the end of the XVIII century, in the second - the criticism of the sources of the XIX century.
Of course, the author could not bypass theoretical problems of source studies, including the question of determining the historical source. The first volume of the textbook is starting with this. According to the historian, under the historical source understand all monument of past, indicating the history of human society. Historical sources serve manuscripts, printed books, buildings, household items, ancient customs, elements of ancient speech, preserved in the language, etc. - in a word, all residues last historical life.
With the filing of Mikhail Nikolayevich in the works of those years to define the source, the term "monument" was established, of course, in the generalizing sense of this word. Yes, and the word "residues" also began to meet often in reflections and reasoning scientists.
In the 1960s and 1970s of the XX century. A number of historians and philosophers turned to the problem of the source. Among them were known by the time researchers V.I.strelsky, S.M. Kashshtanov, M.A.Varsavchik, A.P.Pronstein, S.O.Smidt, L.N. Pushkarev other. The last in 1975 wrote a monograph "Classification of Russian written sources for domestic history", in which not only considered the issue of the classification of sources, but analyzed the very concept of "historical source".
L.N. Pushkarev was clearly formulated by a number of important provisions that reveal the social nature of the source and discussed at the time in science. Here is some of them. Each source is a complex public phenomenon. This is an object created by a person on the basis of subjective personal images of a real objective world.
The distinctive feature of the source is the direct reflection of reality. That is, only the consciousness of the author of the source is worth between the source and real reality. Any source displaying validity itself is part of it. This means that it not only contains information about the facts, but also himself always and at the same time is a historical fact.
Historians, and even more so source, developing the theory of the source, always realized that its essential property and main quality - information. Source is a carrier of information. The task of the historian is to learn how to extract this information using different methods defined by methods.
Special attention to the problem of the information content of the source researchers drew in the 1980s. Accordingly, the sources began to include information awareness. At that time, the definitions proposed were most often used in research and educational literature. Alexander Pavlovich Bestein,professor of Rostov University, and Doctor of Historical Sciences, famous sources Warshavchik Mark Akimovich.
A.P. PRRStein in his book "Sonstigiology in Russia: the era of feudalism" argued that the historical source can be considered all the products of people who contain information about the real life of society in the unity of direct and indirect reflection; indicate a natural development process of human society; And, being involved in the sphere of historical research, serve as a means of historical knowledge.
The definition given by M.A.Varshavchik is formulated somewhat easier, but from this it, in our opinion, only wins - historical source is a material carrier of historical information, which arose as a product of certain public relations and directly reflecting this or another side of human activity.
Word " materialIn this case, it means that the source is only an object available for observation, stable and sovereign, that is, distant from the researcher and independent of it. Emphasis on the fact that any source reflects " that or that"The side of life and activity is also extremely important.
The historian emphasizes here that, by virtue of its nature, sources fragmentary fix a reality. And only taken together and the more logical and qualitatively selected under study of any problem they can show a systemic, one-piece picture of an event, phenomenon or process. And the most important task of researchers, including students who write coursework and thesis, to form a capacious and versatile source base of studying their problem.
In the 90s of the 20th century, teachers of the Moscow State Historical and Archival Institute (MGIAI), headed by O.M. Medushevskaya and S. Butmidt, carried out an interpretation of the concept of "historical source" with cultural and expansion positions.
The essence of these approaches was already revealed by us. Here once again we recall that each of these approaches has its predecessors. And it is even more apparent if you trace how Western and domestic researchers produced and interpreted the concept of a historical source in accordance with their views and beliefs.
