Describing the reforms of Alexander 2. Alexander II reforms - briefly

Russia longer than any other states remained a country with feudal system and serfdom. By the middle of the 19th century, such a type of state finally outlived itself, and the conflict that was twisted from the 18th century reached his peak. It was necessary to urgently change both the government, and mainly the economic system.

With the development of technologies and the emergence of industrial equipment, the need for manual work has increasingly disappeared, but the landowners still actively used the work of the peasants, having their huge taxes. As a result, the peasantry was overwhelmed, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline of serfdom and landowners' incomes. The state, in turn, also received less profits from the broken landowners, and the treasury suffered. Such a situation was not satisfied with any of the parties.

The developing industry also suffered, since because of the widespread reassurance of the peasants, lacked the free workforce, which could serve machines on the factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant riots and revolutionary moods reached their peak. The situation also aggravated the lost Crimean War, which finally undermined the confidence of citizens to the king and the government, which showed its complete inconsistency, both economic and military. In such a situation, conversations began about the need to cancel serfdom and new reforms that would help the country to get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, on one of his speeches before the nobility, stated the need for the easier elimination of serfdom from above (sovereign), otherwise it will take place (revolution).

The era of great reforms began.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the main political reforms, Alexander 2 can be called:

• Peasant reform (1861);
• Financial reform (1863);
• Education reform (1863);
• Zemskaya reform (1864);
• Judicial reform (1864);
• Reform of state self-government (1870);
• Military reform (1874);

The essence of all reforms Alexander 2 was to restructure the Company and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms can be called the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was preparing for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, was still carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all the peasants were liberated from the serfdom - along with personal freedom they also received a small plot of land completely free on which they could live and work. In addition, the peasant could buy a arable one for a small amount - it made a lot of money to the treasury state. In addition, the peasants received a number of civil rights: they could carry out sales transactions, could operate trade and industrial enterprises, claim to go to another estate. They were also liberated from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

Another reform of Alexander 2 is a print reform. In the Empire, such a concept appeared as publicity and freedom of the press (relative), newspapers could discuss activities conducted by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. Also the "iron curtain" was removed, and people could freely leave the country.

The judicial system has changed. The old type of court was replaced by the new, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all classes and the principle of publicity, openness. The jury appeared, which allowed the proceedings to separate from the executive and to make more independent decisions.

Zemskaya and city reforms have formed open bodies of local governments, courts appeared in the cities, local councils - this greatly simplified the process of urban self-government.

Military reform assumed the replacement of the Petrovsk system of recruits to the Universal Military Meament. This made it possible to create a more extensive army, which could be mobilized in the shortest possible time at the earliest. Also increased the level of military education due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Together with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the overall level of education of society began to grow rapidly.

We offer to familiarize yourself with 10 reforms in the history of Russia, the information about which is given on the website of the magazine "Spark".

1. The reforms of Ivan the Terrible
The beginning of Ivan IV reforms is considered to convene the first Zemstvo Cathedral in 1549 with the participation of Boyar, nobles and the highest clergy. The Cathedral decided to compile a new coin, in which, in particular, a punishment for bribes appeared. In 1550, the king created the first regular shooting army, and in 1555 he conducted a reform of local government, creating electoral management bodies in the counties. In the 1560s, the reform period was replaced by an oprichnik, the result of which was the fall in the relics of the army, the crisis of the economy and the strengthening of the power of the king.

2. The adoption of cathedral
In 1649, during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanova at the Zemsky Cathedral in Moscow, the cathedral exhibition was adopted, which regulated almost all legal issues. The document consisted of 25 chapters, summarizing the norms of state, administrative, civil and criminal law. The Code finally issued a serfdom, determined the regime of entry and departure from the country, and also first separated state crimes from criminal. The document remained legitimate until the adoption of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 1832.

3. Monetary reform Alexei Romanova
In 1654, by decree of the sovereign, Alexei Mikhailovich Romanova began a chamber of silver coins that were nushed in the people of Efimki. On one side for the first time, "Ruble" and a double-headed eagle appeared, on the other - the king on horseback. An attempt to introduce into circulation of unsecured money led to inflation, increasing internal tension and ended with folk unrest. After a year, the release of the first rubles was discontinued and resumed only in 1704 under Peter I.

4. Peter I reforms
From the end of the XVII century, by the will of Peter I, Russia, for three decades, plunged into reforms, affected many areas of her life and influenced the future of the country. The most important of them is the transformation of Russia into the empire, the change in the summer system, the emergence of secular educational institutions, the abolition of the patriarchate and the liquidation of the autonomy of the Church, the creation of a regular army and fleet, the adoption of a table of ranks that separated the service for civil and military, opening the Academy of Sciences and others.

5. Camera II provincial reform II
In 1775, Empress Ekaterina II conducted a local government reform approaching the administrative and territorial division of the country to modern. Instead of 23 provinces and 66 provinces in Russia, 50 provinces appeared, each divided by 10-12 counties. The province of the province stood the governor, appointed and displaced by the monarch. The legality in the region supported the provincial prosecutor, and supervised the governors of the Governors, resembling the functions of the current polliprants of the president in federal districts.

6. Ministerial reform of Alexander I
On September 8, 1802, Alexander I signed a manifesto "On the establishment of ministries", which laid the foundations of the new government system in Russia. The document has transformed the previous colleges in eight ministries - foreign affairs, military ground forces, sea forces, internal affairs, finances, justice, commerce and folk enlightenment. The manifesto also said the creation of the Committee, "compiled by the only" ministerial. Until 1906, the Committee of Ministers remained the highest authority of the country's executive power.

7. Reforms Alexander II
In 1861, Alexander II signed a manifesto on the abolition of serfdom, giving peasants freedom and the right to dispose of his property. In 1864, two more key reforms were held - the Zemskaya, as a result of which the elected bodies of local self-government became the land, and the reform of judicial institutions, introducing all-known courts, the courts of jury and the attorney. In 1874, Alexander II spent another major reform - military. A general military service appeared in the country, and the service life has decreased from 25 to 5-7 years.

8. The first decrees of Soviet power
In November 1917, the Bolsheviks took the power issued a number of documents, the most famous of which have long remained declarative declarations about the world and the Earth. But the decree on the abolition of classes and civilians, the decree on the separation of the church from the state and the nationalization of banks and large enterprises was really fundamentally changed their lives in the country. Among other decrees of that time that influenced life, you can call the transition from the Gregorian calendar to the Julian and orpography reform.

9. Industrialization and collectivization
In 1927, at the XV Congress of WCP (b), it was decided to combine the sole peasant farms in the collective farms. By the fall of 1932, they consisted of 62.4 percent, and by 1937 - already 93 percent of farms, and the collective farms became one of the foundations of the Soviet economy. At the same time, in the late 1920s, the authorities took the course to industrialization - the development of severe and defense industry and overcoming technical retardation. The result of the reforms became both economic growth and the consolidation of the administrative-command management model.

10. The reforms of the team of Egor Gaidar
In 1991-1992, the Russian government adopted a number of fundamental measures developed by the team of Egor Gaidar for the transition from the socialist to the capitalist economy. The main of them were liberalization of prices, freedom of foreign trade and voucher privatization. Simultaneously with the disappearance of the trade deficit, there was a sharp jump in prices, which led to a rapid drop in the standard of living of the population. Haste criticism, and hasty privatization, nimbled in the people of "clamping" due to the unfair conditions of its holding. -about-

In the nineteenth century, the Russian empire was in a state of an implicit, but deep crisis. The reasons were that the country lagged a lot from more developed neighbors in social and administrative terms. There were serious problems in managing and in the use of resources, popular discontent grew, even the nobility began to demand change.

Alexander II attempted to solve all these problems. His reforms were not prevented by the revolution, after all, happened later, but improved the life of the country for several decades.

What exactly changed Alexander II during his board?

Examine the emperor reforms in all details is impossible in a brief overview. But even their simply enumeration allows you to present well how progressive and timely the actions of the ruler were.

Alexander II spent:

• . Absolutely, all the peasants of the empire stopped being serfs and gained the status of full-fledged citizens - and for this they did not need to "buy themselves" at the landlord.
• Military reform. First of all, a system of physical punishment was canceled, which caused the tremendous discontent during the rule of Nikolai I. In addition, now the military service spread to all classes, and people from any seats of society could voluntarily flow into military schools.
• Financial reform. The emperor brought order in the expenditure and income of the state - from now on, the budget passed a mandatory approval from the State Council and personally at the king, the ministries were obliged to report on their spending. The execution of the rules was followed by special commissions, in addition, the established budget was published in the press.
• . The activities of the courts were fully removed from under the control of other branches of power - in other words, the courts became independent and impartial. Also, Alexander II first introduced the so-called principle of adversary - from now on, a person could not be convicted without a lawyer, a defender was necessarily assigned to any defendant.
• . Their essence is about the same - new bodies consisting mainly from local residents have been created in cities, provinces and counties. From now on, all issues related to the life and development of the city, the county or province decided not officials from remote edges, and local commissions, familiar with the needs of the population and the realities of the geographical area.
• . Universities were granted great freedom of self-government. In addition, it became easier to come with training from a poor families, and the very first schools for women appeared.

The reforms of Alexander II are often referred to as liberal. And with this term can not disagree. Against the background of his predecessors, the emperor became a real "liberator" for the people, allowed to develop a civil society, improved the life of the lower layers of the population.

Introduction

Chapter 1. Alexander II

1.1 Brief biography

Chapter 2. Liberal Reforms

2.3 World mediators

2.4 Pasteners and Means

2.7 Zemskoy reform

2.8 Urban Reform

2.11 Military reform

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Purpose:to get acquainted with the identity of Emperor Alexander II, which is in general a number of emperors as Peter I, Catherine Great, who continues their great undertaking.

TaskI put in front of him to associate reforms of the 60-70 years of the XIX century with reforms of modern Russia, to understand what conditions are necessary for the successful decision of the reforms.

Subjectmy research life, the fate and reform of Alexander Nikolayevich Romanova - Emperor Alexander II.

The bourgeois reforms of the 60-70 years of the XIX century, conducted in Russia, did not lose their relevance And nowadays. Today's Russia, as well as Russia in the second half of the XIX century stands before choosing a path. Where to develop? How to develop?

In Russia, three revolutions occurred for one 20th century:

1905 - 1907 - the first revolution

The story has shown that almost all revolutions end with bloody, immoral civil wars.

Therefore, the reform path of development is always preferable than revolutionary.

Summing up the reform of the 60-70 years of the XIX century, it is much better to understand the reforms of modern Russia.

Alexander II entered the history of Russia as the emperor, who from conversations about the reforms was first in the path of their practical implementation.

If Ekaterina II and Alexander I only talked about reforms, then Alexander II began to implement them.

reform Alexander Emperor Peasant

Peter I (the first Russian emperor) turned over Russia, Catherine II continued the beginnings of Peter, and Alexander II completed the formation of the Great Power.

Alexander II fate proved that it is impossible to spend in Russia not one reform without paying blood for it.

Reforms in Russia - this is a severe share:

Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky is the largest Russian reformer of the beginning of the XIX century, for the preparation of the draft public reorganization of Russia, he was exiled to the city of Perm.

Sergey Yulievich Witte - Minister of Finance and the Head of Government, who talked about the need for reforms in the country at the end of the XIX century, is removed from office.

Peter Arkadyevich Stolypin - the head of government, the reformer of the agriculture of Russia, was killed in 1911.

Conclusion: All reformers lost if not life, then their destiny.

Chapter 1. Alexander II

1.1 Brief biography

Alexander II - the son of the king, the pupil of the poet.

Alexander Nikolayevich Romanov, the firstborn of the Grand Paving Family - Nikolai Pavlovich and Alexandra Fedorovna - Born at the Easter Week on April 17, 1818 in Moscow, in the Kremlin and was baptized in a miracle monastery.

Poet V.A. Zhukovsky, who was then the teacher of the Russian language at the Grand Duchess Alexander Fedorovna, responded to family joy of significant lines:

Yes, he will meet an abundant age!

Yes, the glorious member will be nice!

Yes, it will not forget high

His Holiness: Man.

Zhukovsky, seeing how the plan was collected by the plan, gradually moved away from education and went abroad for a long time. But he loved the frisky and responsive boy, and correspondence did not stop between them. "The dominiousness does not force, but by order," the poet of the future king was instructed, "the true power of the sovereign is not among his warriors, but in the prosperity of the people ... love their people: without love. The king to the people no love of the people to the king. "

Alexander grew up healthy and cheerful. He walked well and shot, successfully studied, although the educators noticed in it the lack of perseverance in achieving the goal. Faced with difficulties, he often fell into apathy. He was distinguished by a great impressionability. Zhukovsky's lessons deeply sealed in his soul. But the father had no less influence. He was afraid of him and admired him. In 18 years, it is clearly not the merit of Tsarevich received the rank of General Major. Military affairs to the extent as Nikolai (an excellent military engineer), he is still not comprehended. But Mishuur parades, reviews and divorces he knew to the little things and selflessly loved. All my life in his soul fought two starts - humane, grafted by Zhukovsky, and the militarist, inherited from the Father. In this regard, he reminded Alexander I.

Forever I remember the future king journey in Russia in 1837. He was accompanied by Zhukovsky. For seven months, they visited 30 provinces. In Siberia, they met with Decembrists. In Vyatka, they talked about the wealth of the local edge, the reference Herzen. Upon return, the heir asked for mitigating the fate of the Decembrists. At the same time, Herzen was translated into Vladimir.

In addition to parades and balls, Alexandra had another hobby, purely sports, which was strangely influenced by events in the country. He passionately loved the hunt and, of course, could not pass by the "Notes of the Hunter" I.S. Turgenev. Subsequently, he said that the book convinced him if the need was the abolition of serfdom.

I carried out the abolition of serfdom and then conducted a number of reforms (Zemskaya, judicial, military, etc.). After the Polish uprising, 1863-64 moved to the reactionary domestic political course. From the Kon.70s. The repression against revolutionaries strengthened. In the reign of Alexander II, the accession of the territories of the Caucasus (1864), Kazakhstan (1865), most part of the CP, was completed. Asia (1865-81). In order to increase the influence of the Balkans and the help of the national liberation movement of the Slavic peoples, Russia participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78. Academician Andrei Sakharov - Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Director of the Institute of Russian History, Speaking about the fate of Alexander II, the following: "The main tragedy of the Russian autocracy is that it could not reform himself. To go further along the path of reforms, it was necessary Destroy yourself - Alexander II understood.

Attempts and murder

At Alexander II, several attempts were committed: D.V. Karakozov, Polish Emigrant A. Berezovsky on May 25, 1867 in Paris, A.K. Solovyov on April 2, 1879 in St. Petersburg. The executive committee of "People's Will" on August 26, 1879 decided to murder Alexander II (an attempt to explode the imperial train near Moscow 19 November 1879, an explosion in the winter palace, produced by S.N. Halturine on February 5, 1880). The Supreme Regulatory Commission was created to protect the state order and combating the revolutionary movement. But nothing could prevent his violent death on March 1, 1881 Alexander II was mortally wounded on the Ekaterini channel embankment in St. Petersburg by the bomb, abandoned by the Peace, I.I. Grinevitsky. He died just that day, when he decided to give the progress of the constitutional project M.T. Loris Melikova, saying to his sons Alexander (future emperor) and Vladimir: "I do not hide from myself that we are going along the path of the Constitution."

1.2 Need to conduct reforms

Fryingness in Russia existed significantly longer than in other European countries, and carried the most cruel and ugly features of slave coercion and violence. The question of the abolition of serfdom rose by Russian enlighteners N. Novikov and A. Radishchev in the XVIII century, with Catherine II. Decembrists also in all their program documents consistently emphasized the need to cancel serfdom.

With the end of the Crimean War in the history of Russia, a new band began. She got the name of the Epoch of Liberation and Great Reforms. In the consciousness of contemporaries and descendants, she firmly connected with the name of Emperor Alexander II.

Chapter 2. Liberal Reforms

February 19, 1861 - the abolition of serfdom. The emperor signed the "General Regulations on the peasants who came out of the fortress dependence" and the manifesto, according to which the serf peasants received personal freedom. Domestic historians express various opinions about the reasons for the abolition of serfdom. Most of them believe that the decisive was the economic factor: the crisis of the fortification system of the management due to the disinterest of serfs of the peasants as a result of his work.

This factor did not contribute to the increase in the yield of landlord. Another group of supporters highlights landlord causes of the abolition of serfdom: the humiliating defeat of Russia in the Crimean War and the desire of the authorities to avoid social misfortunes.

For the first time, the need for the cardinal peasant reform was officially announced by Alexander II in the speech by representatives of the Moscow nobility on March 30, 1856, a few days after the conclusion of the Paris World: "The existing order of ownership of the souls cannot remain unchanged. It is better to cancel the serfdom from above, rather than wait for that time When it starts to cancel from below. "

At the origins of the cancellation of serfdom stood prominent figures:

Milyutin Nikolai Alekseevich, who actually led the preparation of the peasant reform of 1861.

Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich was one of the most noticeable figures in the history of the reign of Alexander II. The outstanding role was played by Konstantin Nikolaevich in the preparation and holding of peasant reform.

Under the pressure of the Grand Duke, the Secret Committee with great creak decided to start training measures "to improve the life of landlord peasants." In accordance with it, the reform was carried out in three stages: "Pre-preparatory", when the policy of mitigating the serfdom, the "transition period" and final, when the peasants will be completely free (without the provision of land.) The ideas of the liberation of peasants from the land for the ransom, who defended the Grand Duke, clearly did not find a response from most members of the Committee, and Konstantin Nikolaevich acquired a reputation in the bureaucratic and noble circles.

Cherkasi Vladimir Alexandrovich (1824-1878). From the 1840s. He played for the liberation of peasants. Member of the Preparation of Peasant Reform 1861

Rostovtsev Yakov Ivanovich (1803 / 04-60), one of the heads of the preparation of peasant reform 1861, Chairman of the Editorial Commission; His program cancellation of serfdom formed the basis of the provisions on February 19, 1861.

In the autumn of 1857, the nobility of the Lithuanian province under pressure General Governor V.I. Nazimova stated that it is according to freeing the peasants from personal fortress dependence, but provided that the entire land is preserved. Immediately, the emperor signed ResCripte (ResCripte - Act of the Monarch in the form of a specific prescription of the Minister or any other person) addressed to Nazimov, which was prescribed to form the provincial committees in each of the three provinces (Vilensk, Koven and Grodno) to prepare proposals for the device of life of peasants .

2.2 The main positions of the peasant reform

The conditions for the liberation of the peasants emerging from the fortress dependence were set forth in the provisions of February 19, 1861. From the moment of publication of the reform documents, the former serf peasant, previously considered the property of his master, received not only the opportunity to freely dispose of his personality (personal freedom was provided free of charge), but also acquired a number of other personal and property rights. Free rural ordinary people could conclude various transactions, to present claims, engage in trade and crafts, to own driven and not driven property, to marry without the consent of the landowner, to enter "General educational institutions." From now on, the peasant became a legal entity in civil, administrative and criminal cases.

Former landowners, the peasants were credited to the consulting classes and should have been carried by state and sommensterability. Until January 1, 1887, the peasants paid the pillow to submit, before the introduction of universal military service

2.3 World mediators

The global mediator, an official in Russia during the period of peasant reform 1861. was appointed from the nobles to approve the statutory reference and dispute parsing between peasants and landowners. He possessed the judicial and administrative authority.

If at the initial stage of the preparation of the reform, the government intended to impose its practical embodiment on the local nobility in the face of the provincial committees, then met later with a fierce, irreconcilable position of the landowners, the ruling circles were forced to make the creation of the Institute of World Mediators - special representatives to implement the reform in the field.

The main function of the world intermediaries was to promote the agreement of the peasants with the landowners and the preparation of the so-called "statutory reference", in which the dimensions of the peasants obtained were precisely determined, the location and peasant means. Statutory letters should have been enacted no later than two years after the publication of the "reform provisions".

World mediators claimed rural elder and volost elders, could cancel the decisions of peasant gatherings, considered complaints about landowners, the organs of the peasant government, were imposed of recovery, performed as notarial persons at the conclusion of landowners with temprald peasants.

In the lists of world mediators, it was possible to meet representatives of famous noble surnames, outstanding figures of Russian culture, science, education: L.N. Tolstoy and his brother Sergey, K.D. Cavelin, N.I. Pies, brothers Samarins, physiologist I.M. Sechenov, biologist K.I. Timiryazev and many others.

2.4 Pasteners and Means

The central link of the reform was the issue of land. The whole land in the estate was recognized as the ownership of the landowner, including the one that was at the disposal of the peasants. At the same time, in accordance with the document of reform, the peasants must redeem their estate and riddled land from the landowners. Burned became peasants owners. Before the redemption of their puts, the peasants should have continued to carry the duties in the form of a barbecue or long-term. Therefore, personally free peasants, carrying mants in favor of the previous owner, were called "temporary". According to the "Regulations on February 19," the temporal condition of the peasants could continue for 9 years. In fact, it stretched for many peasants for 20 years.

In determining the dimensions, it was predominantly given to a voluntary agreement between the peasants and landowners, and since such an agreement did not achieve such an agreement, the size of the station was determined by the legislation.

To this end, the entire territory of the country was divided into 3 bands: black earth, non-black-earth and steppe. For chernozem and non-sinnamine bands, two norms were installed - the highest and lowest (last 3 times lower than the highest). The highest rate for the chernozem strip was from 2 3?4 up to 6 tents, for non-black earth - from 23 to 7 tents. In the steppe strip, only one specified norm was installed. These norms, as a rule, were lower than the old peasants of the stationery, which the peasants used before the reform, so the landowners under the law received the right to cut off the "extra" land from their former peasants.

In the end of the reform, the peasants received 33.7 million tits of the Earth, on average 3.4 dec. Per capita. According to economic estimates, it was necessary to ensure the minimum needs of the peasant economy: in the black earth provinces at least 5, and in non-black-earth - from 6 to 8 tents per soul. Thus, more than 9/10 of the former landlords "Provisions on February 19, 1861" preserved the barbecine as a form of feudal service, but it was significantly limited. For the highest, or edited, put on the peasants should have been working out in a year 40 male and 30 women's days (earlier 135 days). N did not receive this necessary norm.

2.5 ransom and redemption operation

After the conclusion of the redemption transaction, the peasants from the category of temporary-shaped passed into the category of the peasants of the owners. In order to protect the interests of the landowners, the developers of the reform offered the following: for the station it is necessary to pay the landowner such a sum that, if it is put in the bank, in the form of interest will give the owner of the current lifts. If the lifts are 10 rubles, then at 6% of the bank percentage, the amount of 166 rubles66 kopecks. Give the landowner in the year these 10 rubles. Thus, the redemption amount for put on it was determined in 167 rubles. In this case, the market price is 1 dec. The lands in the central regions usually did not exceed 25 rubles., The redemption did the peasant in 60 rubles. On average, the redemption exceeds the price of the land for one third. It followed that the price put on a direct relationship to the real price of the Earth did not have, but it allowed Barina to preserve the previous privileges. Having lost the peasants, the landowner actually retained income from them.

Peasants, naturally, could not immediately pay the landowner with the entire redemption amount. Then the government went to meet the owners by organizing a "redemption operation", that is, performing an intermediary between the landowners and their former peasants. The owner at the same time received a loan from the treasury in the amount of 88% of the redemption amount, if the peasants received a full one, or 75%, if the peasants received incomplete put on. Clear for this amount should have been the peasants, bringing annually within 49 years, until 1910, the so-called "redemption payments" in the amount of 6% of the redemption amount. It turned out that during this time the peasant was supposed to pay almost

% loan provided. The difference between the redemption amount and the redemption loans the former peasants should have paid the landowner - immediately or by installments. In cases where the ransom was produced at the request of the landowner, without the consent of the peasants, the last of the surcharge was released.

The state reformed, in fact, without spending a single ruble on it. The total redemption amount for peasant pans was determined in 867 million rubles, while the market price of this land was about 650 million rubles in the 60s of the XIX century. In 45 years, the former peasants managed to pay the treasury more than 1.5 billion rubles of redemption payments and still remained. After conducting a redeeming operation, the state at the expense of the peasants solved the problem of returning pre-reform debts from landowners. The amount of landlord debts to the beginning of the reform was 425 million rubles, this amount was deducted from the redemption loan obtained by the owners.

2.6 The reaction of peasants to reform

The peasants, of course, expected not such a liberation. The bewilderment with which they listened to the manifest was quickly replaced by a ropot and universal indignation as soon as they understood the main thing in the decree read: the Earth was recognized as landlord property, and the peasants will still be a redemption, or to serve the bargain. The peasants refused to believe the heard, considered a promulgated manifesto for a fake document, which was drawn up by landowners and agreeing with them, who led the real royal will.

The government foresaw that the reform would cause disappointment and, perhaps, direct perturbation among the peasantry. It was not randomly commoded to the Majo-General and Flygel-Adjutants who had the widest possible powers in the ability of all sorts of "between peasants of anxiety, disobedience or disobey." Disobedience and "anxiety" did not make himself wait. Famous publicist N.A. SERNO-SOLLYVEVICH wrote in June 1861: "The same phenomena repeated everywhere: the peasants refused to go to the barbecue and pay the landlords to the landlords, they were changed by the elder and the burmusers set by the landowners, complained of oppression from landlords ... demanded clean will." In the spring of 1861, the peasant movement was obtained in the Kazan, Penza, Tambov, Saratov, Chernigov, Vilensk, Koven and Smolensk provinces.

The major performances of the peasants occurred in the villages of the abyss of the Kazan province and the Kandaevka of the Penza province. "The provisions of February 19" called in the peasants with. Cupless perplexity and protest. Without satisfied with the clarification of landowners and sacred, the peasants tried to find other interpreters. And such an interpreter was found. One of the local diplomas sectarian Anton Petrov, "read" from the "provisions" next fantastic "true will": "The landowner of the Earth - Mountains and Doluah, ravines and the sand and the sand Yes, the Forest, the Forest they are not a rod. Goney kind words, do not obey, seven his head, get from the king award. " Anton Petrov called on the peasants not to listen to landowners and bosses, do not walk on the barbecue, do not pay the lifts, take bread from the Barsky barn.

The period of 1861-1863 is characterized by open peasant protests. But the highest voltage peasant unrest reached in the first months after the proclamation of the reform. The government managed to break the resistance of the peasantry and suppress the spontaneous and unorganized peasant movement.

2.7 Historical importance Cancellation of serfdom

The peasant reform of 1861 became an outstanding milestone in the political, economic and social development of Russia. Cancellation of serfdom created conditions for approval in Russia capitalism, both in the city and the village. These conditions were primarily held in the personal liberation of 22 million landlord peasants who made up a third of the country's population. The translation of peasants for redemption meant the actual elimination of serfdom, creating in the village of the class of peasants of the owners.

The abolition of serfdom had a high moral value. She permanently ended with the fortress slavery. Former serfs, receiving certain personal and property rights, became new citizens of Russia. In the political and social situation, which pretended in the defective time, the question of representative, constitutional form of government, movement towards the legal state.

The reform of 1861 was the result of a complex compromise of opposing the interests of the state, landowners and peasants. The balancing government went to numerous concessions to the landowners, but without them the peaceful liberation of the peasants would hardly have been possible. This explains the substantial deficiencies of reform, its halfness, inconsistency, rather short chronological frameworks, quite fit two of the current decades. But even an imperfect reform was more acceptable for society than the peasant revolution, in which Russia's name was the representatives of radical movement.

Reliable a group of reformers of that time, one to single out especially Alexander II. "It's enough one of such a great and noble reform as the emancipation of the peasants to forever understand the monarch," said one of the Emperor's contemporaries about him and about reform. Not historians, Alexander II itself identified a place in history. A place that is not challenged by anyone.

2.7 Zemskoy reform

On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the draft Regulation on the provincial and county institutions. Zemstvo institutions were created as all-known electoral bodies of local self-government. They consisted of administrative bodies - county and provincial Zemsky meetings and executive - county and provincial land. Those and others were elected for a three-year term. Members of the Zemsky Assembly were called vowels, i.e. We had the right to vote.

How was the local deputies elected? Public elections were made on three election congresses in the Kuria. In the first smoke - county farmers - the owners of at least 200 deals were included. Earth, regardless of those estates, as well as large owners who had real estate owners in rural areas worth not lower than 15 thousand rubles. In the second curia - urban - the owners of urban industrial and shopping institutions with a turnover of not lower than 6 thousand rubles, merchants 1 and 2 guilds, as well as city real estate owners, participated. Third Kuria consisted of chairmen of rural societies. Property values \u200b\u200bfor participation in the elections on this curia was absent. However, this did not create any advantages for peasants. Elections for peasant curia were multistage. Initially, rural societies sent representatives to the climbers who put forward "electors", and those in the soybean, in the district congress elected vowels. At each chicial congress, a certain number of vowels was elected. As a result, the landowners received most places in the county Zemsky meetings. In the provincial meetings whose deputies, in turn, were elected at the county meetings, the local nobility had an overwhelming recreation.

Zemstvo was introduced gradually. By the end of the 70s, they were introduced only in 35 provinces of European Russia.

The effect of the scopes from the very beginning was strictly limited by the narrow limits of purely economic "benefits and needs" of this area: the device and maintenance of local routes, Zemsky schools, hospitals, was vocabulary and shelters; care of local trade and industry; establishing a veterinary service; mutual insurance, local food collateral; construction of local roads and bridges; The content of prisons and houses for insane and others. Zemstvo did not have the right to engage in political activities. Violation of the competence framework was punishable by law.

The value of the Zemskoy reform

Russian society has met the creation of zemstvo.

K.D. Cavelin noted that the "huge event", a "substantial meaningful phenomenon" among the transformation, that it will be a seed for the development of a "multi-timer tree". History has proven the rightness of the famous liberal. Zemstvo played a serious role in different regions of Russian life. The contribution of the scum in the concept of the cultural level of the Russian village, the dissemination of literacy among the peasants. By 1880, 12 thousand Zemsto schools were created on the village, which were rightfully considered the best. No less noticeable and importance to the importance of health care development in the European part of Russia. Zemstvo hospitals were open to peasants, before that, practically deprived of any medical care. Zemstvo provided to promote the dissemination of agronomical knowledge in the village.

In Perm and Vyatka, the land began to acquire improved landowner tools, cars and seeds, developed the Institute of Agricultural Careors.

2.8 Urban Reform

Zemstvo reform has provided a significant impact on the creation of a new urban management system. June 16, 1870, Alexander II approved the draft new urban position. City self-government was reformed on the same principles as Zemskoy. Elections to the city duma were also held by three electoral congresses depending on the property qualification. The right to participate in elections, regardless of the estate, received property owners, taxable in favor of the city, as well as all persons paying trade and industrial fees. The hired workers were deprived of electoral law, in the overwhelming majority did not produce immovable property, as well as representatives of the educated part of the population: doctors, teachers, engineers, officials, mostly did not have their own homes, but shot apartments. Such an order strongly limited the number of voters. On average, 46 large cities voters accounted for 5.6% of the total number of residents.

The elections in the Duma took place every four years. At the Council of the Duma, the executive body of public administration was elected - the Election and the City Head, which was simultaneously the chairman of both executive and administrative.

The competence of urban self-government, like Zemsky, was limited to a narrow framework of purely economic issues: external improvement, the device of markets and bazaars, the care of local trade and industry, health and education, adoption of sanitary and fire-fighting measures.

Meaning of urban reform

New bodies of urban self-government played a significant role in the economic development of Russia. A successful solution to many problems largely depended on people who were part of the DUM and headed these institutions. A whole epoch in the history of Moscow was the activities of Nikolay Alexandrovich Alekseeva, the former city head from 1855 to 1893. For 8 years, such magnificent buildings appeared in the city as the Moscow City Council (in Soviet times there was a museum of V.I. Lenin), the upper trading series (the building of the GUM), the electrification of the central part of the city began, the construction of a new water pipeline was completed. The vertex of disinterested and selfless service N.A. Alekseeva was a donation to them for significant funds for the creation of hospital for mentally ill.

2.9 1864 - judicial reform

By the middle of the XIX century, perhaps none of the states of the state apparatus was in such a bad state as the judicial system.

I.S. Aksakov wrote in the 80 years that with one remembrance of the old court "the hair stands on the end, the frost is drowning on the skin."

New judicial statutes, the introduction of November 20, 1864, proclaimed its goal to guarantee "the fast, right and merciful, equal to all." The basis of the judicial reform was the principles underlying the court of bourgeois states of Western Europe. Russia received a new court: all-known, vowel, competent, independent of the administration. Oldest Catering Courts, preserved since Catherine II, were replaced by general judicial institutions for all the subjects of the Empire, to what class they did not belong to: everyone was suused in the same vessels, according to the same laws, at the same order legal proceedings. It was a decisive step forward.

Two types of ships were established by the new legislation: world and general. The world court considered small actions and offenses, insignificant civil cases if the damage did not exceed 500 rubles. The highest authority in relation to the world court was the congress of the global judges of this district. The world judges were chosen by county Zemskiy meetings and urban thought for 3 years from candidates who had certain educational and property values.

The common court had three categories: District Court, Judicial Chamber and Senate. The district court became the central link of the new judicial system. The court entered the chairman, his deputies, court members. The jury assessors are elected persons attracted for a certain time to participate in the proceedings of court cases (12 people) - should have solved the question of whether the accused is guilty or innocent, and the court determined the sentence. Political affairs were withdrawn from jury jurisdiction. Precautions, as it turned out later, was not unnecessary for power.

The creation of an institution of jury attorneys - advocacy was of great importance. The government until the cancellation of serfdom has adversely related to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe institution in Russia's advocacy on the Western European model. "Who, who ruined France, like a lawyer," Nicholas I was exclaimal, "who was Miraboy, Marat, Robespierre?! No ... While I will reign, Russia does not need lawyers, live without them." The son lived in another era.

The role of lawyers immediately became quite noticeable. "Russian lawyer 60-70 years old, according to the prominent lawyer V.D. Saysovich, - became the center of lawsuits, which could compete with any European celebrities ...". Names of outstanding lawyers of the time D.V. Stasova, F.N. Purevako, P.A. Alexandrova knew all Russia.

The value of judicial reform

The judicial reform was the most consistent and radical reform of Alexander II, however, it remained unfinished. Senate was not reformed. The spiritual, military, commercial, foreign courts were left in immunity. The highest officials of the Empire were suused by a special supreme criminal court. A peasant volost court was preserved, established by the General Regulation on February 19, 1861. The latter partly explained that the peasant legal concepts differed sharply from the generals. Therefore, a volost court judged, guided by no imperial laws, but on the basis of the written ordinary law, local peasant customs.

Despite all these deviations, the new court differed sharply from the pre-reform court with his stationery secret and taught, endless fiber on instances, lack of advocacy and the arbitrariness of the administration. The judicial reform of 1864 had undoubtedly progressive importance, contributing to the development of a sense of law and civil self-consciousness in society.

It is difficult to disagree with the famous publisher and journalist M.N. Katkovov, given reform Code definition: "With the consolidation of new legal proceedings, it becomes possible to live in Russia, as in the civilized country."

2.10 Reforms in the field of folk education and printing

The reforms of the 60s in the field of education and printing were inextricably linked with those transformations that followed after the peasant reform of 1861. Even during the work of the editorial commissions, an opinion was expressed about the "urgent need to establish ubiquitous rural schools." The development of this issue took several years before June 14, 1864, Alexander II approved

"Regulations on the initial folk schools."

In accordance with it, the right to open and the content of schools was submitted to public institutions and individuals with appropriate permission.

Primary schools were as far as the types - state, Zemstvo, Church, Sundays. The term of study in them did not exceed three years. The training course assumed the teaching of the following disciplines: God's law, reading, letter, four arithmetic rules and church singing. Teaching should have been made everywhere in Russian.

In 1864, a new charter of the gymnasium was approved. He introduced an average school principle of equality of education for all who have the opportunity to make a prescribed training fee: children of individuals "of all classes, without distinction of title and religion" could be taken to the gymnasium. The gymnasiums provided for two types - classic and real, with seven-year learning. In classical gymnasiums, preference was given to humanitarian preparation, the study of ancient languages; In real gymnasiums, mathematics and natural science were the advantage. Graduated classical gymnasium had the right to act without examinations to the university, the end of the actual gymnasium gave the right to enter the higher technical educational institutions. In the early 60s, the development and women's education received. In 1863, a new university charter was adopted, which restored university independence. The University Council received the right to independently solve all training, scientific and administrative issues, lead the entire inner life of the university. The Charter provided for the election of the rector, deans and professors with the subsequent approval of them as a Minister of Folk Enlightenment. Students did not receive any corporate rights. Women in universities were not allowed.

The new law of university life was encountered positively, because he wrote a famous philologist F.I. Buslaev, "contributed to the successes in the sciences", and professors could "read the lectures calmly and unhindered", not embossing cautious formalities, "without any concern of the beggar guard."

In the situation of intensive liberal sentiment, universal discontent with the position of the press, the end of the "era of censored terror" came. Back in December 1855, the Government of Alexander II stopped the activities of the Busurlin Committee, the most reactive censors were shifted. In 1857, the government has established a committee to develop a new censorship charter. Finally, in 1856 a new charter was published, existed with some changes and additions until 1905.

The new law freed from preliminary censorship the metropolitan periodic printing, a book of 10 printed sheets for Russians and 20 printed sheets for transfer publications

Despite the well-known limitations for provincial printing and mass literature, the new charter was still a certain step forward, having received support in the journalist book publishers.

2.11 Military reform

The lessons of the Crimean War, launching the military-technical backwardness of the Russian army, showed that the military machine of serfdom of Russia is clearly not able to withstand the advanced armies of Western European states. It was necessary to have a root restructuring of the entire military system.

In 1861, 45 - Summer General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin, Brother N.A., was appointed to the post of military minister. Milyutin, highly educated and military and statesman, known for his liberal views. Personnel selection of Alexander II was spoiled.

Dmitry Alekseevich was delivered to Professor of the Academy of General Staff. He wrote a number of major work on military history, among them the "Italian campaign of Suvorov". In the late 50s, he was appointed head of the Caucasian Army, participated in the development of a Shamil's capture operation, which served as the end of hostilities in this region. Having excellent theoretical preparation, the necessary combat experience and skills, possessing the same outstanding personal dating, D.A. Milyutin, like no other, corresponded to the task: to reorganize the military force of Russia.

YES. Milyutin first of all achieved a reduction in the period of the soldiers' service from 25 to 16 years. Then the return to the soldiers for crimes was prohibited, bodily punishments were abolished, which was widely used in the pre-reform army, the training of a diploma soldier was introduced. In 1864, they were implemented by military management reform based on the creation of military districts. The new management system eliminated excessive centralization and contributed to the rapid deployment of the army in the event of hostilities. There was a fairly rapid pace to replace the smooth-bore weapon, the rifled weapon came. The sailing fleet was replaced by steam, new military ships appeared: armor, cruisers, battleships. However, the cardinal reorganization of military affairs demanded more radical measures, namely the introduction of a new system of the recruitment of the army - replacing the old recombine universal military service.

For the first time, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe introduction of universal military service in Russia, however, D.A. was expressed in the veiled form. Milyutin back in 1862 in the report of the emperor. The response did not follow. Meanwhile, the further growth of weapons and the development of military equipment in Europe, the strengthening of militaristic sentiment among the largest powers of the continent practically did not leave Russia a different choice. There were causes and other order. The use of universal military service could be effective only if the rapid mobilization of military reservists, and this, in turn, required the presence of a developed system of communication systems. Such a system in the early 60s in Russia was absent. Railway construction growth, the creation of a railway network by the beginning of the 70s made it possible to complete the military reform on the European sample. "On time" came the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Contemporaries struck the coherence and speed with which the Prussian army was unmobilized. P.A. Valuev, who witnessed the victory march of Prussakov to Paris, returned to Russia, in a conversation with Milyukov, directly spoke in favor of the introduction of a all-class military service.

It was impossible to slow anymore. Developed by the Commission under the direction of D.A. Milyutina The project of the new military charter, despite the tiny position of the reactionaries, was still in the State Council and January 1, 1874 was approved by Alexander II. In the new military charter, recruit sets were canceled, and an universal military service was introduced, which spread to the entire male population of the country that had reached the 20th age, regardless of the estates. The period of valid service in the infantry was set at 6 years and 9 years of stay in the reserve, on the fleet - 7 years of valid service and 3 years in stock. Numerous benefits were established. The validity periods were reduced for individuals who received education: for graduated from primary school - up to three years who graduated from the gymnasium - up to one and a half years, and graduates of higher educational institutions could serve only 6 months. With the introduction of a new military charter, Russia has become an opportunity to have a relatively small army in world times, and in the case of hostilities. Calling the reserve reserve, and sometimes the militia, create a mass army with the necessary reserves.

Meaning of military reform

Military reforms 1861 - 1874 played an important role in increasing the combat capability of the Russian army, which was convincingly demonstrated during the Russian-Turkish War of 187nd - 1878.

YES. Milyutin stayed at the post of military minister of twenty years, having received, unlike other reformators, it was possible not only to develop a reform, but also to implement it in practice. He died in 1912, at the age of 96, almost the last of the glorious Pleiads of Russian reformers of the 60s - 70s.

2.12 Reform value 1860-1870

Political reforms 1860-1870 The years have become a worthy continuation of the largest reform of the century - the abolition of serfdom. The creation of modern self-government bodies, European legal proceedings and judicia, the introduction of universal military service, changes in the field of education and printing, the complexity of development and implementation of all these reforms indicated the enormous converter potential aimed at the peaceful, evolutionary development of society and the state. None of the reforms are born in vacuum. Complex interaction and interlacing of liberal and guardian began in state policy - all this determined the nature of the transformations of the Aleksandra II era. Neither cross it nor rewrite them. For the connection of times is continuous, and our present in this sense is nothing more than the expression of the past. Reading historical books and fascinating, and instructive.

Analyzing the reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that not everything was thought of in the early 1860s, managed to implement. Many reforms remained unfinished. And yet they should be called truly "great reforms", which were of great importance for the subsequent development of all parties to Russia's life. In the history of Russia, it was so that none of the reforms that thought and were conducted in the country were not communicated comprehensively and consistently to a logical completion.

Causes of the incomplete reforms of the 60-70 years of the XIX century

Alexander II began a good thing, but he did not have time to bring it to the end, as he was killed. His son - Alexander III did not see sense in continuing the reforms, so he went along the path of counterposses.

The incomplete reform, misunderstanding of their significance by society leads to what the reforms of the 60s and 70s of the XIX century led to the Society, which answered Terror.

And the trouble terror was that both the government, and the revolutionary terror were equally destructive for the government state of society, taking people to the blood, violence, cheapness of human life.

Conclusion

Speaking about reforms of the 60s - 70s of the XIX century by Alexander II, we cannot but talk about the reforms of the 90s of the 20th century, which were conducted after the collapse of the USSR, life shows that certain conditions are required to successfully conduct reforms:

for the rest of the reform, not only power should be held, but society that should go in one bundle;

it is necessary to unity of society, the unity of all political parties, all democratic forces, and this unity is also absent;

in the conduct of reforms, it is necessary to go to the end without stopping halfway;

reforms should be competent personality. Alexander II, like M.S. Gorbachev and B.N. Yeltsin did not very much understand the entire depths and consequences of reforms. Indeed, for a huge number of people of reform, both then and today were a disaster;

strong politician should not be afraid of strong next to them. Often choose weak people, as they are easy to manage;

for successful reforms, a favorable internal and international situation is needed, this is also not there, since the situation has worsened the economic crisis;

Dissatisfied society, the charter waiting for changes, crosses a kind of line, which before that restrained the strength of the usual expectation.

And a sharp chain reaction begins in response to the disaster, on blatant social vulnerability, violation of the rights of the individual, which lead to the authority of the crowd - Glochracy.

As a result, everything is moral, beautiful, creative, which is, is, the essence of the uniqueness of the human person.

Bibliography

1. Boutiques G. P Museum - Monument "Savior on Blood" Publishing House St. Petersburg 1996

Vasilyeva L.N. "Wives of the Russian Crown", Atlantis XXI century, Ast, Moscow, 1996.

Volobuev O.V. "History of Russia 1861-1917", Moscow, 1996.

Kaziev S.Sh. "Story in Schemes and Tables", Leaf, Moscow 1998.

Low AA "Russian history for children and youth." - Moscow, Ripol, 1996

Lyashenko Leonid "Alexander II, or the story of three loneliness", Moscow, Young Guard, 2004.

Project Materials 1 channel television "Name Russia" Alexander II

Ogonovskaya S.I. "History of Russia. Universal allowance for schoolchildren and applicants", Yekaterinburg, y-factories, 2002

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Anyone in life came across the concept of reform. In the light of modern events, this word has become quite popular. Now it appears not only in the speech of politicians leading, but also in the media, in books and in other places. Consider what "reform" means and what types of reforms are.

The essence of this concept

This word comes from Latin, which means "transformation" transformed into Russian. Accordingly, the word "reform" means a change in the social life of the object, as well as the spheres of human life. It should be noted that the historical development of society directly depends on the reforms. Due to the fact that this process can affect any sphere of human life, there are several types of reforms at once. This process can occur in any state, characterizing its internal policies. At the same time, it completely affects the political device, as well as economic and social.

History

There are several types of reforms that affect not only the development of the country, but also on the course of history.

The first view is the progressive conversion process. Thus, such reforms are considered those that entail an improvement in the lives of any sphere of the population. It may also touch the whole system. As a rule, progressive reforms have a positive effect at the economy level, social security in life and so on.

Regressive reforms are those that reduce the standard of living, as well as lead to any other negative consequences. For example, if you increase the tax rate, the production will be reduced, the economy will go into "shadow activities", and the standard of living of people will fall. With regressive reforms, riots, strikes and so on may occur. Fortunately, even with negative consequences, the reforms of this type are sometimes leading to a positive resolution. An example of such an increase in taxes in order to strengthen the social protection of a person. At first, it will cause strikes, as well as resentment by people, however, when the system fully manifests itself, it will cause a positive response from citizens. Accordingly, life will be better.

Direction

The above reform types (social studies allows you to study them at school) are not the only ones. It should be noted that if we talk about the scope of application, the reform has a rather extensive list of options.

Political are sent to a certain sector of the state: we are talking about changing the voter system or on the transformation of the rules of leadership of the country. Economic affects the development of external relations or lead to a change in internal activities related to the economy. Social are held in order to change the lifestyle of people. This is a general description, but other types of reforms are also available. Consider them.

• Constitutional. Attributed to the political sphere. When conducting such reforms, the Constitution shows the modified documents that relate to the structure of the authority or change the principles of work.
• There is an educational reform. This is one of the types of social reform. It concerns not only the work of the ministry system, but also ordinary institutions, including schools, universities, colleges and so on.
• The economic sphere should also include agricultural reform. It affects agricultural activities. It can either support work in the field, or to tighten its rules and requirements.

Special view

There are some types of monetary reforms, but it is considered to be a special type in the general sense. As a rule, it is carried out only in case of extreme necessity. For example, if you need to improve the economic system, raise a course or stabilize it, or in the period when the state is trying to hold other important events.

You can also call the process of changing spelling in Russian. He remembered historians by the fact that some letters were removed from the alphabet. We are talking about reform, which was held in 1917-1918. From 1965, an economic reform was carried out in the USSR. It is associated with the planning and functioning of the national economy. She lasted 5 years (until 1970). In the West, this reform is called Lieberman's reforms, they called Kosyginsky in the USSR.

Perestroika is another very well-known reform. She lasted in the second half of the eighties in the USSR. If we talk about concrete years, then since 1986 to 1991. The task of this reform was the introduction of democratization in the territory of the USSR, as well as the stabilization of the economic structure of the state. Such types of economic reforms always brought success.

In the 1990s, an economic reform was carried out, which allowed to privatize the former allied enterprises, as well as it was about the liberalization of prices, foreign trade. Another well-known reform is the beginning of using the euro currency in the territory of the European Union.

There are also many well-known reforms that reduced the standard of living. As a rule, they consist in the same nuances. Therefore, we simply list the list of those that have not led to the proper development of the state. It is about increasing the working day, taxes, retirement age. Negative also causes a decrease in unemployment benefits, reduce free education, as well as the number of medical services performed for free.

The revolution

The revolution is a word that is close to reform. It should be noted that it means the huge, as well as a radical change in society. If you see the differences between the revolution and evolution, there are significant differences here. In it, all changes occur pretty quickly. This system differs from reforms by the fact that they are calmer, during their implementation, the existing foundations of any sphere are not affected.

It should be noted that quite often in textbooks there are issues such as: "What types of social progress, reform or revolution will be more preferable for the development of society?" However, it should be said that many scientists noted that the revolution in any form is infrequently as a positive change in society. Although the reform passes rather slowly, but its negative consequences, if they are eliminated on time, eliminate much easier. The revolution in any case will contribute to the emergence of victims, disagreements in society, often it is conducted with the help of a civil war.

As a rule, a revolution arises when problems that need to be solved in society, but the state is in no hurry to do this. Many know that all revolutions are usually carried out by ordinary people. There are hundreds of interesting examples in the history of mankind, as a result of which society or has achieved positive changes, or completely destroyed the state. The revolution is considered to develop a society, which is quite hard for people.

Types of revolution

Looking through the main types of reform, you can already understand that they are completely dependent on their scope. The same applies to the revolution. There are several types in society. For example, it is an industrial, cultural, "green", demographic. There are also some others. There is a scientific and scientific and technical revolution in science. If we talk about political, it is divided into social and political.

RESULTS

All types of reforms and revolutions are quite strongly affected by society. However, it should be noted that even when they were held, it is not clear that they are devoted either, on the contrary, they will only bring success. Their performance is shown after the expiration of several years, after they began to act. That is why when they conduct them, it is necessary to fully weigh everything in and against, in order not to be mistaken.