Section three. Neurophysiological mechanisms of the unconscious (Section three

The most important property nervous system is an memory- the ability to accumulate, store and reproduce incoming information. The accumulation of information takes place in several stages.

In accordance with the stages of memorization, it is customary to allocate short-term and long-term memory. If information stored in short-term memory (for example, a phone number just read or heard) is not transferred to long-term memory, then it is quickly erased. In long-term memory, information is stored for a long time in a form that can be retrieved. Memory traces, or engrams, are strengthened each time they are retrieved. The process of solidifying engrams as they play is called memory trail consolidation. It is assumed that the mechanisms of short-term and long-term memory are different. Short-term, or operational, memory is associated with information processing in neural networks; it is assumed that its mechanism may be the circulation of impulse flows through closed neural circuits. Long-term memory is obviously associated with complex processes of protein synthesis in neurons of the higher parts of the central nervous system. Memorization, storage and retrieval of the most relevant in this moment information from memory is the result of a complex dynamic interaction of various brain structures.

Neurons from various regions of the cortex, the limbic system and the thalamus are involved in the operations of imprinting and extracting memory traces. Clinical observations have shown that when one of the main parts of the limbic system - the hippocampus - is damaged, memory for recent events is lost, but retained for the long past.

The activity of neurons in the posterior associative parts of the cortex is closely related to the storage and retrieval of memory traces. When the temporal lobe is irritated during the operation, clear pictures of the past appear, which exactly reproduce the situation of the event being remembered. A qualitative feature of human memory, which distinguishes it from the memory of animals, even of great primates, is that a person is able to remember not so much all the details of information as general provisions... In the read text, an adult remembers not the verbal formulation, but the content. This is a verbal-logical abstract memory inherent in a person.

Memory mechanisms undergo significant changes with age. Memory based on the storage of traces of arousal in the system of conditioned reflexes is formed in the early stages of development. The relative simplicity of the memory system in childhood determines the stability, strength of conditioned reflexes developed in early childhood. With the structural and functional maturation of the brain, a significant complication of the memory system occurs. This can lead to uneven and ambiguous changes in memory indicators with age. So, in the younger school age the amount of memory significantly increases, and the speed of memorization decreases, then increasing to adolescence... The maturation of the higher cortical formations with age determines the gradual development and improvement of verbal-logical abstract memory.

3.9. Neurophysiological mechanisms of perception,
attention, motivation and emotions

The process of perception plays an important role in ensuring contacts with the external environment and in the formation of cognitive activity. Perception- a complex active process, including analysis and synthesis of incoming information. In the implementation of the process of perception, various areas of the cortex take part, each of which is specialized in the operations of receiving, analyzing, processing and evaluating the incoming information. In the primary projection cortical zones (the cortical end of the analyzer, according to I.P. Pavlov), the reception and analysis of individual signal signs takes place. In the secondary projection zones, information coming from certain analyzers is synthesized into complex sensory complexes. In the zones of overlap of the analyzers - the associative areas of the cortex - the excitation coming from different analyzers is integrated, it is compared with the standard formed on the basis of past experience. In these areas, comprehensive assessment the incoming information, a decision is made about its nature, and the stimulus is recognized, its significance is determined.

The gradual and non-simultaneous maturation of areas of the cortex in the process of ontogenesis determine the essential features of the process of perception in different age periods. A certain degree of maturity of the primary projection cortical zones by the time the child is born creates the conditions for the reception of information at the level of the cerebral cortex and for elementary analysis of the qualitative signs of the signal already in the neonatal period. It has been established that newborns are able to distinguish objects from the surrounding background. They keep their gaze on one of the elements of the presented image. During the first months of life, it becomes more difficult to analyze sensory stimuli in the projection cortex. EEG studies of the formation of visual perception showed a significant complication of the cortical response to an afferent stimulus, the so-called evoked potential (EP), the presence of which was noted in newborns. By 2-3 months, the resolution of the visual analyzer sharply increases. Periods of rapid development of visual function are distinguished by high plasticity, increased sensitivity to factors external environment... They are considered as sensitive periods of development, sensitive to directed developmental influences. This indicates the need for an early start in sensory education.

According to IM Sechenov's definition, a newborn "sees, but cannot see." Perception, the creation of an image of an object is associated with the function of associative areas. As they mature, they begin to be included in the analysis of incoming information. In early childhood up to 3-4 years, inclusive, the associative zones duplicate the function of the projection cortex. The responses evoked by them correspond in form, time parameters and reactivity to the responses of the projection zone.

A qualitative leap in the formation of the perception system was noted after 5 years. By the age of 5-6 years, the posterior associative zones are specializedly involved in the process of recognizing complex images, and a simpler analysis is carried out in the projection cortex, for example, the selection of contour and contrast. At this age, the identification of complex, previously unfamiliar objects, their comparison with a standard, is greatly facilitated. This gives grounds to consider preschool age as a sensitive (especially sensitive) period in the development of visual perception. Clinical observations have shown that cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye that occurs in a child up to 5-6 years old, leads to irreversible disturbances in visual function.

At school age, the visual perception system continues to become more complex and improved due to the inclusion of anterior-associative areas. These areas, responsible for making decisions, assessing the significance of incoming information and organizing an adequate response, ensure the formation of arbitrary selective perception. Significant changes in the selective response, taking into account the importance of the incentive, were noted by the age of 10-11. The lack of this process in primary grades causes difficulty in highlighting the main significant information and distraction with insignificant details. Structural and functional maturation of the frontal regions continues in adolescence and determines the improvement of the systemic organization of the perception process. The final stage development of the perceiving system provides optimal conditions for an adequate response to external influences.

Attention is one of the most important psychophysiological functions that optimize the processes of education and training. Just like perception, attention is a complex systemic act in which various brain structures take part. Attention increases the level of activation of the cerebral cortex. The system of structures involved in this process includes structures that cause generalized activation of the cerebral cortex - the reticular formation of the midbrain, local activation - the limbic system and the higher cortical centers of regulation and control - the frontal areas of the cerebral cortex. Generalized activation mediates processes not arbitrary attention... The implementation of voluntary attention is associated with the mechanisms of local activation. There is a close two-way connection between the processes of attention and perception. On the one hand, attention, by activating certain areas of the cerebral cortex, optimizes perception, creates conditions for the selective inclusion of various areas of the cortex in this process. On the other hand, attention is carried out on the basis of the analysis and processing of all incoming information. Therefore, the formation of the process of attention with age is associated with both the structural and functional maturation of the activating system of the brain and the maturation of cortical structures involved in the analysis and processing of information.

Signs of involuntary attention are found already in the neonatal period in the form of an elementary orienting reaction to the emergency use of a stimulus. This reaction is still devoid of a characteristic research component, but it is already manifested in certain changes in the electrical activity of the brain, autonomic reactions (changes in respiration, heart rate). A critical period in the formation of involuntary attention is 2–3 months of age, when the orienting reaction acquires features of an exploratory nature. In infancy, as well as in younger preschool age, cortical generalized activation is represented by an increase in theta rhythm, reflecting the increased activity of structures associated with emotions. Features of activation processes determine the specifics of voluntary attention at this age - the attention of a small child is attracted mainly by emotional stimuli. As the speech perception system is formed, a social form of attention is formed, mediated by speech instruction. However, up to the age of five, this form of attention is easily pushed aside by involuntary attention that arises to new attractive stimuli.

Significant changes in cortical activation underlying attention were noted at the age of 6-7 years. A mature form of cortical activation is found in the form of a generalized blockade of the alpha rhythm. The role of speech instruction in the formation of voluntary attention increases significantly. At the same time, at this age, the importance of the emotional factor is still great.

Qualitative changes in the formation of neurophysiological mechanisms of attention were noted at the age of 9-10 years. Structural and functional maturation of the frontal areas of the cortex provides the organization of the processes of local regulated activation in accordance with decision-making based on analyzed information or verbal instructions. As a result, certain brain structures are selectively included in the activity, the activity of others is inhibited and conditions are created for the most economical and adaptive response.

At the beginning of adolescence (12-13 years), neuroendocrine shifts associated with the onset of puberty lead to a change in the cortical-subcortical interaction, a weakening of cortical regulatory influences on activation processes - attention is weakened, the mechanisms of voluntary regulation of function are disrupted.
By the end of adolescence, with the completion of puberty, the neurophysiological mechanisms of attention correspond to those of an adult.

Motivation- active states of the brain structures, prompting them to perform actions (acts of behavior) aimed at satisfying their needs. Motivations create the necessary prerequisites for behavior. Motivations can be created by both biological needs (for example, food motivation) and higher cognitive needs. Any information, before the behavior is organized, is compared with the currently dominant motivation. It is impossible to develop a conditioned food reflex in a well-fed animal, because it has no food motivation. Emotions are inextricably linked with motivation. Achievement of a goal and satisfaction of a need evokes positive emotions. Failure to achieve goals leads to negative emotions. One of the most important human needs is the need for information. This source of positive emotions is inexhaustible throughout a person's life.

In the formation of motivations and emotions, an important role belongs to the limbic system of the brain, which includes the structures of different parts of the brain. The functions of the limbic system are diverse.
When the hypothalamus and amygdala is irritated by an electric current or the cingulate gyrus is removed, the animals exhibit reactions of rage and aggressive behavior (snorting, growling, dilated pupils, changes in heart rate). Bilateral destruction of the amygdala in rats causes a decrease in motor activity; reactions of rage and aggression cannot be observed. With the destruction of the amygdala in a person, for medical reasons, the emotional activity of the type of fear, anger, rage decreases. The activity of the limbic structures is regulated by the frontal parts of the cerebral cortex, the function of which is associated with the formation of higher cognitive needs and the regulation of the emotional state on the basis of information analyzed in the cerebral cortex and an assessment of its significance.

Emotions change the state of the whole organism. Negative emotions have a bad effect on health, depress a person: he becomes lethargic, absent-minded, apathetic. The harsh expression of negative emotions is crying. Positive emotions, the expression of which is a smile, laughter, increase the intensity of energy processes. Accordingly, the potential of the organism increases. The intellectual sphere works more subtly, the effects of the external environment are especially clearly perceived, memory is facilitated. The role of emotions is especially great in childhood, when the processes of cortical emotional activation dominate. Children have a great need for novelty. Meeting the need for novelty promotes positive emotions, and these, in turn, stimulate the activity of the central nervous system. According to P.V. Simonov, emotion, compensating for the lack of information necessary to achieve the goal, ensures the continuation of actions, promotes the search new information and thereby increases the reliability of the living system. The close connection of emotions with needs determines the need to take into account the age characteristics of the child's emotional sphere in the upbringing process. Upbringing can significantly influence even biological, innate needs, change the degree and forms of their manifestation. An even greater role of education in the formation of socially conditioned, including cognitive, needs. Expanding the scope of need with the help of targeted educational activities closely related to emotions at the stage of development, which is characterized by increased emotional activation, will expand the range of external influences that attract attention, and thereby lead to the improvement of cognitive processes and purposeful activity of the child.

The maturation of the higher parts of the central nervous system at primary school age expands the possibility of the formation of cognitive needs and contributes to the improvement of the regulation of emotions. The emotions of children, due to the weakness of control from the higher parts of the central nervous system, are unstable, their external manifestations are unrestrained. The child cries easily and quickly, and just as quickly from crying can go to laughing. For joy, the child laughs loudly, shouts, waves his arms. With age, the restraint of emotional manifestations increases. In this, an important role is played by educational influences aimed at improving internal inhibition. A child learns restraint from adults, and here it is so important that adults are a model in this regard. In the organization of the educational process, it should be borne in mind that positive emotions increase general level functioning of nervous structures in ensuring their mobilization readiness to receive information from the outside world.

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In the structural organization of the nervous system, it is customary to distinguish the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral. The central nervous system, in turn, includes the spinal cord and brain. All other nerve structures are included in peripheral system... The higher part of the central nervous system - the brain consists of the brain stem, the large brain and the cerebellum. The large brain is represented by two hemispheres, the outer surface of which is covered with gray matter - the cortex. The bark is the most important part of the brain, being a material substrate for higher mental activity and a regulator of all vital functions of the body.

A.R. Luria identified three main functional blocks of the brain, the participation of which is necessary for the implementation of any type of mental activity.

The first block is activation and tone. Anatomically, it is represented by a network formation in the brainstem - a reticular formation that regulates the level of activity of the cortex from wakefulness to fatigue and sleep. A full-fledged activity presupposes an active state of a person, only in conditions of optimal wakefulness can a person successfully perceive information, plan his behavior and implement the planned action programs.
The second block is the reception, processing and storage of information. It includes the posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres. The occipital zones receive information from the visual analyzer - sometimes they are called the visual cortex. The temporal lobes are responsible for processing auditory information - this is the so-called auditory cortex. The parietal parts of the cortex are associated with general sensitivity, touch. The block has a hierarchical structure and consists of cortical fields of three types: the primary ones receive and process impulses from the peripheral departments, in the secondary ones analytical processing of information takes place, in the tertiary ones analytical and synthetic processing of information coming from different analyzers is carried out - this level provides the most complex shapes mental activity.
The third block is programming, regulation and control. The block is located mainly in the frontal lobes of the brain. Here goals are set, programs of their own activity are formed, control over their progress and successful implementation is carried out.

The joint work of all three functional blocks of the brain is a necessary condition for the implementation of any mental activity of a person. Presenting the cerebral mechanisms of mental activity, one should dwell on the question of the interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain. The work of the cerebral hemispheres is based on the contralateral principle, i.e. the left hemisphere is responsible for right side the bodily organization of a person, the right hemisphere is behind the left. It was found that both hemispheres are not equivalent in functional terms. Functional asymmetry, which is understood as the different participation of the left and right hemispheres in the implementation of mental activity, is one of the fundamental laws of the brain in humans and animals.

The entire brain as a whole participates in the implementation of any mental activity, however, different hemispheres perform different differentiated roles in the implementation of each mental function. For example, experimental and clinical studies have found that the right and left hemispheres differ in information processing strategy. The strategy of the right hemisphere consists in a holistic one-step perception of objects and phenomena, this ability to perceive the whole before its parts is the basis creative thinking and imagination. Left hemisphere carries out consistent rational processing of information. The problem of interhemispheric asymmetry and interhemispheric interaction is far from being solved and requires further experimental and theoretical research.

The study of the cerebral mechanisms that provide mental processes does not lead to an unambiguous understanding of the nature of the mental. A simple indication of the brain and nervous system as a material substrate mental processes insufficient to resolve the issue of the nature of the relationship between the mental and neurophysiological.

Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov set himself the task of revealing the essence of the mental by objective physiological research methods. The scientist came to the conclusion that the units of behavior are unconditioned reflexes as reactions to strictly defined stimuli from the external environment and conditioned reflexes as reactions to an initially indifferent stimulus, which becomes indifferent due to its repeated combination with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned reflexes are carried out by the higher parts of the brain and are based on temporary connections formed between nerve structures.

An important contribution to solving the problem of neurophysiological mechanisms of the psyche is the work of Russian scientists N.A. Bernstein and P.K. Anokhin.

N.A. Bernstein studied natural human movements and their physiological basis. Before N.A. Bernstein, the mechanism of movement was described by the scheme of a reflex arc:

reception of external influences;
the process of their central processing;
motor reaction.

N.A. Bernstein proposed a new principle of neurophysiological control of movements, which was called the principle of sensory corrections. It was based on the position that movements are controlled not only and not so much by efferent impulses (commands emanating from the central regions to the periphery), but primarily by afferent (signals about outside world that enter the brain at every moment of the movement). It is the afferent signals that make up the "tracking device", which provides continuous movement correction, selecting and changing the required trajectories, adjusting the system of voltages and accelerations in accordance with the changing conditions of the action.

But afferent impulses are only a part of what constitutes the mechanism for organizing voluntary movements. It is essential that a person's movements and actions are not "reactive" - they are active, purposeful and change depending on the intention. The principle of activity is opposed to the principle of reactivity, according to which a particular act, movement, action is determined by an external stimulus and is carried out according to the model of a conditioned reflex, and overcomes the understanding of the process of life as a process of continuous adaptation to the environment. The main content of the life process of an organism is not adaptation to the environment, but the implementation of internal programs. In the course of such a realization, the organism inevitably transforms the environment.

P.K. Anokhin created the theory of functional systems, which was one of the first models of true psychologically oriented physiology. According to the provisions of this theory, the physiological basis of mental activity is formed by special forms of organization of nervous processes. They add up when: individual neurons and reflexes are included in integral functional systems that provide integral behavioral acts. The scientist's research has shown that the behavior of an individual is determined not by a separate signal, but by an afferent synthesis of all information reaching him at a given moment. Afferent syntheses trigger complex behaviors. As a result, P.K. Anokhin came to the conclusion that it was necessary to revise the classical concepts of the reflex arc. He developed the doctrine of a functional system, which meant dynamic organization structures and processes of the body. According to this teaching, the driving force of behavior can be not only directly perceived influences, but also ideas about the future, about the purpose of the action, the expected effect of the behavioral act. In this case, the behavior does not end at all with the response of the body. The response creates a system of "reverse afferentation", signaling the success or failure of an action, constitutes an acceptor of the result of an action.

The process of comparing the model of the future with the effect of the performed action is an essential mechanism of behavior. Only on condition of their complete coincidence does the action cease. If the action turns out to be unsuccessful, then there is a "mismatch" between the model of the future and the result of the action. Therefore, the action continues, appropriate adjustments are made to it. P.K. Anokhin replaced the reflex arc with a more complex scheme of the reflex ring, explaining the self-regulating nature of behavior.

The theory of functional systems P.K. Anokhin has created a new - systemic - methodology for the study of integral behavioral acts. In the works of the scientist, it was shown that any integral activity of the body is carried out only with the selective integration of many particular physiological mechanisms into a single functional system.

Despite the indisputable fact that the brain is an organ of mental reflection, the relationship between mental and neurophysiological should be considered from the standpoint of the independence and specificity of each of these processes. The mental cannot be reduced to the morphofunctional structures that provide it, the work of the brain is not the content of the psyche. The mental reflects not the physiological processes taking place in the human body, but objective reality. The specific content of the mental lies in the representation of the images of the world and the subjective attitude towards it. As the philosopher AG Spirkin wrote, “in the cerebral cortex, the neurosurgeon sees not bright thoughts like a spiritual flame, but just gray matter”.

In the structural organization of the nervous system, it is customary to distinguish the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral. The central nervous system, in turn, includes the spinal cord and brain. All other nervous structures are included in the peripheral system. The higher part of the central nervous system - the brain consists of the brain stem, the large brain and the cerebellum. The large brain is represented by two hemispheres, the outer surface of which is covered with gray matter - the cortex. The bark is the most important part of the brain, being a material substrate for higher mental activity and a regulator of all vital functions of the body.

A.R. Luria identified three main functional blocks of the brain, the participation of which is necessary for the implementation of any type of mental activity.

The first block - activation and tone... Anatomically, it is represented by a network formation in the brainstem - a reticular formation that regulates the level of activity of the cortex from wakefulness to fatigue and sleep. A full-fledged activity presupposes an active state of a person, only in conditions of optimal wakefulness can a person successfully perceive information, plan his behavior and implement the planned action programs.

The second block - reception, processing and storage of information... It includes the posterior parts of the cerebral hemispheres. The occipital zones receive information from the visual analyzer - sometimes they are called the visual cortex. The temporal lobes are responsible for processing auditory information - this is the so-called auditory cortex. The parietal parts of the cortex are associated with general sensitivity, touch. The block has a hierarchical structure and consists of three types of cortical fields: the primary ones receive and process impulses from the peripheral departments, in the secondary ones analytical processing of information takes place, in the tertiary ones analytical and synthetic processing of information coming from different analyzers is carried out - this level provides the most complex forms of mental activities.

The third block - programming, regulation and control. The block is located mainly in the frontal lobes of the brain. Here goals are set, programs of their own activity are formed, control over their progress and successful implementation is carried out.

The joint work of all three functional blocks of the brain is a necessary condition for the implementation of any mental activity of a person.

Presenting the cerebral mechanisms of mental activity, one should dwell on the question of the interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain. The work of the cerebral hemispheres is built on the contralateral principle, that is, the left hemisphere is responsible for the right side of the human body organization, the right hemisphere for the left. It was found that both hemispheres are not equivalent in functional terms. Functional asymmetry, which is understood as the different participation of the left and right hemispheres in the implementation of mental activity, is one of the fundamental laws of the brain in humans and animals.

The entire brain as a whole participates in the implementation of any mental activity, however, different hemispheres perform different differentiated roles in the implementation of each mental function. For example, experimental and clinical studies have found that the right and left hemispheres differ in information processing strategy. The strategy of the right hemisphere consists in a holistic one-step perception of objects and phenomena, this ability to perceive the whole before its parts is the basis of creative thinking and imagination. The left hemisphere carries out consistent rational information processing. The problem of interhemispheric asymmetry and interhemispheric interaction is far from being solved and requires further experimental and theoretical research.

The study of the cerebral mechanisms that provide mental processes does not lead to an unambiguous understanding of the nature of the mental. A simple indication of the brain and the nervous system as the material substrate of mental processes is not enough to resolve the issue of the nature of the relationship between the mental and neurophysiological.

An important contribution to solving the problem of neurophysiological mechanisms of the psyche is the work of Russian scientists ON. Bernstein and PC. Anokhin .

ON. Bernstein studied natural human movements and their physiological basis. Before N.A. Bernstein, the mechanism of movement was described by the scheme of a reflex arc: 1) reception of external influences; 2) the process of their central processing; 3) motor reaction. ON. Bernstein proposed a new principle of neurophysiological control of movements, which was called the principle of sensory corrections. It was based on the position that movements are controlled not only and not so much by efferent impulses (commands emanating from the central sections to the periphery), but primarily by afferent (signals about the external world that enter the brain at every moment of movement ). It is the afferent signals that make up the "tracking device", which provides continuous movement correction, selecting and changing the required trajectories, adjusting the system of voltages and accelerations in accordance with the changing conditions of the action.

PC. Anokhin created the theory of functional systems, which was one of the first models of genuine psychologically oriented physiology. According to the provisions of this theory, the physiological basis of mental activity is formed by special forms of organization of nervous processes. They add up when individual neurons and reflexes are included in integral functional systems that provide integral behavioral acts.

The scientist's research has shown that the behavior of an individual is determined not by a separate signal, but by an afferent synthesis of all information reaching him at a given moment. Afferent syntheses trigger complex behaviors. As a result, P.K. Anokhin came to the conclusion that it was necessary to revise the classical concepts of the reflex arc. He developed the doctrine of the functional system, which was understood as the dynamic organization of the structures and processes of the body. According to this teaching, the driving force of behavior can be not only directly perceived influences, but also ideas about the future, about the purpose of the action, the expected effect of the behavioral act. In this case, the behavior does not end at all with the response of the body. The response creates a system of "reverse afferentation" signaling the success or failure of an action, is action result acceptor.

The process of comparing the model of the future with the effect of the performed action is an essential mechanism of behavior. Only on condition of their complete coincidence does the action cease. If the action turns out to be unsuccessful, then there is a "mismatch" between the model of the future and the result of the action. Therefore, the action continues, appropriate adjustments are made to it. Reflex arc P.K. Anokhin replaced the reflex ring with a more complex scheme, explaining the self-regulating nature of behavior.

The theory of functional systems P.K. Anokhina created a new - systemic - methodology for studying holistic behavioral acts. In the works of the scientist, it was shown that any integral activity of the body is carried out only with the selective integration of many particular physiological mechanisms into a single functional system.

Despite the indisputable fact that the brain is an organ of mental reflection, the relationship between mental and neurophysiological should be considered from the standpoint of the independence and specificity of each of these processes. The mental cannot be reduced to the morphofunctional structures that provide it, the work of the brain is not the content of the psyche. The mental reflects not the physiological processes taking place in the human body, but objective reality. The specific content of the mental lies in the representation of the images of the world and the subjective attitude towards it. As the philosopher A.G. Spirkin, “in the cerebral cortex, the neurosurgeon sees not bright thoughts like a spiritual flame, but just a gray matter”.

Neurophysiological mechanisms.

Perception

Perception is a complex active process that includes analysis and synthesis of incoming information. In the implementation of the process of perception, various areas of the cortex take part, each of which is specialized in the operations of receiving, analyzing, processing and evaluating the incoming information.

The creation of an image of an object is associated with the function of associative areas. As they mature, they begin to be included in the analysis of incoming information. In early childhood up to 3-4 years, inclusive, the associative zones duplicate the function of the projection cortex. A qualitative leap in the formation of the perception system was noted after 5 years. By the age of 5 - 6 years, the posterior associative zones are involved in the process of recognizing complex images. The identification of complex, previously unfamiliar objects and their comparison with the standard is greatly facilitated. This gives grounds to consider preschool age as a sensitive (especially sensitive) period in the development of visual perception.

Structural and functional maturation of the frontal regions continues in adolescence and determines the improvement of the systemic organization of the perception process. The final stage in the development of the perceiving system provides optimal conditions for an adequate response to external influences.

Attention

Attention - increases the level of activation of the cerebral cortex. Signs of involuntary attention are found already in the neonatal period in the form of an elementary orienting reaction to the emergency use of a stimulus. This reaction is still devoid of a characteristic research component (it manifests itself in 2 - 3 months), but it already manifests itself in certain changes in the electrical activity of the brain, autonomic reactions. Features of activation processes determine the specifics of voluntary attention in the chest, as well as in the younger preschool age, - the attention of a small child is attracted mainly by emotional stimuli. As the speech perception system is formed, a social form of attention is formed, mediated by speech instruction. However, up to 5 years of age, this form of attention is easily pushed aside by involuntary attention that arises to new attractive stimuli.

Significant changes in cortical activation underlying attention were noted at the age of 6-7 years. The role of speech instruction in the formation of voluntary attention increases significantly. At the same time, at this age, the importance of the emotional factor is still great. Qualitative changes in the formation of neurophysiological mechanisms of attention were noted at the age of 9-10 years.

At the beginning of adolescence (12-13 years), neuroendocrine shifts associated with the onset of puberty lead to a change in the cortical-subcortical interaction, a weakening of cortical regulatory influences on activation processes - attention is weakened, the mechanisms of voluntary regulation of function are disrupted. By the end of adolescence, with the completion of puberty, the neurophysiological mechanisms of attention correspond to those of an adult.

Memory

Memory is a property of the nervous system, which manifests itself in the ability to accumulate, store and reproduce incoming information. Memory mechanisms undergo significant changes with age.

Memory based on the storage of traces of arousal in the system of conditioned reflexes is formed in the early stages of development. The relative simplicity of the memory system in childhood determines the stability and strength of conditioned reflexes developed in early childhood. With the structural and functional maturation of the brain, a significant complication of the memory system occurs. This can lead to uneven and ambiguous changes in memory indicators with age. So, at primary school age, the amount of memory significantly increases, and the speed of memorization decreases, then increasing by adolescence. The maturation of the higher cortical formations with age determines the gradual development and improvement of verbal-logical abstract memory.

Motivation

Motivation - active states of the brain structures, prompting to perform actions (acts of behavior) aimed at satisfying their needs. Emotions are inextricably linked with motivation.

In the formation of motivations and emotions, an important role belongs to the limbic system of the brain, which includes the structures of different parts of the brain. The role of emotions is especially great in childhood, when the processes of cortical emotional activation dominate. The emotions of children, due to the weakness of control from the higher parts of the central nervous system, are unstable, their external manifestations are unrestrained. The maturation of the higher parts of the central nervous system at primary school age expands the possibility of the formation of cognitive needs and contributes to the improvement of the regulation of emotions. In this, an important role is played by educational influences aimed at the development of internal inhibition.

Sleep and wakefulness

As the child develops, the relationship between the duration of wakefulness and sleep changes. First of all, the duration of sleep decreases. The duration of a newborn's daily sleep is 21 hours, in the second half of life, the child sleeps for 14 hours, at the age of 4 years - 12 hours, 10 years - 10 hours. The need for daily sleep in adolescence, as in adults, is 7 - 8 hours.