The sound system of the Russian language and its graphics. The main features of the phonetic structure of the English language Phonetic structure

Before proceeding to performing phonetic analysis with examples, we draw your attention to the fact that letters and sounds in words are not always the same.

Letters- these are letters, graphic symbols with the help of which the content of the text is conveyed or the conversation is outlined. Letters are used to convey meaning visually, we perceive them with our eyes. The letters can be read. When you read letters out loud, you form sounds - syllables - words.

The list of all letters is just the alphabet

Almost every student knows how many letters are in the Russian alphabet. That's right, there are 33 of them in total. The Russian alphabet is called the Cyrillic alphabet. The letters of the alphabet are arranged in a specific sequence:

Russian alphabet:

In total, the Russian alphabet is used:

• 21 letters for consonants;
• 10 letters - vowels;
• and two: b (soft sign) and b (hard sign), which indicate properties, but do not themselves determine any sound units.

You often pronounce sounds in phrases differently from how you write them down in writing. In addition, the word can use more letters than sounds. For example, "childish" - the letters "T" and "C" merge into one phoneme [c]. Conversely, the number of sounds in the word "blacken" is greater, since the letter "U" in this case is pronounced as [yu].

What is phonetic parsing?

We perceive the sounding speech by ear. Phonetic parsing of a word means the characteristic of the sound composition. In the school curriculum, such analysis is often called "sound-letter" analysis. So, in phonetic analysis, you simply describe the properties of sounds, their characteristics depending on the environment and the syllabic structure of the phrase, united by a common verbal stress.

Phonetic transcription

For sound-letter parsing, a special transcription in square brackets is used. For example, the spelling is correct:

• black -> [ч "О́рный"]
• apple -> [yablaka]
• anchor -> [yakar "]
• tree -> [yolka]
• sun -> [sontse]

The phonetic parsing scheme uses special characters. Thanks to this, it is possible to correctly identify and distinguish between the letter notation (spelling) and the sound definition of letters (phonemes).

• the phonetically parsed word is enclosed in square brackets -;
• a soft consonant is indicated by the transcription sign [’] - an apostrophe;
• shock [´] - stress;
• in complex word forms from several roots, the secondary stress sign [`] is used - gravis (not practiced in the school curriculum);
• the letters of the alphabet Y, Y, E, E, L and B are NEVER used in the transcription (in the curriculum);
• for doubled consonants, [:] is used - the sign of the longitude of the pronunciation of the sound.

Below are detailed rules for spelling, alphabetic and phonetic and parsing of words with examples online, in accordance with the school-wide norms of the modern Russian language. For professional linguists, the transcription of phonetic characteristics is distinguished by accents and other symbols with additional acoustic signs of vowels and consonant phonemes.

How to do phonetic parsing of a word?

The following scheme will help you to carry out a letter analysis:

• Write out the necessary word and say it out loud several times.
• Count how many vowels and consonants it contains.
• Indicate a stressed syllable. (Stress with intensity (energy) selects a certain phoneme in speech from a number of homogeneous sound units.)
• Divide the phonetic word by syllables and indicate their total number. Remember that the syllabic section in differs from the hyphenation rules. The total number of syllables always matches the number of vowels.
• In transcription, sort the word by sound.
• Write the letters from the phrase in a column.
• In front of each letter in square brackets, indicate its sound definition (as it is heard). Remember that sounds in words are not always the same as letters. The letters "b" and "b" do not represent any sounds. The letters "e", "e", "u", "i", "and" can mean 2 sounds at once.
• Analyze each phoneme separately and separate its properties with commas:
  • for a vowel we indicate in the characteristic: vowel sound; shock or unstressed;
  • in the characteristics of consonants we indicate: consonant sound; hard or soft, voiced or voiceless, sonorous, paired / unpaired in hardness-softness and voiced-deafness.
• At the end of the phonetic analysis of the word, draw a line and count the total number of letters and sounds.

This scheme is practiced in the school curriculum.

An example of phonetic parsing of a word

Here is a sample of phonetic analysis for the word "phenomenon" → [yivl'en'n'iye]. In this example, there are 4 vowels and 3 consonants. There are only 4 syllables here: I-vle′-no-e. The stress falls on the second.

Sound characteristic of letters:

i [y] - acc., unpaired soft, unpaired voiced, sonorous [and] - vowel, unstressed in [v] - acc., paired hard, paired zv.l [l '] - acc., paired soft, unpaired ... sound, sonorous [e ′] - vowel, stressed [n ’] - agree, paired soft., unpaired. zv., sonorous and [and] - vowel., unstressed [y] - acc., unpaired. soft, unpaired sound, sonorous [e] - vowel, unstressed ________________________ In total, the phenomenon in the word - 7 letters, 9 sounds. The first letter "I" and the last "E" stand for two sounds.

Now you know how to do sound-letter analysis yourself. Further, a classification of sound units of the Russian language, their interrelationships and rules of transcription for sound-letter parsing is given.

Phonetics and sounds in Russian

What sounds are there?

All sound units are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowel sounds, in turn, are percussive and unstressed. The consonant sound in Russian words is: hard - soft, sonorous - deaf, hissing, sonorous.

How many sounds are there in Russian living speech?

The correct answer is 42.

Doing phonetic analysis online, you will find that 36 consonants and 6 vowels are involved in word formation. Many people have a reasonable question, why is there such a strange inconsistency? Why is it different total number sounds and letters in both vowels and consonants?

All this is easy to explain. A number of letters, when participating in word formation, can mean 2 sounds at once. For example, pairs of softness-hardness:

• [b] - vigorous and [b '] - squirrel;
• or [d] - [d ’]: home - to do.

And some do not have a pair, for example [h '] will always be soft. If you doubt, try to say it firmly and make sure that this is impossible: stream, pack, spoon, black, Chegevara, boy, rabbit, bird cherry, bees. Thanks to this practical solution, our alphabet has not reached dimensionless scales, and the sound units are optimally complemented, merging with each other.

Vowel sounds in the words of the Russian language

Vowel sounds in contrast to the melodic consonants, they flow freely from the larynx, as it were, in a chant, without obstacles and tension of the ligaments. The louder you try to pronounce the vowel, the wider you will have to open your mouth. Conversely, the louder you try to pronounce the consonant, the more energetically you will close your mouth. This is the most striking articulatory difference between these classes of phonemes.

The stress in any word forms can only fall on the vowel sound, but there are also unstressed vowels.

How many vowels are there in Russian phonetics?

In Russian speech, fewer vowel phonemes are used than letters. There are six percussion sounds: [a], [and], [o], [e], [y], [s]. Let us remind you that there are ten letters: a, e, e, and, o, y, s, e, i, y. The vowels Е, Е, Ю, Я are not "pure" sounds and in transcription are not used. Often, when the letter parsing of words, the stress falls on the listed letters.

Phonetics: characteristics of stressed vowels

The main phonemic feature of Russian speech is the clear pronunciation of vowel phonemes in stressed syllables. Stressed syllables in Russian phonetics are distinguished by the strength of exhalation, increased duration of sounding and are pronounced undistorted. Since they are pronounced clearly and expressively, sound analysis of syllables with stressed vowel phonemes is much easier to carry out. The position in which the sound does not undergo changes and retain its basic appearance is called strong position. This position can only be occupied by the stressed sound and syllable. Unstressed phonemes and syllables remain in a weak position.

• The vowel in the stressed syllable is always in a strong position, that is, it is pronounced more clearly, with the greatest strength and duration.
• A vowel in an unstressed position is in a weak position, that is, it is pronounced with less strength and not so clearly.

In the Russian language, only one phoneme "U" retains its unchangeable phonetic properties: ku ku ru za, tablet, u chu s, u lov, - in all positions it is pronounced distinctly like [u]. This means that the vowel "U" does not undergo a qualitative reduction. Attention: on the letter, the phoneme [y] can also be denoted by another letter "U": muesli [m'u ´sl'i], key [kl'u ´ch ’] and so on.

Parsing the sounds of stressed vowels

The vowel phoneme [o] occurs only in the strong position (under stress). In such cases, "O" is not reduced: cat [ko' t'ik], bell [kalako' l'ch'yk], milk [malako '], eight [vo'c'im'], search [paisko' vaya], dialect [go' var], autumn [o's'in '].

An exception to the rule of a strong position for "O", when unstressed [o] is also pronounced clearly, are only some foreign words: cocoa [cocoa "o], patio [pa" tio], radio [ra "dio], boa [bo a "] and a number of service units, for example, union no. The sound [o] in writing can be reflected by another letter "ё" - [o]: turn [t'o'rn], bonfire [cas't'o'r]. It will not be difficult to parse the sounds of the remaining four vowels in the position under stress.

Unstressed vowels and sounds in the words of the Russian language

It is possible to make the correct sound analysis and accurately determine the characteristics of a vowel only after the stress is placed in the word. Do not forget about the existence of homonymy in our language: for "mok - zamo" to and about the change in phonetic qualities depending on the context (case, number):

• I'm at home [ya to ma].
• New houses [but "vie da ma"].

V unstressed position the vowel is modified, that is, pronounced differently than it is written:

• mountains - mountain = [go "ry] - [gara"];
• he is online = [o "n] - [a nla" yn]
• testimonial = [s'id'e "t'i l'n'itsa].

Similar vowel changes in unstressed syllables are called reduction. Quantitative when the duration of the sound changes. And high-quality reduction, when the characteristic of the original sound changes.

The same unstressed vowel can change its phonetic characteristics depending on the position:

• primarily with respect to the stressed syllable;
• at the absolute beginning or end of a word;
• in naked syllables (they consist of only one vowel);
• by the influence of neighboring signs (b, b) and a consonant.

So, it differs 1st degree of reduction... It is exposed to:

• vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable;
• an overt syllable at the very beginning;
• repetitive vowels.

Note: To make a sound-letter analysis, the first pre-stressed syllable is determined not from the "head" of the phonetic word, but in relation to the stressed syllable: the first to the left of it. In principle, it can be the only pre-shock one: not-local [n'iz'd'e'shn'iy].

(open syllable) + (2-3 pre-stressed syllable) + 1st pre-stressed syllable ← stressed syllable → stressed syllable (+ 2/3 stressed syllable)

• forward -di [fp'ir'i d'i '];
• e-naturally-nno [yi s't'e's''v'in: a];

Any other pre-stressed syllables and all post-stressed syllables when parsing sound refer to 2nd degree reduction. It is also called “second degree weak position”.

• kiss [pa-tsy-la-wa't ’];
• to model [ma-dy-l'i'-ra-wat '];
• swallow [la'-sta -ch'ka];
• kerosene [k'i-ra-s'i'-na-yy].

The reduction of vowels in a weak position also differs in degrees: the second, third (after hard and soft agree., This is outside curriculum): to learn [uch'i'ts: a], to be numb [acyp'in'e't '], hope [over'e'zhda]. In literal analysis, the reduction of a vowel in a weak position in the final open syllable (= at the absolute end of the word) will appear very slightly:

• cup;
• goddess;
• with songs;
• turn.

Sound letter parsing: iotated sounds

Phonetically, the letters E - [ye], E - [yo], Yu - [yu], I - [ya] often denote two sounds at once. Have you noticed that in all the indicated cases, the additional phoneme is "Y"? That is why these vowels are called iotated. The meaning of the letters E, Y, Y, Y is determined by their positional position.

When parsing phonetically, the vowels e, e, yu, i form 2 sounds:

◊ Yo - [yo], Yu - [yu], E - [ye], I - [ya] in cases where there are:

• At the beginning of the word "Yo" and "U" always:
  • - hedgehog [yo' zhyts: a], Christmas tree [yo'lach'ny], hedgehog [yo' zhyk], capacity [yo' mkast '];
  • - jeweler [yuv 'il'i'r], yula [yu la'], skirt [yu' pka], Jupiter [yu p'i't'ir], briskness [yu ´rkas't '];
• at the beginning of the word "E" and "I" only under stress *:
  • - spruce [ye'l ’], I go [ye' w: y], huntsman [ye' g'ir’], eunuch [ye' vuh];
  • - yacht [ya'hta], anchor [ya'kar '], yaki [ya'ki], apple [ya' blaka];
  • (* to perform sound-literal analysis of unstressed vowels "E" and "I", another phonetic transcription, see below);
• in the position immediately after the vowel "E" and "U" always. But "E" and "I" in stressed and unstressed syllables, except for cases when these letters are located behind the vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable or in the 1st, 2nd post-stressed syllables in the middle of words. Phonetic analysis online and examples for specified cases:
  • - receiver [pr'iyo'mn'ik], singing t [payot], pecking t [klyuyo ´t];
  • -yu rveda [ayu r'v'ed'da], sing t [payu ´t], melt [t'yu t], cabin [kayu ´ta],
• after the dividing solid "b" the sign "E" and "U" - always, and "E" and "I" only under stress or at the absolute end of the word: - volume [ab yo'm], shooting [syo'mka], adjutant [adyu "ta'nt]
• after the dividing soft "b" signs "E" and "U" - always, and "E" and "I" under stress or at the absolute end of the word: - interview [intyrv'yu´], trees [d'ir'e´ v'ya], friends [druz'ya'], brothers [brat'ya], monkey [ab'iz'ya'na], blizzard [v'yu'ha], family [s'em'ya' ]

As you can see, in the phonemic system of the Russian language, stress is crucial. Vowels in unstressed syllables undergo the greatest reduction. Let's continue the sound analysis of the remaining iotated ones and see how they can still change their characteristics depending on the environment in the words.

◊ Unstressed vowels"E" and "I" denote two sounds in phonetic transcription and are written as [YI]:

• at the very beginning of a word:
  • - unity [yi d'in'e'n'i'ye], spruce [yilovy], blackberries [yizhiv'i'ka], his [yivo'], egoza [yigaza'], Yenisei [yin'is 'hey], Egypt [yig'i'p'it];
  • - January [yi nva'rskiy], core [yidro'], sarcastic [yiz'v'i't '], label [yirli'k], Japan [yipo'n'iya], lamb [yign'o'nak ];
  • (The only exceptions are rare foreign-language word forms and names: Caucasian [ye wrap'io'idnaya], Evgeny [ye] vgeniy, European [ye wrap'e'yits], diocese [ye] par'archia, etc.).
• immediately after the vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable or in the 1st, 2nd post-stressed syllables, except for the location at the absolute end of the word.
  • timely [svayi vr'e'm'ina], trains [payi zda '], we will eat [payi d'i'm], run over [nayi w: a't'], Belgian [b'il'g'i´ yi c], students [uch'a'sh'iyi s'a], sentences [pr'idlazhe'n'iyi mi'i], vanity [suyi ta'],
  • bark [la'yi t '], pendulum [ma'yi tn'ik], hare [z'yi ts], belt [po'yi s], declare [zayi v'i't'], manifest [prayi v 'l'u´]
• after the dividing hard "b" or soft "b" sign: - intoxicates [p'yi n'i't], express [izyi v'i't '], announcement [abyi vl'e'n'iye], edible [this is good].

Note: For the St. Petersburg phonological school "hiccup" is characteristic, and for the Moscow school "hiccup". Previously, the iotrated "Yo" was pronounced with a more accented "ye". With the change of capitals, performing sound-letter analysis, they adhere to the Moscow norms in orthoepy.

Some people in fluent speech pronounce the vowel "I" in the same way in syllables with a strong and weak position. This pronunciation is considered a dialect and is not literary. Remember, the vowel "I" under stress and without stress is pronounced differently: fair [ya ´rmarka], but an egg [yi yzo´].

Important:

The letter "I" after the soft sign "b" also represents 2 sounds - [YI] in sound-letter analysis. (This rule applies to syllables in both strong and weak positions). Let's take a sample of the sound-letter online parsing: - nightingales [salav'yi '], on chicken legs [on ku'r'yi' x "socks], rabbit [cro'l'ich'yi], there is no family [s'im'yi '], judges [su´d'yi], nobody's [n'ich'yi´], streams [ruch'yi´], foxes [l's'yi]. But: The vowel "O" after the soft sign "b" is transcribed as the apostrophe of softness ['] of the preceding consonant and [О], although when pronouncing the phoneme, iotation can be heard: broth [bul'o'n], pavilion n [pav'il'on'n], similarly: postman, champignon, shino n, companion n, medal n, battalion n, guillotine, karagno la, minion and others.

Phonetic parsing of words when the vowels "U" "E" "E" "I" form 1 sound

According to the rules of phonetics of the Russian language, at a certain position in words, the indicated letters give one sound when:

• sound units "E" "U" "E" are under stress after an unpaired consonant in hardness: w, w, c. Then they denote phonemes:
  • yo - [o],
  • e - [e],
  • yu - [y].
  Examples of online parsing by sounds: yellow [yellow], silk [sho 'lk], whole [whole], recipe [r'itse'ft], pearl [zhe'mch'uk], six [she'st '], hornet [she´ rshen'], parachute [parashu´ t];
• The letters "I" "U" "E" "E" and "I" denote the softness of the preceding consonant [’]. The only exception is for: [w], [w], [c]. In such cases in striking position they form one vowel sound:
  • ё - [o]: voucher [put'o'fka], easy [l'o'hk'iy], honey [ap'o'nak], actor [act'o'r], child [rib ' o'nak];
  • e - [e]: seal [t'ul'e'n '], mirror [z'e'rkala], smarter [umn'e' ye], conveyor [canv'e' yir];
  • I - [a]: kittens [kat'a'ta], softly [m'a'hka], oath [k'a'tva], took [v'a'l], mattress [t'u f'a ´ k], swan [l'ib'a´ zhy];
  • yu - [y]: beak [cl'u'f], people [l'u' d'am], gateway [shl'u'c], tulle [t'u'l '], costume [cas't 'mind].
  • Note: in words borrowed from other languages, the stressed vowel "E" does not always signal the softness of the previous consonant. This positional softening has ceased to be a mandatory norm in Russian phonetics only in the XX century. In such cases, when you make phonetic analysis of the composition, such a vowel sound is transcribed as [e] without the preceding apostrophe of softness: hotel [ate'l '], shoulder strap [br'ite'l'ka], test [te'st] , tennis [te´ n: is], cafe [cafe´], mashed potatoes [p'ure´], ambre [ambre´], delta [de´ l'ta], tender [te´ nder], masterpiece [shede´ vr], tablet [tablet 't].
• Attention! After soft consonants in pre-stressed syllables the vowels "E" and "I" undergo a qualitative reduction and are transformed into the sound [and] (excl. for [c], [g], [w]). Examples of phonetic parsing of words with similar phonemes: - zerno [z'i rno´], earth [z'i ml'a´], ve sely [v'i s'o'ly], ringing [z'v 'and n'i't], forest [l'i sleep'y], metitsa [m'i t'e'l'itsa], per po [p'i ro'], brought weak [pr' in'i sl'], knit [v'i z't '], la gat [l'i g't'], five grater [p'i t'o'rka]

Phonetic analysis: consonants of the Russian language

There is an absolute majority of consonants in Russian. When pronouncing a consonant sound, the air flow encounters obstacles. They are formed by the organs of articulation: teeth, tongue, palate, vibrations of the vocal cords, lips. Due to this, noise, hiss, whistle or sonority occurs in the voice.

How many consonants are there in Russian?

The alphabet is used to designate them 21 letters. However, when performing sound-letter analysis, you will find that in Russian phonetics consonants more, namely - 36.

Sound-letter analysis: what are the consonant sounds?

In our language, consonants are:

• hard - soft and form the corresponding pairs:
  • [b] - [b ’]: b anan - b tree,
  • [in] - [in ’]: in height - in un,
  • [g] - [g ']: city - duke,
  • [d] - [d ']: da acha - d dolphin,
  • [z] - [z ’]: z won - z ether,
  • [k] - [k ’]: k onfeta - to yangaroo,
  • [l] - [l ']: l odka - luks,
  • [m] - [m ’]: magic - dreams,
  • [n] - [n ']: new - n ectar,
  • [p] - [p ’]: p alma-p yosik,
  • [p] - [p ’]: pomashka - p poison,
  • [s] - [s ’]: s ovenir - yurprise,
  • [t] - [t ’]: t uchka - t yulpan,
  • [f] - [f ’]: f lag - f evral,
  • [x] - [x ’]: x nut - x seeker.
• Certain consonants do not have a hard-soft pair. Unpaired include:
  • sounds [f], [c], [w] are always solid (life, cycl, mouse);
  • [h ’], [sch’] and [th ’] are always soft (daughter, more often yours).
• The sounds [w], [h ’], [w], [u’] in our language are called hissing.

The consonant can be voiced - deaf, as well as sonorous and noisy.

It is possible to determine voicedness-deafness or sonority of a consonant by the degree of noise-voice. These characteristics will vary depending on the method of formation and the involvement of the organs of articulation.

• Sonorous (l, m, n, p, d) are the most sonorous phonemes, they contain a maximum of voice and a little noise: lev, rai, nol.
• If, when pronouncing a word during sound parsing, both a voice and a noise are formed, then you have a voiced consonant (g, b, z, etc.) in front of you: zavod, b people o, w from n.
• When pronouncing voiceless consonants (n, s, t and others), the vocal cords do not tense, only noise is emitted: st opka a, f ishk a, kost yum, ts irk, zashit.

Note: In phonetics, consonant sound units also have a division according to the nature of the formation: bow (b, p, d, t) - gap (w, w, h, s) and the method of articulation: labial (b, p, m) , labiodental (f, v), front lingual (t, d, z, s, c, w, w, sch, h, n, l, r), middle lingual (d), posterior lingual (k, g, x) ... The names are given based on the organs of articulation that are involved in sound production.

Hint: If you are just starting to practice phonetic parsing of words, try pressing your palms to your ears and pronouncing the phoneme. If you managed to hear a voice, then the sound under investigation is a voiced consonant, but if noise is heard, then it is deaf.

Hint: For associative communication, remember the phrases: "Oh, we haven't forgotten a friend." - this sentence contains absolutely the entire set of voiced consonants (excluding soft-hardness pairs). “Styopka, do you want to eat some shchets? - Fi! " - similarly, these cues contain a set of all voiceless consonants.

Positional changes of consonants in Russian

The consonant sound, like the vowel, undergoes changes. One and the same letter phonetically can mean a different sound, depending on the position occupied. In the flow of speech, the sounding of one consonant is likened to the articulation of a consonant located next to it. This effect facilitates pronunciation and is called assimilation in phonetics.

Positional stunning / voicing

In a certain position, the phonetic law of deafness-voiced assimilation operates for consonants. A voiced paired consonant is replaced by a voiceless one:

• at the absolute end of the phonetic word: but w [no'sh], snow [s'n'ek], vegetable garden [agaro't], club [klu'p];
• before voiceless consonants: forget-me-not a [n'izabu't ka], obh vatit [apkh vat'i't ’], tu ornik [ft o'rn'ik], pipe a [corpse a].
• doing sound literal parsing online, you will notice that a voiceless paired consonant in front of a voiced consonant (except for [y '], [v] - [v'], [l] - [l '], [m] - [m'] , [n] - [n '], [p] - [p']) also voiced, that is, it is replaced with its own sonorous pair: surrender [zda'ch'a], mowing [kaz'ba'], threshing [malad 'ba'], request [pro'z'ba], guess [adgada't'].

In Russian phonetics, a voiceless noisy consonant is not combined with the subsequent voiced noisy one, except for the sounds [в] - [в ']: whipped cream. In this case, the transcription of both phonemes [s] and [s] is equally permissible.

When parsing the sounds of words: total, today, today, etc., the letter "G" is replaced by the phoneme [v].

According to the rules of sound-letter analysis in the endings "-th", "-his" adjectives, participles and pronouns, the consonant "Г" is transcribed as a sound [in]: red [krasnava], blue [s'i'n'iva] , white [b'e'lava], sharp, full, former, that, this, whom. If, after assimilation, two consonants of the same type are formed, they merge. In the school curriculum on phonetics, this process is called consonant contraction: separate [hell: 'il'i't'] → the letters "T" and "D" are reduced into sounds [d'd '], bessh clever [b'ish: u ´mny]. When parsing the composition of a number of words in the sound-letter analysis, dissimilation is observed - the process is the opposite of assimilation. In this case, the common feature of two adjacent consonants changes: the combination "GK" sounds like [xk] (instead of the standard [kk]): light [l'oh'kh'k'iy], soft [m'ah'kh ' k'iy].

Soft consonants in Russian

In the phonetic parsing scheme, the apostrophe ['] is used to indicate the softness of consonants.

• The softening of paired solid consonants occurs before "b";
• the softness of a consonant sound in a syllable in writing will help determine the following vowel letter (e, e, i, y, i);
• [u ’], [h’] and [th] are only soft by default;
• the sound [n] is always softened before the soft consonants "Z", "S", "D", "T": claim [pr'iten'z 'iya], review [r'iceen'z' iya], pension [pen 's' iya], ve [n'z'] fir, face [n'z '] iya, ka [n'd'] idat, ba [n'd '] it, and [n'd'] ivid , blo [n'd '] in, stipe [n'd'] ia, ba [n't '] ik, vi [n't'] ik, zo [n't '] ik, ve [n' t '] il, a [n't'] ichny, ko [n't '] text, rem [n't'] ration;
• the letters "N", "K", "P" during phonetic analysis by composition can be softened before soft sounds [h '], [u']: glass ik [stack'n'ch'ik], change ik [sm'e ′ N'sh'ik], ponch ik [po'n'ch'ik], mason ik [kam'en'n'sh'ik], boulevard ina [bul'va'r'sh'ina], borsch [ Borsch'];
• often the sounds [z], [s], [p], [n] before a soft consonant undergo assimilation by hardness-softness: wall [s't'en'nka], life [zhyz'n '], here [ z'd'es'];
• in order to correctly perform sound-letter parsing, take into account the words of the exception, when the consonant [p] is pronounced firmly in front of soft teeth and lips, as well as before [h ’], [u’]: artel, feed, cornet, samovar;

Note: the letter "b" after a consonant unpaired in hardness / softness in some word forms performs only a grammatical function and does not impose a phonetic load: study, night, mouse, rye, etc. In such words, during literal analysis, in square brackets, a [-] dash is put in front of the letter "b".

Positional changes in paired voiced-voiceless in front of hissing consonants and their transcription during sound-letter parsing

To determine the number of sounds in a word, you need to take them into account. positional changes... Paired voiced-voiceless: [d-t] or [z-s] before hissing (w, w, w, h) are phonetically replaced by a hissing consonant.

• Alphabetic analysis and examples of words with hissing sounds: come [pr'iye'zhzhii], rebellion [vash e'stv'iye], izzh elta [i'zhzh elta], squeeze [zzh a'l'its: a].

The phenomenon when two different letters are pronounced as one is called complete assimilation by all indications. Performing a sound-letter parsing of a word, you must designate one of the repetitive sounds in the transcription with the longitude symbol [:].

• Combinations of letters with a hissing "szh" - "zzh" are pronounced as a double hard consonant [w:], and "ssh" - "zsh" - as [w:]: squeezed, sew, without a tire, climbed in.
• Combinations "zzh", "zzh" inside the root when parsing sound-lettering is written in transcription as a long consonant [w:]: I drive, squeal, later, reins, yeast, burnt.
• The combinations "mid", "zh" at the junction of the root and the suffix / prefix are pronounced like a long soft [ш ':]: score [ш': о´т], scribe, customer.
• At the junction of the preposition with the next word in place of "mid", "zch" is transcribed as [uch'ch ']: without number [b'esh' h 'isla´], with something [uch'ch' emta] ...
• With the sound-letter parsing of the combination "pt", "dch" at the junction of morphemes is defined as a double soft [h ':]: pilot [l'o'ch': hic], molod ik [little'h ': ik], report [ach ': o´t].

Cheat sheet for the assimilation of consonants at the place of education

• nt → [ni ':]: happiness [ni': a's't'ye], sandstone [n'isch ': a'n'ik], peddler [razno'sh': uk], cobbled, calculations, exhaust, clear;
• zch → [uch ’:]: carver [r’e’sch’: uk], loader [gru’sch ’: uk], narrator [rask’sch’: uk];
• gh → [u ':]: defector [p'ir'ibe' u': uk], man [musch ': i'na];
• shh → [u ':]: freckled [v'isn'shch': ity];
• stch → [u ':]: tougher [jo'sh': e], whip, snap;
• zd → [u ':]: buster [abye'sh': uk], furrowed [baro'sh ': ity];
• ssch → [ny':]: split [rasch ': ip'i't'], generous [rasch ': edr'ils'a];
• vain → [h'ch ']: to split off [ach'sh' ip'it '], to snap off [ach'sh' o'lk'ivat '], in vain [ch'ch' etna], thoroughly [h ' sh 'at'el'na];
• pm → [h ’:]: report [ach’: o′t], homeland [ach ’:‘ zna], ciliated [r’is’n’ ’h’: it’s];
• dch → [h ’:]: to underline [pach’: o'rk'ivat ’], stepdaughter [pach’: ir’itsa];
• squeeze → [w:]: squeeze [w: a't ’];
• zzh → [f:]: get rid of [il: y't ’], ignite [ro'zh: yk], leave [uyizh: a't’];
• ssh → [w:]: brought [pr'in'osh: th], embroidered [rush: y'ty];
• zsh → [w:]: lower [n'ish: y'y]
• thu → [pc], in word forms with “what” and its derivatives, making a sound-letter analysis, we write [pc]: so that [pc o'by], not at all [n'e ′ zasht a], something [ piece about n'ibut '], something;
• Thu → [h't] in other cases of literal analysis: dreamer [m'ich't a't'il '], mail [po'ch't a], preference [pr'itpach't' e'n ' iye] and TP;
• chn → [shn] in words-exceptions: of course [can'eshn a ′], boring [sku'shn a ′], bakery, laundry, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse, bachelorette party, mustard plaster, rag, as well as in female patronymics ending in "-ichna": Ilyinichna, Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, etc .;
• chn → [ch'n] - literal analysis for all other options: fabulous [skazach'n], dacha [da'ch'n th], strawberry [z'im'l'in'i'ch'n th], wake up, cloudy, sunny, etc .;
• ! zhd → in place of the letter combination "zhd", double pronunciation and transcription [ш ’] or [pcs’] in the word rain and in the word forms formed from it are permissible: rainy, rainy.

Unpronounceable consonants in the words of the Russian language

During the pronunciation of a whole phonetic word with a chain of many different consonant letters, one or another sound may be lost. As a result, in the orthograms of words there are letters devoid of sound meaning, the so-called unpronounceable consonants. To correctly perform phonetic parsing online, the unpronounceable consonant is not displayed in transcription. The number of sounds in such phonetic words will be less than the number of letters.

In Russian phonetics, unpronounceable consonants include:

• "T" - in combinations:
  • stn → [sn]: local [m'es'n'y], reed [trans'n''i'k]. By analogy, you can perform a phonetic analysis of the words flattering, honest, famous, joyful, sad, participatory, well-known, rainy, furious and others;
  • stl → [sl]: happy ive [‘’: asl ’’ ’”], happy ive, conscientious, boastful (exception words: bony and post, in them the letter “T” is pronounced);
  • ntsk → [nsk]: giant [g'iga'nsk], agency, presidential;
  • sts → [s:]: sixs from [shes: o´t], eat me [vzye´s: a], I swear [cl'a´s: a];
  • sts → [s:]: tourist cue [tur'i's: c'y], maximalist cue [max'imal'i's: c'y], racist [ras'is's: c'y] , bests yeller, propaganda, expressionist, hindu, careerist;
  • ntg → [ng]: roentgen [r'eng 'e'n];
  • “–Sat”, “–sat” → [c:] in verb endings: smile [smile'ts: a], wash [my'ts: a], looks, fits, bows, shaves, suits;
  • ts → [c] for adjectives in combinations at the junction of a root and a suffix: childish [d'e'ts k'iy], brotherly [bra'tskiy];
  • ts → [c:] / [cs]: sports men [spark: m'en'n], send [acs yyl'at '];
  • tts → [ts:] at the junction of morphemes during phonetic parsing online is written as a long "ts": bratz a [bra'ts: a], father to drink [ats: ep'i't '], to father u [to ac: y´];
• "D" - when parsing the sounds in the following letter combinations:
  • zdn → [zn]: late [pos'z'n 'iy], starry [z'v'o'zniy], festive ik [pra'z'n' ik], gratuitous [b'izvazm ' e'zn th];
  • ndsh → [nsh]: mouthsh tuk [munsh tu'k], landsh aft [lansh a'ft];
  • ndsk → [nsk]: Dutch [gala'nsk'ii], Thai [thaila'nsk''ii], Norman [narma'nsk''ii];
  • zd → [ss]: under the bridle [pad usts'];
  • ndc → [nts]: Dutch [gala'ants];
  • rdc → [rts]: heart e [s'e'rts e], heart of evin [s'irtz y'y'na];
  • rdch → [rf "]: heart ishko [s'erch 'ishka];
  • dts → [c:] at the junction of morphemes, less often in the roots, are pronounced and, when parsing the sound, the word is written as double [c]: subtrip [pats: yp'i't '], twenty [two'ts: yt'] ;
  • ds → [c]: factory [zavats k'y], family [race], means [sr'e'ts tva], Kislovods k [k'islavots k];
• "L" - in combinations:
  • lnts → [nts]: suns e [so'nts e], suns state;
• "B" - in combinations:
  • vstv → [st] literal parsing of words: hello [hello uyt'e], feelings about [h'u'stv a], feelings [ch'u'stv 'inas't'], pampering about [balls o´], virgin [d'e´stv 'in: th].

Note: In some words of the Russian language, with the accumulation of consonants "stk", "ntk", "zdk", "ndk", the dropout of the phoneme [t] is not allowed: trip [payestka], daughter-in-law, typist, agenda, laboratory assistant, student , patient, bulky, irish, tartan.

• Two identical letters immediately after a stressed vowel are transcribed as a single sound and a longitude symbol [:] when parsing literally: class, bath, mass, group, program.
• Doubled consonants in pre-stressed syllables are indicated in transcription and pronounced as one sound: tunnel [tanël ’], terrace, apparatus.

If you find it difficult to perform phonetic parsing of a word online according to the indicated rules, or you have an ambiguous analysis of the word under study, use the help of a reference dictionary. Literary norms of orthoepy are regulated by the publication: “Russian literary pronunciation and stress. Dictionary - reference book ". M. 1959

References:

• E.I. Litnevskaya Russian language: a short theoretical course for schoolchildren. - Moscow State University, Moscow: 2000
• Panov M.V. Russian phonetics. - Education, M .: 1967
• Beshenkova E.V., Ivanova O.E. Russian spelling rules with comments.
• Tutorial. - "Institute for Advanced Training of Educators", Tambov: 2012
• Rosenthal D.E., Dzhandzhakova E.V., Kabanova N.P. Reference book on spelling, pronunciation, literary editing. Russian literary pronunciation. - M .: CheRo, 1999

Now you know how to parse a word by sounds, make a sound-letter analysis of each syllable and determine their number. The described rules explain the laws of phonetics in the format school curriculum... They will help you phonetically characterize any letter.

When transmitting speech, two types of signs are used: signs for the transmission of sounds, that is, phonetic, and, speaking conditionally, communicative, with the help of which words and sentences are separated. In this regard, the term "alphabet" (alphabet) is used in two meanings: in a narrow one to designate only the phonetic composition of the language, and in a broad one, to designate all signs, including the communicative side of writing when writing information.

Phonetic signs. The alphabet is determined, first of all, by the sound (phonetic) structure of its language, primarily by the set of vowels and consonants. Therefore, first let us touch briefly on the phonetic structure of the Russian language.

The Russian language has 5 vowel phonemes (a, o, e, y, s), from which four iotated phonemes are formed:

d + a -gt; i, d + o-gt; e, d + e- "e, d + y-" y.

The phoneme s, derived from ъ and і (ъ + і), occupies, as it were, an intermediate position between vowels and consonants. In some cases, it behaves like a vowel, in others - like a consonant, as can be seen from table 5.3.1.

Tab. 5.3.1. Vowel sounds and their combinations with sound "and

Accordingly, the Russian alphabet has the letter "Y", 5 letters denoting vowel sounds I, E, A, O, U, 4 letters denoting the iotated sounds derived from them: I, E, E, Yu, as well as the letter Y (b + i) (see Table 5.3.1). The Ukrainian language also contains the letter Ї. It serves to designate the iotated sound, lost in the Russian language, derived from I. In the Belarusian language there is also a special letter y (oy).

To designate combinations of vowels with the letter "d" (bottom line of Table 5.3.1), special letters are not entered, since these combinations do not merge into one general sound, but sound like syllables.

The composition of consonant phonemes, according to A.A.

Reformed, looks like this:

The phonemes "w", "c", "w" are pronounced only firmly, V - only softly. Phonemes 7с "," r ", У can be pronounced both hard and soft; the difference in their pronunciation does not serve to distinguish words. Phoneme u comes from a combination of two phonemes - w + h.

Hard and soft phonemes are denoted by the same letters. Doubling of the reflected phonemes is achieved due to the soft sign.

Tab. 5.3.2. Communication signs

		Name of the mark	The main purpose of the sign
			End of offer
			Graduation of the proposal
		Colon	Graduation of the proposal
		Semicolon	Graduation of the proposal
		Dash long	Graduation of the proposal
		Dash mean
		Question mark	Question mark
		Exclamation point	Exclamation point
			Select part of text
			Select part of text
		Star	Footnote sign

In this regard, in addition to letters, the alphabet also includes two auxiliary characters (but not letters): a hard sign ъ and a soft sign ь. Solid and soft marks currently in Russian they are used to double the number of consonants, since they reflect the specifics of their pronunciation.

The third group of phonemes has corresponding letter designations. Phoneme LJ a single letter does not have, is indicated by doubling the letter z (for example, burning).

The communicative part of the alphabet includes a system of signs that serve for communicative purposes, for example, a period, a comma, with an emphasis on some semantic accent - a question, exclamation, etc. The main ones are presented in Table 5.3.2.

These well-known data on the phonetic structure of the language are presented in order to see in which direction the Venetian alphabet should have developed on its way to the modern Russian alphabet.

You can download ready-made answers for the exam, cheat sheets and other study materials in Word format in

Use the search form

§ 5.4. Phonetic structure of the Russian language and requirements for the alphabet

relevant scientific sources:

• Essays on the historical morphology of the Russian language. Names

  Khaburgaev G.A. | M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1990 .-- 296 p. | Monograph | 1990 | docx / pdf | 14.16 Mb

  The monograph examines the historical development of categories and forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns in the Russian dialect language. Generalization of the material accumulated

• Essays on the historical morphology of the Russian language

  P.S. Kuznetsov | USSR Academy of Sciences Publishing House Moscow 1959 | Scientific book | 1959 | docx / pdf | 14.59 Mb

  The purpose of these essays is to outline some of the main issues historical development morphological structure of the Russian language. The morphological structure of the modern Russian language is

• Answers to the state exam in the history of the Russian language

  | Answers to the state exam| 2016 | Russia | docx | 0.11 Mb

  1. The articulatory characteristics of the sounds of the Russian language and the features of its articulatory base. 2. Super-segmental units of the Russian language and their features (syllable structure and syllable section, stress,

• Answers to the State Exam in Modern Russian Language

  | Test / Exam Answers| 2016 | Russia | docx | 0.21 Mb

1 2 Changing the system of vowels and consonants

2 GRAMMATIC STRUCTURE

2.1 Pluralization of nouns

2.2 Changes in the pronoun system

2.3 Verb

3 DICTIONARY COMPOSITION OF LANGUAGE

3.1 Development of word formation methods

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

As you know, the English language developed as a result of the integration of the tribal dialects of Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who moved to the British Isles in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e. The first written monuments, which establish the history of the English language, date back to the 8th century. The English language has passed a difficult path, interbreeding in the course of its development with other languages ​​(Scandinavian, Romance), enriching its vocabulary at the expense of these languages.

In different eras, attempts were made repeatedly to establish a single standard and develop a literary form of the English language. However, as you know, only in the period of capitalism the English language could become the national national language, subjugating all other dialects, reworking them in accordance with the already established norms. Thus, only in the 15th - 16th centuries, as a result of the victory of the capitalist system over the feudal one, which entailed the rapid development of industry and trade, can we talk about the formation of a single English national literary language.

The national English language, which developed on the basis of the London dialect during the formation of the English nation during the 16th - 17th centuries, is rapidly developing. A number of factors contributed to the development and consolidation of certain linguistic norms of the English literary language.

Of the interacting factors that influenced the development of the literary language in the period of the 16th - 17th centuries, 3 main ones can be mentioned:

1) a general interest in classical samples during the Renaissance, and hence the imitation of classical grammars and rhetoric, especially Latin grammar, and the transfer of the system of ancient linguistics to the system of the English language;

2) the influence of the so-called archaic purism, in other words, the fight against mass invasion foreign words in the vocabulary of the English language, in particular, Latin and French words, and, as one of the forms of manifestation of this struggle, the orientation towards obsolete norms of the language;

3) focus on living and developing, unsettled and therefore rapidly changing norms of colloquial folk English.

All of the above has determined the relevance of the course work.

The purpose of this work is to consider the characteristic features of the development of the English language in the 16th - 17th centuries.

Object - phonetic, grammatical and lexical features of the English language of the studied period.

The goal set out the tasks:

Consider and characterize the phonetic structure of the language;

Expand the features of the grammatical structure;

Analyze changes in the vocabulary of the language of the period under consideration.

To implement the above tasks in term paper a comprehensive research method is used. It includes descriptive, historical-comparative and chronological methods, as well as various methods of analysis, depending on the specific tasks of each part of the work: classification, elements of semantic and statistical analysis.

1 PHONETIC STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE

1.1 Spelling system

The formation of the English national language, the gradual normalization of the literary form of the language, the introduction of printing - all this required the establishment of a firm spelling norm. The instability of English spelling in the 16th century and its inconsistency with the sound norms of the English language at the time led to the desire to simplify it. During the XVI-XVII centuries, only the most insignificant and partial changes were made.

One of these changes was the omission of the dumb letter e after a syllable with a short vowel and after a syllable with a long vowel, indicated by a digraph. So, in the 16th century, the following words had such a spelling: coude - could, muche - a lot, to lacke - to miss, to sleepe - to sleep, weake - weak, to goe - to go. In the 17th century, words of this type take on a modern form: could, much, to lack, to sleep, weak, to go. The letter e is retained in writing only in cases where it is necessary to show that the vowel of the previous syllable denotes a diphthong or a long vowel, such as: time, take.

The letter y, which was widespread in the spelling of the 16th century and was used at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of words, is replaced by the letter i in all cases, except for the absolute end of words and words of Greek origin, where the letter y continues to be written. So, in the 16th century they wrote: descrybe - to describe, ryche - rich, merylye - fun. In the 17th century they already write: to describe, rich, merily. The affix -yng, often containing the letter y in the 17th century, later acquires the stable spelling -ing, for example: lyvyng is replaced by living.

During the 16th century, there was a simplification of the spelling of the group aip in words of French origin, where the letter was used to indicate the presence of a nasal vowel. So, by the end of the 16th century, the letter is not written in such words as: to chaunge - to change, pleasaunt - pleasant, remembraunce - memories, which thus take a graphical form: to change, pleasant, remembrance.

Some simplification also occurs in the writing of individual consonants. In the 17th century, they begin to write one I in the -all affix, for example: the words severall, contynuall are written several, continual.

On the other hand, the spelling of the suffix of abstract nouns -nes through the double -ss is established.

All cases of simplification of English spelling that occurred during the 16th and 17th centuries were only partial and very limited.

The fascination with classical antiquity, which took place in the highest circles of English society, in the late 15th and 16th centuries gave rise to a very peculiar phenomenon - the romanization of the spelling of a number of words borrowed from the French language at different times.

The reason for the desire for Latinization was, apparently, a significant discrepancy between the French borrowings assimilated in English and those Latin words from which the French words that existed in English were derived. Persons who knew Latin well in the 16th century, and there were many of them at that time in England, could not take into account all the changes that had occurred in the French language, and considered the change in the form of the word in French as a damage to the language. Therefore, throughout the 16th century, we often encounter a tendency to replace the spelling of French borrowings with the spelling of the corresponding Latin words, contrary to the existing pronunciation. This trend has led to an increase in the complexity of the spelling of the English language, further increasing the discrepancy between the sound and graphic images of individual words.

Romanization most often consisted either in adding to the word a consonant letter that was absent in it, which was present in the corresponding Latin word, or in replacing a vowel letter, or combined both of these cases.

The letter b was introduced in the following words: dette - duty, doute - doubt, suget - subject, sotil - gentle, elusive; as a result, they began to be written as debt, doubt, subtle by analogy with the Latin prototypes debitum, dubito, subjectus, subtilis. In the words debt, doubt, subtle, the letter b continues to be a dumb letter. In the word subject, the letter b was introduced in the 15th century and began to be pronounced.

The letter c was introduced in the following words: endite - to indict, parfit - perfect, suget - subject, verdit - sentence, vitayle supplies, as a result of which they began to be spelled as indict, perfect, subject, verdict, victuals by analogy with the Latin prototypes indictare , perfectus, subjectus, verdictum, victualis.

In the above words, in addition to the introduction of the letter c, the spelling of the vowels was also changed: for example, in the word endite the letter e was replaced by i, in the word parfit the letter a was replaced by e, which influenced the subsequent pronunciation of the word, which now sounds ["pg : fikt]. The letter l was introduced in the following words: assaut - attack, faucon - falcon, faut - fault, defaut - lack, soudiour - soldier, and they began to be written as assault, falcon, fault, default, soldier by analogy with Latin prototypes ab + saltus, falco, fallita, de + fallita, soldarius (soldium) In the words of this group, the inserted letter l influenced their pronunciation and is currently pronounced in all these words.

The letter p was inserted into the words: receit - receipt, conceit - image, concept and deceit - deception, as a result of which in the 16th century they took the form receipt, conceipt, deceipt by analogy with the Latin forms of the past participle receptus, conceptus, deceptus.

However, in the words conceipt and deceipt, the letter p is not retained, and already in the 17th century the named words are written conceit, deceit, as they are now. The letter p is preserved only in the word receipt, where, however, it is not pronounced.

In a number of words, some letters were replaced by others, as a result of which the pronunciation of these words changed accordingly. So, in the word marcha (u) nt - a merchant, which goes back to the Old Fr. mar chant, the letter a was replaced by e, as a result of which we have the noun merchant.

Changes under the influence of romanization also affected affixes. So, the prefix a-, which existed in a number of words borrowed from the French language, was replaced by the Latin prefix ad- in the following words: aventur - adventure, avys - opinion, advice, avance - to promote, avauntage - advantage; as a result, these words began to be spelled as adventure, advice, advance, advantage.

The spelling of the ens- and es- prefixes in the words ensample - example, eschange - the exchange is replaced with the Latin prefix ex-, which gave the modern spelling example, exchange.

The spelling of the prefix en- in the words to encrease - to increase, to enform - to notify and some others are replaced by the Latin prefix in-, which gave the modern spelling to increase, to inform.

Thus, at the end of the 15th and 16th centuries, the spelling of a number of English words, in the past borrowed from the French language, changed under the influence of the harmful course of romanization, which sought to impose forms alien to the English language, as a result of which the English spelling moved further away from the sound composition of words. In the 16th century, the stability of the spelling of words had not yet been created, and the spelling was still extremely inconsistent.

1.2 Changing the vowel and consonant system

A. Changes in the vowel system that have occurred in the New England period since the 15th century are due to the following reasons:

1. Changing the system of long vowels (The Great Vowel Shift);

2. Changing short vowels;

3. Reduction of long vowels;

4. Development of intercalary sounds;

5. Development of Middle English diphthongs;

6. Development of vowels in unstressed syllables.

Changing the long vowel system (The Great Vowel Shift)

The change in the system of long vowels, which in English linguistic literature is called The Great Vowel Shift, i.e. "The great vowel shift" is associated by various scholars linguists with different periods of the development of the English language. Thus, Sweet and Espersen believe that The Great Vowel Shift began in the 16th century and ended completely in the 18th century. Another English linguist, Professor Wilde, after a thorough analysis of numerous written monuments, official documents, private letters, diaries, came to the conclusion that the change in long vowels began and mainly occurred during the 15th and ended in the 16th century, although individual changes could have taken place in XVII century.

The essence of The Great Vowel Shift is that all long vowels are narrowed, and narrow vowels are diphthongized.

One example is the development of an open long [ɛ:] into a closed [e:] around the 16th century. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the closed [e:] continued to exist as a monophthong, and only, apparently, in the 18th century, this sound changed into a diphthong.

Thus, we have: take (XIV century) → (end of XIV century) → (XV) → (XVI - XVII centuries) → (XVIII century) - take

The Middle English sound already at the end of the 14th century begins to pass into a diphthong of the type, and the first element of this diphthong begins to expand and reaches a stage in the 15th century.

Then the further process of expansion continues, with the diphthong [ei] passing into [ӕi] in the 16th century and then in. Thus, we have: five (XIV century) → (XV century) → (XVI century) → (XVII century) - five

The Middle English sound began to transition into a diphthong type even before the transition [o:] in, i.e. at the end of the XIV century.

During the 15th century, the first element of the diphthong begins to expand and reaches the [ou] stage, and in the 16th century [ou] passes into [au]. Thus, we have: town (XIV century) → (XV century) → (XVI century) - city

It should be remembered that diphthongization did not occur before the subsequent labial consonants [p] and [m], for example in the words:

dr. - a. drupa> Wed-a. droupen> n.-a. droop - to drop

dr. - a. ram> Wed-a. roum> n.-a. room - room

Middle English sound [ᴐ:], derived from O.-a. [a:] or by lengthening [ᴐ] in an open syllable, it began to gradually narrow and, having passed the [o:] stage, passed into the diphthong [ou] in the second half of the 18th century. Thus, we have: rood [rᴐ: d] (XVI century) → road [go: d] (XVI-XVII) → (XVIII century) - roads.

Middle English wide sound [ɛ:], derived from OE. [ӕ:] or from lengthening in the XIII century O.-a. [e] in an open syllable, in the 16th century it narrowed into a narrow [e:], which during the 17th-18th centuries gradually passed into. Thus, we have: se (XIV century) → sea (XVI century) → (XVII-XVIII centuries) - sea

Changing short vowels

During the Early Modern English period, the following short vowel changes occurred:

1. [e]> [a] in position before [r]. This change apparently began in the East-Central and South-West dialects from the 15th century, after which it penetrated into the London dialect and into the literary language in the middle of the 15th century. Thus, we have: werre (XVI century) → war (XV century) - war. It should be noted that during the 16th and 17th centuries this pronunciation [a] before [r] instead of [e] was widespread, as evidenced by private documents in which the spellings are found vartue instead of vertue, sartein instead of certain, sarvis instead of service and many others.

2. [a]> [ӕ]. This change, apparently, got its start in Essex (in the southeastern dialect) at the beginning of the 15th century, after which it passed into the literary language during the 16th century and was fixed in it: cat (14th century) → (16th century ) - cat

3. [a]> [ᴐ]. This change took place only after the sound [w], which in writing could be represented by the letters w, wh and the letter and after q. Chronologically, it should be attributed to XVII century, although already in the 15th century there are some cases of pronunciation of [a] as [ᴐ]. Thus, we have: want (XV century) → (XVII century) - to want.

4. [u]> [ʌ]. The change in the sound [u] in [ʌ] occurred in the 17th century, although some cases of pronunciation of the sound [ʌ] instead of [u] are found in the 16th century: run → [гʌn] - to run

Long vowel reduction

During the Early Modern English period, there was a reduction in the long vowels: and [ɛ:].

1. The so-called first shortening of the long took place at the beginning of the 16th century in a number of words before the sounds [v], [d], [b]. The short [u], which developed as a result of the shortening of the long, coincided in its further development with the short [u], which was a continuation of the Middle English short [u], for example: blood (XV century) → (XVI century) → (XVI century) → (XVII-XVIII centuries) - blood

2. As you know, [ɛ:] passed into [e:] in the 16th century. However, in cases where [e:] stood in front of the sounds [d], [t] and [Ɵ], [ɛ:] was often shortened into a short [e], which in this form has survived to this day, for example: deed (XV century) → dead (XVI century) - dead. But in a number of words, the reduction [ɛ:] before [d], [t] and [Ɵ] did not occur, and the vowel in them developed according to the scheme [e:]> [e:]>:

The emergence of long vowels

During the New England period, the long vowels [α:] [ᴐ:] and the new long phoneme [ə:] emerged.

1. The long [a:] originated from the short Middle English [a], but it evolved differently under different conditions. Let's dwell on the following cases:

a) [a]> [az]> [ӕ:]> [α:]. This development of the Middle English short [a] occurred before [f], [s], [Ɵ], [r] and other end-of-word consonants. The short sound [a], regardless of its phonetic position, turned into [ӕ]. Probably, during the XVI century it became long [ӕ] and continued to remain in this state until the second half of the XVIII century, when it moved to [α:], for example: pass (XV century) → [рӕ: s] (XVI - XVIII century) → (XVIII century) - pass

b) [a]>> [α:]. This development of the Middle English short [a] took place before followed by the labial [m] or [f]. Probably, during the 15th century between [a] and the intercalary sound [u] developed, which together with [a] gave the diphthong [au]. Subsequently, the sounds and [u] dropped out, [a:] lengthened, for example: calm (XIV century) → (XV century) → (XVI century) - calm

2. The New English Long [ᴐ:] is the result of the development of a number of different vowels. We will deal with the following cases here.

a) [ai]> [ᴐ:]. This phenomenon refers to the XVI-XVII centuries: cause (XV century) → [кᴐ: z] (XVI-XVII centuries) - cause

b) [ᴐ]>>> [ᴐ:]. This case of the development of [ᴐ:] from Middle English [ᴐ] occurred before [x] followed by [t]. Between [ᴐ] and [x], the sound [u] developed, resulting in a diphthong. Then the diphthong before [x] expanded into [au], which naturally contracted into [ᴐ:] in the 16th century. Thus, we have: thoghte ["Ɵᴐxtə] (XIII century) → thought [" Ɵouxtə] (XIV century) → thought [Ɵaut] (XV century) → [Ɵᴐ: t] (XVI century) - thought

c) [ᴐ]> [ᴐ:]. This case of the development of [ᴐ:] from Middle English [ᴐ] occurred before [f], [s], [Ɵ] and [г] at the end of a word or before another consonant, and coincided in terms with the transition [ӕ] to [ӕ: ], ie the sound [ᴐ] became long [ᴐ:] in the 16th century.

Development of Middle English diphthongs

In the Middle English period, several diphthongs were formed from various sources:,,,,. These diphthongs developed in the New England period as follows.

Diphthongs and even in the XIV century coincide in one diphthong, the first element of which was the front-lingual sound of the lower rise [ӕ], and the second element remained the same. Then, at the beginning of the 15th century, this new diphthong [ӕi] was monophthongized into an open long [ɛ:], thereby coinciding with the one that already existed in the language [ɛ:] from [a:]. The further fate of [ӕi] is the same as the fate of [ɛ:] from [a:], i.e. at the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century, it passed into the closed [e:], and in the second half of the 18th century it passed into the diphthong [ei].

The long sound [y:] that existed in the Middle English period, which passed into the language along with French borrowings, also developed in, although, apparently, in the 16th century among certain representatives of the educated circles of London, the old pronunciation [y:] continued to exist along with the new , for example: knew (XIV century) → (XV century) → (XVI century) - knew

Development of vowels in unstressed syllables

1. All vowels of the front row, as a rule, underwent a rise, turning into a weakly stressed short [i] in the XV, XVI centuries. These changes are best observed with suffixes.

Vowel [a:]> [i] in the following suffixes: -age, -ate.

The vowel [e]> [i] in the following suffixes -less, -ness, -ledge.

2. All labilized back vowels are usually delabialized, turning into neutral [ə]. These changes are best observed with the -on ([ən]> [n]), -our (>> [ə]) suffixes.

3. Diphthongs and in the XVI century also developed into a weak shock [i]. If these diphthongs were in front of and [n], then the low-impact [i] could fall out, and and [n] turned into syllables.

B. Changing the consonant system

The consonant system has undergone a number of changes, of which we highlight the following:

1. Sound of voiceless slotted [f], [s] and [Ɵ] in unstressed syllables;

2. Vocalization of the consonant [r];

3. Simplification of consonant groups;

4. Formation of new sibilants.

Sounding of voiceless slit [f], [s] and [Ɵ] in unstressed syllables

a) [f] is voiced in [v], for example, the Middle English preposition of is in an unstressed position in the sentence, thanks to this change, it turned into [əv], although the spelling remained the same - of.

Ozonification also occurred in words that previously ended in an unstressed -if, for example: captif> captive - captive;

b) [s] is voiced in [z], for example: was>> - was. It should be noted that the above phonetic change was also important for the morphology of the language, since thanks to it, three variants of the plural affix of nouns and three variants of the personal ending of the 3rd person of the present tense of verbs were formed.

c) [Ɵ] is voiced in [b]. This case of voicing is observed in service words, which in a sentence, as a rule, are in an unstressed position, for example: the [θе]> [бэ] - definite article,

It is necessary, however, to note the fact that, according to the phonetic patterns of the English Day period, deaf slit voiced in the position between voiced sounds. Therefore, if a word, for example this, was in a sentence in a voiced environment, i.e. if it was preceded by a word ending in a vowel or a voiced consonant (in this or to this), then the voiceless slit voiced in [b]. Apparently, this pattern, which retained its force during all three periods, was one of the reasons for the development of the new pattern under consideration.

d) voiced in [ʤ], for example: cf.-a. knowleche> n.a. knowledge ["nᴐliʤ] - knowledge,

e) voiced in, for example: examination - exam.

If this combination is part of the stressed syllable, then voicing does not occur, even if there is another word of the same root with a voiced combination in the language, for example: execute ["eksikju: t] - to execute, but executive - executive.

Vocalization of the consonant [r]

The vocalization of the consonant [r] is understood as such a phonetic change in which the space between the back of the tongue and the hard palate increases, the vibration of the language stops and conditions are created for the transition of the consonant [r] to a vowel, which, interacting with the preceding vowel, or causes the formation of a long vowel, or forms a diphthong with the previous vowel. This change took place in the 17th-18th centuries: bark → - bark. Vocalization [r] occurs after a vowel in an end position or in a position before another consonant.

Simplifying consonant groups

During the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a simplification of consonant groups in different positions in words. In the 16th century, the consonants [b] and [n] after [m] at the absolute end of a word disappear, as a result of which the group is simplified in [m] and the group is simplified in [m], for example: cf.-a. climben> n.-a. climb - to climb.

In the same century, there was a simplification of consonant groups, consisting of three consonants, in the middle and at the end of words. In this case, the middle consonant drops out. In this way:

Simplified in, for example: cf.-a. bustlen> n.-a. bustle - to bustle,

Simplified in, for example: cf.-a. fastnen> n.-a. fasten - to attach,

Simplified in, for example: cf.-a. muscle ["muskl]> n.a. muscle - muscle.

Simplified in, for example: cf.-a. often [ᴐftn]> n / a often ["ᴐfn] - often.

During the XVI, XVII centuries, there was a simplification of the initial groups of consonants, and. In this case, the sound [k] underwent assimilation followed by [n], gradually approaching it in the position of the language and turning into [t]. The next step was to completely merge [t] with [n] into one sound. This process can be depicted like this:>> [n]. The initial [g], similar to the change in [k] before [n], merged with the sound [n]. In this case, [g] was first changed to [d], which then changed to [n]. This process can be represented as follows:>> [n].

Formation of new sibilants

During the 17th century, the process of the formation of new sibilants, which began in the 15th century, was completed. The essence of this process is the assimilation of the alveolar consonants [t], [d], [s] and [z], followed by [j], mainly in an unstressed position, resulting in hissing consonants.

1) [s] + [j] assimilated into [ʃ];

2) [z] + [j] was assimilated into [Ʒ];

3) [t] + [j] assimilated into;

4) [d] + [j] was assimilated into [ʤ].

2 GRAMMATIC STRUCTURE

2.1 Pluralization of nouns

During the early modern English period, there is a process of further unification of the formation of plural forms.

Nouns such as horse - horse, foe - enemy, knee - knee, eye - eye, tree - tree, shoe - shoe, oh - bull, child-child, during the 15th and early 16th centuries, continued to retain the suffix -ep vo plural: horsen - horses, fan - enemies, kpeep - knees, etc. During the 16th century, these nouns, in addition to the words oh and child, lose the suffix -ep and form the plural with the suffix -es. Only the nouns oh and child continue to retain the -ep suffix to this day: oxen, children. The plural form brethren - brothers, which existed in previous periods, also gave way to the form brothers with the -s suffix, however, it remained as a special plural form in the narrowed meaning of the brother (human race).

At the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, nouns still existed that had a plural form, homonymous with the singular form, for example: apple - apple, lamb - lamb, shepp - sheep, deer - deer, winter - winter, year - year, swine - pig. During the 16th century, almost all of these words adopted the plural suffix -es, which almost completely completed the process of unifying the plural forms. We have retained the old homonymous singular and plural forms of the nouns deer - deer, sheep - sheep and swine - pig.

During the 16th century, the voiceless [s], as being in an unstressed syllable, voiced in [z]; the suffix began to sound or [əz].

In the 16th century and partly in the 17th century, the weak vowel suffix drops out in most cases, but remains after the hissing and hissing sounds [s], [z],, [ʃ], [ʤ], which leads to the formation of three variants of the plural suffix :

a) the variant [z] began to be used after the stems of nouns,
ending in sonorous, [m], [n], voiced noisy [b], [d], [g] and
vowels, including diphthongs, for example: pen (feather) -pens - feathers

b) the variant [z], which turned out to be directly next to the voiceless consonant of the stem of the noun singular, was stunned in [s] as a result of the loss of weakly struck, for example: book (book) - bookes [bu: kiz]> books - books

c) the variant was preserved after hissing [ʃ], [ʤ] and whistling [s], [z], for example: lash (whip) - lashes - whips.

The spread of the plural suffix -es became so widespread in the 16th century that it caused a rethinking of the final root s of some nouns. So, the nouns cherrys - cherry and peas - peas, which were singular forms, but also denoted a generalized concept (cherry and peas as a specific commodity), were rethought as plural forms. The root s was taken as a plural suffix and dropped in the singular, resulting in cherry and pea.

In the process of development, the form of the possessive pronoun simplifies to -s, turning in the 15th and 16th centuries into an affix - an indicator of belonging. Thus, in its form it coincides with the old suffix of the genitive case of masculine and neuter nouns of stems on -a- and merges with it into a single form of the possessive case "s. The apostrophe sign has been used since the end of the 18th century.

New in the use of the form "s during the New England period should be recognized as the method of adding this form to the last component of the phrase, for example, instead of saying Smith" s and Brown "s office, they began to say Smith and Brown" s office.

2.2 Changes to the pronoun system

During the New English period, there were comparatively little changes in the pronoun system.

The 2nd person singular forms of the nominative thou - you and the indirect case thee began to gradually go out of use in the 16th century and were replaced by the 2nd person plural ye - you are referring to the same person. However, starting from the second half of the 16th century, there is a confusion between the nominative case ye and its accusative case you, which goes back to the Old English form eow. In the 17th century, both forms still continue to coexist, although the preponderance was already clearly on the you side.

The neuter pronoun hit - in the 16th century it lost its initial h, thus becoming it. In the second half of the 16th century, a form of the neuter possessive pronoun its, derived from it, appeared, which in the 17th century was finally established and supplanted the neuter form his, which had been in use until that time.

In the Middle English period, the Scandinavian form they - they of the nominative plural supplanted the Old English form hi, which, due to sound changes in the Middle English period, coincided with the masculine and feminine nominative singular forms. The Scandinavian form they spread and took hold in the English language of the new period.

By the end of the 15th century, the plural genitive here had become the possessive pronoun and was replaced by the Scandinavian their.

Form dative case hem - they continued to exist along with the Scandinavian form them - and even in the 17th century it is found in private documents in the form "et.

It is also necessary to note the tendency that appeared in the New English period, although it was widespread only in the spoken language, to use the indirect case form te - me, me instead of I. For example, now they usually say it "s ones instead of it" s I.

2.3 Verb

Great changes during the New English period occurred in the verb system. They can be summarized mainly in the following points:

1. Almost complete destruction of the alternating verb system;

2. Transition of a number of verbs with alternation into a group of verbs with
suffixation;

3. Development of a system of complex temporal forms;

4. Development of impersonal forms of the verb.

During the New English period, the alternating group of verbs continued to disintegrate, and the remaining forms continued to change their sound appearance in accordance with the changing sounds of the language. The disintegration of this group of verbs went mainly in two directions:

a) along the line of unification of the forms of the singular and plural
the numbers of the past tense, a process that began already in the Middle English period;

b) along the line of accepting part of the verbs with alternating forms of verbs with suffixation. This process proceeded mainly during the new period, although some of its manifestations already took place in the late Middle English period.

In class I verbs, the alternation that existed there took on the following form due to phonetic changes in the 16th-18th centuries: cf. long infinitive developed in. Long open Wed.-a. [ᴐ:] past tense singular verbs have changed to. At the same time, the singular form of the verbs supplanted the past tense plural form of verbs.

Infinitive, participle I, present time	Past tense		Communion II	Meaning
	Unit number	Mn. number
	wrote -----> wrote smote -----> smote			to ride get up

Class I Verbs Table

During the XVI-XVIII centuries, the past tense and the participle of II class I verbs fluctuate; so, from the verb to write the past tense sounds whote or writ, participle II - written or wrote (by analogy with the past tense form). The final stabilization of these forms occurs only in the 18th century.

Very few verbs have survived in grade II, and those that have survived have undergone profound changes. So, in Wed-a. the verb chesen - to choose, which had the past tense ches, plural chosen, participle II chosen, the vowel of the base of the singular and plural of the past tense was replaced by a diphthong [ou] from the form of participle II, and the infinitive received a vowel of obscure origin, resulting in a series.

Class II Verbs Table

In class III verbs, in most cases, the alignment of the plural forms in the singular forms. The suffix -ep from the participle II of the verbs of this class has disappeared, resulting in the following series:

Class III Verbs Table

Infinitive	Past tense		Communion II	Meaning
	Unit number	Mn. number
	drank -----> drank			start off
				shrink

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the past tense form of the verbs of this class exhibits instability; so, the past tense from drink sounds drank or drunk, from sing - sang or sung.

Some class III verbs retained the old forms of the II participle in -ep, which during the New English period split from the verb and became adjectives. For example: sunken - sunk in, lying in the depths, drunken - drunk, sodden - wet, damp (from the verb seethe - to boil). In class IV verbs, the past tense plural form showed a number of fluctuations during the 16th-17th centuries. Even in the Middle English period, the singular with a short vowel [a] supplanted the plural with a long [ɛ:]. However, this [a] was lengthened in the open syllable of the plural in [a:], which then, according to general sound changes, turned into [ei]. This, by analogy, passed to the singular form. As a result of this, the following row was obtained, which corresponded to the state of the verbs in XVI-XVII centuries.

Class IV Verbs Table

In the V class of verbs, the past tense plural form replaced the singular form in the following verbs.

Gdagola class V table

In the 6th grade, due to a natural change in vowels, the following alternation was obtained: cf. - a. [a:]> n.-a. in the infinitive and participle II; Wed-a. [o:]>, which then in the 18th century was reduced to [u] in the forms of the past tense. As a result, we have the following row.

In Class VII verbs, among which you can find a number of Class VI verbs that passed into Class VII in the Middle English period, the vowels in the singular and plural forms of the past tense are usually the same. The vowel of participle II differs from the vowel of the past tense, and no displacement of one form by the other occurs, with the exception of the verb to hold, in which the past form held has supplanted cf. -а. participle form II holden, resulting in the following row: to hold - held - held.

The phonetic changes that took place in the system of verbs with alternation led to the destruction of the series of alternations, which was one of the reasons for the almost complete disintegration of the verbs of this group.

3 VOCABULARY COMPOSITION AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

3.1 Development of word formation methods

During the New English period, a number of changes took place in the word-formation system.

1. In the system of word production, native English suffixes of nouns -er, -ing, -man are especially widespread, while other suffixes are becoming less productive.

During the New England period, the need arises for the formation of words denoting various kinds of characters, representatives of various professions and specialties, which is associated with the complication of production processes with a machine mode of production and the resulting specialization of people working there. To form words of the named category, the suffixes -er and -man are widely used.

The -er suffix was reinforced by the appearance in English of words of Latin origin, also denoting the name of an agent, having the Latin suffix of an agent -or, for example: doctor, author, actor, director, inspector and a number of others. The suffix -or, which currently can be isolated from nouns such as actor, director, inspector, because the language contains verbs to act, to direct, to inspect, which form the basis of derived words, is pronounced [o], i.e. exactly the same as the English suffix -er, and from the point of view of modern English it can be considered as a homophone suffix of the suffix -er.

On the other hand, the use of the suffix -er in the Middle English period also had a direct impact on the further expansion of the use of this suffix in the New England period. The suffix -er is added to the verbal stems to form nouns - the names of the doer. Derivative nouns such as admirer - admirer, from the verb to admire - to be stolen from the verb to admire; discoverer - one who makes a discovery, from the verb to discover, etc.

The -man suffix is ​​also widely used to denote individuals belonging to a particular field of activity. This suffix is ​​added to nouns denoting objects and phenomena in direct connection with which the activity of a given person takes place. Among the words that arose during this period, one can name: airman - pilot, from the noun air - air; chairman - the chairman, originated from chair, in figurative meaning- the location of the authorities, etc.

Another category of concepts, the expression of which required the formation of new words, were various processes denoted by verbal names. For these nouns, the English suffix -ing was used. It was added to the stems of the verb. In the New English period, a lot of such nouns were formed, for example: farming - agriculture (the original meaning of this noun was "leasing"), from the verb to farm, which in the 16th century had the meaning "to lease"; firing - shooting, from the verb to fire - to shoot. It should also be noted that the suffix -ing in the New England period began to be used to form adjectives, of which we will name: amazing - amazing, from the verb to amaze - to surprise; amusing - funny, from the verb to amuse - to amuse, etc.

2. New derivative suffixes -merit, -al, -ity, -apse (-epse) for nouns arise as a result of the process of extracting from words of French and Latin origin; -able, ic (at) for adjective names; prefixes re-, dis-. This selection of word-building elements occurred due to the following reasons:

a) many words appeared in the English language that had different bases, but the same suffixes, for example: department, parliament, judgment. This made it possible to highlight their common merit element;

b) in the English language from the French language both the base of the word and the derivative from it were borrowed at different times. For example, the verb to excite was borrowed - to excite and the noun excitement - excitement. The common element in both words is the excite- stem. Highlighting the excite- stem allows us to consider -merit as a derivational suffix.

In the New England period, as a result of the selection process described above, suffixes appeared: -merit, -ity, -ation, -age, -ee, -ist, -ism, -ance (-ence) - for nouns; -able, -ic (al), -al, -ous, -ire -for adjectives; -ize, ify - for verbs.

All that has been said above about the changes that took place in the system of affixes of the English language of the new period allows us to conclude that this system has acquired a number of features that significantly distinguish it from the word production system of the middle period.

New features have also emerged in the word composition system. The way of adding stems continues to be very productive. But within this method, the following new cases of addition of bases appeared:

a) adjective + noun. These complex words arose from identifying phrases. Subsequently, the first component lost its original lexical meaning. Among the words of this type we will name: blackboard - blackboard (in this case, the first component black does not mean black, which is confirmed by the possibility of the existence of a definitive phrase); great-coat - greatcoat (the adjective great does not mean big, great in this noun);

b) gerund + noun. In these compound words, the first component expresses the purpose of the subject indicated by the compound word. Among the words of this type we will name: booking-office - railway ticket office from the verb to book - to write down (when buying seats in stagecoaches, the surname of the traveler was entered in a special book - was booked); looking-glass - mirror.

3. The syntactic way of word composition is spreading, when a new word is composed of a word combination, the meanings of individual components of which are lost. The expansion of the syntactic way of word formation, when a new word is formed from a syllabic combination, which has become gradually stable, should be recognized as new in the system of word composition. The most common group of complex words of syntactic type is a prepositional group, when the components of a complex word are connected with each other using a preposition. For example: man-of-war - warship, Jack-in-office - bureaucrat, matter-of-fact - dry, prosaic.

In addition to this group, in the New English period, many more words arose in which the connecting element is conjunctions, such as adjectives: milk-and-water - weak, weak-willed, hole-and-corner - secret, hidden, or words, in which include verbs, such as: merry-go-round - carousel; happy-go-lucky -random and a number of others.

The grammatical design of these words in the case of the formation of plural forms is different. In compound words of a prepositional group, as a rule, the first component receives a plural affix. For example: sons-in-law - sons-in-law, men-of-war - warships. In complex nouns of other groups, the plural design takes the last component, for example: merry — go-rounds — carousels.

4. There is a special way of word formation - a way of reducing polysyllabic words or, in some cases, word combinations. This way of forming new words, apparently, arose in connection with the withering away of the final unstressed [ə] in the 15th century, as a result of which a huge number of words from dissyllabic became monosyllabic. Those relatively few polysyllabic words that exist in modern English, being influenced by the rhythm of monosyllabic words, begin to gradually lose weakly stressed syllables, turning into monosyllabic or, in some cases, two-syllable words. Among the new words that have arisen in this way, the following words should be attributed: gent (colloquial) - gentleman from gentleman (apparently one of the earliest abbreviated words that arose at the end of the 15th century). In the 16th century, the noun quack was formed - healer, charlatan from quacksalver with the same meaning. In the 17th-18th centuries, nouns appeared: mob - crowd, gathering

5. The method of root word formation (non-suffix word formation) is becoming widespread. A feature of this method is that as a result, a new word is always formed, which is included in the system of another part of speech and, as a result, receives grammatical categories characteristic of this part of speech.

The vocabulary of the New England period received significant replenishment thanks to the formation of verbs from nouns, for example: a bomb - bomb → to bomb - drop bombs; a head - head → to head - to head.

A significant addition to the vocabulary of the English language was also the formation of nouns from verbs, for example: to bend bend → a bend - bend, bend; to bow - bow a → bow - bow.

During the period under review, many verbs from adjectives were also formed: calm - calm → to calm - calm

6. The emergence of new words from proper names. Such a phenomenon became possible precisely in the new period, because in connection with the growth and development of capitalism, England was drawn into trade with the most diverse countries and peoples. the globe... The expansion of trade with India and various European countries in the 16th century, as well as the organization of trading colonies, including the famous East India Company (1600), contributed to the emergence of new goods on the English market. In the vocabulary of the English language in the XVI-XVII centuries, new words appear, denoting various types of matter: calico - calico, from the name of the Indian city of Calicut on the western coast of India; coumbric - batiste, from the name of the French city of Cambrai; sural - a kind of cotton fabric, from the name of the city of Surat in India; morocco - morocco, which gets its name from geographical name Morocco, where it was manufactured and from where it came to Europe.

Two main paths should be noted:

a) A proper name first appears as a definition for a common noun, clarifying it in relation to the place of origin of a given object or the person who created it, for example, a Hansom cab - Hansom's cabriolet. Then the semantic center of the attributive phrase moves to the definition that makes up the specifics of the meaning of the whole phrase, and the noun being defined gradually disappears. Thus, the combination a Hansom cab simplifies to Hansom, i.e. turns into the name of the object and takes all the grammatical features characteristic of a common noun.

b) Another way of converting a proper name into a common noun is the way of adding the corresponding derivational affixes to the proper name. This is how words usually arise that name objects by the name of their inventor or the person who discovered them.

3.2 Expanding vocabulary by borrowing from various languages

Among the various ways to replenish the vocabulary of the English language of the new period, a certain place is occupied by borrowings from various languages. This is due to the diverse ties that the British people have with the peoples of not only Europe, but also other continents that have become involved in the single world market formed under capitalism.

Borrowings from Latin

In England, as in other countries Western Europe, the Latin language occupied a very peculiar position. For many centuries after the introduction of Christianity in the country, this language was used as the language of worship. Another area of ​​its application during the middle period was scientific treatises, for the writing of which medieval scholars had to have a good knowledge of Latin. Such a peculiar position of this language in English society provided it with the opportunity to serve as the source from which one could always draw words to express new concepts.

Gradually, a significant layer of Latin words was deposited in the English language of the 16th-17th centuries, obtained not through oral communication, as was the case with borrowings from Latin in the Old English period, but by extracting them from books.

A distinctive feature of this layer of Latin borrowings is that these borrowings contain many verbs, adjectives and relatively few nouns, while borrowings of the Old English period consist almost exclusively of nouns. Among the borrowed adjectives, two groups can be distinguished: a) adjectives ascending to Latin adjectives, and b) adjectives ascending to Latin participles.

Verbs borrowed from Latin during the New English period can be divided into two groups. The first group should include verbs formed from the basics of the past participle of Latin verbs. These verbs have the suffixes -ate, -ute, and -t, which correspond to the past participle suffixes of Latin verbs.

The verbs of the second group are formed from the stem of the present tense of Latin verbs. Depending on the morphological characteristics of the bases, they can also be divided into several subgroups. The first subgroup includes verbs ending in -el, for example. The second subgroup should include verbs ending in -de. The third subgroup of verbs includes verbs ending in -end. The fourth subgroup of verbs includes verbs ending in -mit. The fifth subgroup of verbs should include verbs ending in -duce.

Borrowings from French

During the period under review, business and cultural ties between England and France did not stop. These relationships contributed to the emergence of a number of French words in English and a number of English words in French.

The largest number of borrowings from the French language in the New England period falls in the second half of the 17th century and the first decades of the 18th century. The characteristic features Borrowings from this period are the preservation of French spelling and pronunciation. So, the ending -ice, -in (e) is pronounced like, for example: machine - machine. The ending -et is pronounced like, i.e. close to French [e:], for example: ballet - ballet. The -que ending is pronounced [k], for example: grotesque - grotesque. The letter s at the end of words is not readable, for example: corps - corpus.

Borrowings from Italian

During the development of capitalism in England, especially in the 16th century, representatives of the upper strata of English society showed great interest in Italy. During this period, the English language is replenished with a number of words borrowed from the Italian language. Among them should be named words related to trade, financial transactions and accounting, which received significant development in their time in Italy. One of these words is the word bank - bank. It comes from the Italian word bapsa, which means bench, shelf. The word bank entered the English language in the 16th century. The word alarm goes back to the Italian phrase all'armi, which was used as an interjection in the meaning of a call to arms! In the 16th century, the noun alarm was formed with the meaning call to arms, alarm. Further, the meaning of the alarm appears and, finally, the ringing of the clock, hence the complex word alarm-clock - an alarm clock.

Borrowings from Spanish

In the 16th century in Spain, its colonial power flourished. The development of England's foreign trade in the 16th century inevitably led to a clash of economic interests of both states, which was accompanied by a long and stubborn struggle on land and at sea between Spain and England. These factors, as well as the visit of the British to Spain and the acquaintance with Spanish literature, which reached its heyday in the XVI-XVII centuries, influenced the assimilation of a number of Spanish words by the English language.

First of all, the words related to trade should be mentioned. Here you can note:

a) a group of words denoting proper trade concepts, for example: cargo - cargo

b) a group of words denoting trade items exported
from colonial countries, for example: banana

Borrowings from the Dutch language

In the 16th century, after the liberation of Holland from feudal Spain and the establishment of a bourgeois republic in the country, trade and shipping began to develop. Holland's acquisition of numerous colonies also contributed to the rapid growth of its capitalist economy.

These connections have left their mark in the English vocabulary in the form of two groups of words:

a) words denoting some concepts related to weaving, for example: rock

b) words denoting concepts related to shipbuilding and
sailing, for example: buoy

The development of Dutch painting, which made it possible to talk about a special Flemish school of painting, which began in the 17th century, was reflected in the vocabulary of the English language in the form of words: easel

Borrowings from the Russian language

Borrowings from the Russian language are not particularly numerous in the English language. This is due to the fact that ties between the Russian and English peoples were established very late, only in the 16th century, and, moreover, were at first very limited. In the second half of the 16th century, in connection with the development of capitalism in England and the expansion of sea trade, there arose an interest in the Moscow state. In the memoirs and descriptions of the Muscovite that have come down to us, made by the British, there are a number of Russian words that reflect the peculiarities of Russian life and state structure... Among the words borrowed during the 16th century, the following words should be named: rouble - ruble, cossack - Cossack, tsar - tsar and some others.

CONCLUSION

The English language of the XVI-XVII centuries is a further and completely natural development of the English language system of the previous period. This allows us to talk about the language of the period under consideration as a certain system that directly and gradually grows out of the system of the language of the previous period. This new language system is characterized by some specific features:

1. The language of the period under review is the national English language, developed by the 16th century on the basis of the London dialect, with the inclusion of certain elements from other English dialects.

2. The language of the XVI-XVII centuries is characterized by:

The development of a unified plural form of nouns in -es, which appears in three phonetic variants [z], [s] and depending on the quality of the last sound of the word stem.

Lack of agreement of adjectives with nouns in number, i.e. the general immutability of adjectives, except for the changes in the degrees of comparison that have survived from ancient times.

Almost complete decay of the alternating verb system.

The firm order of the members of the sentence, allowing, however, some deviations only for stylistically colored speech.

A significant replenishment of the vocabulary of the language with new words formed by various means of word formation, which are widely used during this period.

The wide development of a new, very productive way of forming new words: the so-called root way of word formation, due to the withering away of various form-building elements characteristic of one or another part of speech.

The emergence of a large layer of bookish Latin words and a whole series of words of French origin, preserving the French spelling and pronunciation.

A special system of vowel phonemes that arose as a result of the so-called vowel shift and a number of other changes in the system of vowel phonemes.

A special system of consonant phonemes, of which it should be noted the emergence of voiced slotted [v], [b] and [z] in the unstressed syllable and the assimilation of the alveolar ones with [j] into hissing consonants and affricates.

All of the above features of the English language of the XVI-XVII centuries make it possible to distinguish it from the point of view of the periodization of the history of the English language into the language of the New English period (New English language).

LIST OF USED LITERARY SOURCES

1. Antrushina G.B., Afanasyeva O.V., Morozova N.N. Lexicology of the English language. - M .: Bustard, 2004 .-- 288 p.

2. Arakin V.D. History of the English language: Textbook. allowance. - M .: FIZMATLIT, 2003 .-- 272 p.

3. Arsenyeva M.G., Balashova S.P., Berkov V.P., Solovyova L.N. Introduction to Germanic Philology. - M .: Publishing house "GIS", 2000. - 320 p.

4. Halperin A.I. "Essays on the stylistics of the English language" (http://www.classes.ru/grammar/30.Ocherki_po_stilistike_angliyskogo_yazyka/html/unnamed_30.html)

5. Ginzburg R.Z. About replenishment of the vocabulary. (Experience in analyzing the vocabulary replenishment of modern English). // " Foreign languages at school ", 1984 - №1. - S. 19 - 31

6. VA Zvegintsev Essays on General Linguistics. - SPb .: Librokom, 2009 - 384 pages.

1. Ivanova I.P., Chakhoyan L.P., Belyaeva T.M. History of the English language: Textbook, reader, dictionary. - SPb .: Publishing house "Lan", 2000. - 510 p.
2. Meie, A. The main features of the Germanic group of languages ​​Text. / A. Meye. - M .: URSS: Editorial URSS, 2003 .-- 164 p.
3. Rastorgueva T.A. Essays on the Historical Grammar of the English Language. - M .: "High school", 1989. - 160 p.
4. G.A. Rastorgueva History of the English Language: A Textbook. - M .: OOO Astrel AST, 2001 (in English).
5. Reznik R.V., Sorokina T.A., Reznik I.V. History of the English language: Textbook. - M .: Flint: Science. 2001 (in English).

12. Smirnitskiy A.I. Lectures on the History of the English Language (Middle and New Period). - M .: Dobrosvet, 2000 .-- 223 p.

13. Khlebnikova, IB Introduction to Germanic philology and the history of the English language: a textbook for universities / IB Khlebnikov. - 3rd ed., Rev. - M .: CheRo, 2001 .-- 189 p.

Phonetics. Sound as the basic unit of phonetics. Types of phonetics.

PHONETICS. PHONETIC STRUCTURE OF THE LANGUAGE

LECTURE number 8

1. Phonetics. Sound as the basic unit of phonetics. Types of phonetics.

2. The concept of articulation. Speech apparatus.

3. Phonetic division of the speech stream. Segment and super-segment units:

4. Vowels and consonants of the Russian language.

5. The concept of position. Strong and weak positions of sounds.

6. Phonetic processes.

7. Interaction of sounds in the speech stream. Positional and combinatorial changes in sounds.

Phonetics(from the Greek phōnētikos - sound, vocal, phōnē - sound) - a section of linguistics that studies the sound means of the language. Those. F. studies the sound structure of a language — the inventory of sounds, their system, and sound. laws, as well as the rules for the combination of sounds in a word and a stream of speech. In addition to speech sounds, F. studies such sound phenomena as syllable, stress, intonation.

Speech sounds- a complex phenomenon, a fact at the same time physical, physiological, mental.

The combination of all three facts makes the sound of speech a fact of language, i.e. phoneme.

Hence, 3 phonetic disciplines arise: speech acoustics, speech physiology, phonology.

The physics section deals with the general theory of sound - acoustics, - which considers sound as a result of oscillatory movements k.-l. body in K.-L. environment.

Acoustics distinguishes in sound the following main features:

Height (vibration frequency per second),

Strength (intensity),

Duration (duration of sound vibrations),

Timbre (sound coloration).

There are general and specific F.

F. general- a section of linguistics that studies, using the material of various languages, the theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of a syllable, the relationship of the sound side of a language to its grammatical system.

V private F. all of these issues are addressed in relation to that particular language.

F. historical / diachronous- a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language in its historical development.

F. descriptive- a section of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a particular language in a synchronous way.

F. experimental- the study of sounds using instrumental research methods.

Articulation(lat. articulare - articulate to articulate) - the work of the organs of speech, aimed at the production and pronunciation of sounds.

Each sound has 3 articulation bases:

- attack (excursion; the transition of the speech organs from a calm state to a position required pronunciation sound),

- excerpt(preservation of the position of organs for uttering sounds),

- indent (recursion; the output of the speech organs and the position of exposure or the onset of articulation of the next sound).

Speech apparatus- a set of human organs necessary for the production of speech.

There are 3 main parts in the speech apparatus:

1) respiratory organs (lower floor: lungs, bronchi, trachea);

3) supraglottic cavities (upper floor: pharynx, mouth, nose) - organs located above the larynx.

All organs of speech are divided into active and passive.

Active organs of speech are mobile and perform the main work during articulation: the vocal cords, the back wall of the pharynx (pharynx), the palatine curtain, the tongue and lips.

Passive organs of speech motionless and perform auxiliary work during articulation: the hard palate, alveoli and teeth, sometimes the back wall of the pharynx (pharynx) plays a passive role.

3. Phonetic division of the speech stream. Segment and super segment units.

Phonetic units of the speech stream - text, phrase, measure, words, syllables, sounds.

Text- the largest unit (excerpt, story, dialogue).

Phrase- a piece of speech, united by a special intonation and phrasal stress and concluded between two rather long pauses.

The phrase is divided into smaller units - speech beats, or syntagmas. Speech beat, or phonetic syntagma(from the Greek syntagma, literally - built together, connected) is an intonational-semantic unity that expresses one concept in one context and in a given situation and can consist of one word, a group of words, and even a whole sentence. Nr, Where the rock used to be, / lay a pile of rubble- 3 syntagmas; Everything is fine at the factory- 1 syntagma. The boundaries between measures are indicated by a single vertical line.

A speech bar can consist of one or more phonetic words. Phonetic word- a segment of a sound chain, united by one word stress, i.e. it is an independent word together with adjoining unstressed service words and particles. And in the grove there is semi-darkness- 4 words, phonetic words - 2.

Words that lose stress and adjoin the front of the next word - proclitics (did not sleep, at home, for three years), unstressed words adjacent to the back - enclists (who would it go, I know, you).

The phonetic word is divided into syllables. Syllable acts as the minimum pronunciation unit of speech, consisting of one or more sounds combined into a phonetic whole.

Sound, syllable, phonetic word, phonetic syntagma, phrase- different segments, speech stream segments... Such linear segments (segments) are called segment units.

Super segment units- phonetic phenomena that are layered on a linear chain of segment units, build on top of it, in a broad sense, include all accent and melodic characteristics of speech; in the narrow one - stress and intonation.

Stress... Distinguish between verbal and phrasal U.

Verbal W.- highlighting one of the syllables in a word by various phonetic means. Methods for highlighting the stressed syllable: 1) the strength (intensity) of articulation (power, dynamic); 2) longitude, duration of pronunciation (quantitative, quantitative); 3) change of tone (tonic, melodic, musical).

Phrasovoe U.- highlighting one word as part of a speech tact (syntagma) or syntagma as part of a phrase with a different combination phonetic means: melody, intensity, duration.

Intonation(lat.intonare - to pronounce loudly) - the rhythmic-melodic side of speech (melody, rhythm, intensity, tempo, timbre, phrasal and logical stress), which serves as a means of expression in a sentence syntactic values and emotionally expressive coloring. There are the following types of I .: Interrogative, exclamation, ascending, two-vertex, complete, vocative, imperative, final, logical, descending, one-vertex, enumeration and others.

Each language has a limited set of sounds that make up all words. of this language... We pronounce sounds in speech, and we need letters in order to represent these very sounds in writing.

• The sound composition of the language is constantly changing, in contrast to the alphabetic image of words, which changes extremely slowly, especially in English. Therefore, in the English language, the discrepancy between the sound and letter composition is huge.
• In addition, a significant discrepancy between what we say and write is due to the fact that there are 44 sounds in English, and there are only 26 letters borrowed from the Latin alphabet. As a result, the same letter in different positions can be pronounced differently ...
• In order to correctly read a particular word, there is a phonetic transcription (an international system of conventional graphic symbols, in which each sound has one specific icon).
• There are 20 vowels and 24 consonant phonemes in English. 20 vowel sounds are conveyed by 6 vowel letters. 24 consonant sounds are conveyed by 20 consonant letters.

Vowels table

short
long (long)
diphthongs (diphthongs)

• Unlike Russian, in which there is no division of vowels into short and long, in English there are both short and long vowels. Because of what it can be difficult to understand words, for example: lip lip and leap jump. The longitude of a sound in transcription is indicated by two vertical dots [:].
• In addition to the fact that English vowels are divided into long and short, there is another division, into monophthongs, diphthongs and triphthongs.

Monophthongs are sounds that do not split into two elements and sound the same throughout their duration. For instance:

/ æ / bat, flag, rat, mat, etc.

/ a: / large, car, mark,

/ e / pen, ten, pencil, bed, etc.

/ ə / again, attend, better, paper, etc.

/ ʊ / good, book, took, look, etc.

/ u: / too, spoon, school, cool, etc.

/ ɔ / log, dog, nod, etc.

/ ɔ: / fork, more, wall, corn, etc.

/ i / big, pig, stick, pink, etc.

/ i: / see, tea, green, seal, etc.

/ ʌ / rug, cup, puppy, must, etc.

/ ɜ: / girl, skirt, shirt, term, fur, etc.

Diphthongs are two-vowel sounds consisting of two elements, pronounced without a pause. For instance:

/ eɪ / name, frame, game, table, etc.

/ ɛə / | / eə / chair, air, care, vary, stare, etc.

/ ɪə / ear, clear, beer, beard, etc.

/ aɪ / fine, like, bike, ride, etc.

/ ɔɪ / boy, point,

/ aʊ / out, cow, town, found, etc.

/ əʊ / boat, bowl, coat, toast, etc.

/ ʊə / poor, sure, pure, tourist, etc.

In English, there are also very specific vowel sequences, triphthongs, which are formed by combining some diphthongs (,, [ɔɪ], [əʊ]) and a neutral vowel ə. For instance:

Hour, plougher, our, etc.

Fire, buyer, tire, etc.

Layer, player, betrayal, etc.

[ɔɪə] loyal, employer, royal, etc.

[əʊə] followers, grower, borrower, etc.

Consonants table

In English, consonants are contrasted on the following grounds:

• according to the participation of the vocal cords, consonants are divided into voiceless, voiced and a special class of sonorants;
• according to the method of formation, the consonants are divided into occlusive and slotted; also, the occlusive-slotted consonants are distinguished, the beginning of which is a closure, and the end is a slotted sound;
• by the strength of articulation (it is the strength of articulation that is the main feature for distinguishing between voiceless and voiced consonants. English voiceless consonants are characterized by strong articulation, and voiced consonants are characterized by weak articulation, therefore voiceless consonants are well heard in all positions in the word, and voiced consonants are not so good distinguishable at the beginning of a word and especially at the end).
• at the place of formation, consonants are divided depending on the organs of speech: lips, teeth, hard palate, alveoli, back of the tongue, larynx.

According to the method of formation, consonants are divided as follows:

Bowing explosive voiceless: p, t, k.

Slotted fricative voiceless: f, s, θ, ʃ, h.

Fissure-fissured deaf: ʧ.

Accordant plosive voiced consonants: b, d, g.

Slotted fricative voiced: v, z, ð, ʒ.

Fancy-slit voiced: ʤ.

Narcotic sonorant nasal: m, n, ŋ.

Slotted sonorant median: w, r, j.

Side sonorant acoustics: l.

According to the place of formation, consonants are divided as follows:

Labial: p, b, m, w.

Labiodental: f, v.

Front-lingual dental: s, z.

Front lingual apical interdental: θ, ð.

Front lingual apical alveolar: t, d, n, l.

Forelingual apical palatal-alveolar: ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ.

Front-lingual trans-alveolar: r.

Middle lingual palatal: j.

Back-lingual velar: k, g, ŋ.

Pharyngeal: h.

Voiced consonants are not stunned at the end of words and in front of voiceless consonants, since they perform a meaningful function in the language, for example:

bad (bad) - bat (bat); red (red) - rat (rat).