How many centuries the Roman Empire existed. Where did the Roman Empire come from?

The Roman Empire ( Ancient Rome) left an imperishable mark in all European lands, where only his victorious legions set foot. The stone ligature of Roman architecture has survived to this day: walls that protected citizens, along which troops moved, aqueducts that brought fresh water to the townspeople, and bridges thrown over turbulent rivers. As if all this was not enough, the legionaries erected more and more structures - even as the borders of the empire began to retreat. In the era of Hadrian when Rome was much more concerned with the consolidation of lands than with new conquests, the unclaimed combat prowess of the soldiers, for a long time cut off from home and family, was wisely directed into another creative - channel. In a sense, the entire European owes its birth to the Roman builders who introduced many innovations both in Rome itself and beyond. The most important achievements of urban planning aimed at the public good were sewerage and water pipes, which created healthy living conditions and contributed to the increase in population and the growth of cities themselves. But all this would have been impossible if the Romans had not invented concrete and did not begin to use the arch as the main architectural element. It was these two innovations that were spread by the Roman army throughout the empire.

Since the stone arches withstood a huge weight and could be built very high - sometimes two or three tiers - the engineers who worked in the provinces easily overcame any rivers and gorges and reached the farthest edges, leaving behind strong bridges and powerful water pipes (aqueducts). Like many other structures built with the help of Roman troops, the bridge in the Spanish city of Segovia, through which the water supply passes, is gigantic in size: 27.5 meters high and about 823 meters long. The unusually tall and slender pillars made of roughly hewn and unattached granite boulders and 128 graceful arches leave an impression not only of unprecedented power, but also of imperial self-confidence. It is a miracle of engineering, built about 100 tons and. e., has steadfastly stood the test of time: until recently, the bridge served as the water supply system of Segovia.

How it all began?

Early settlements on the site of the future city of Rome emerged on the Apennine Peninsula, in the valley of the Tiber River, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. According to legend, the Romans descended from Trojan refugees who founded the city of Alba Longu in Italy. Rome itself, according to legend, was founded by Romulus, the grandson of King Alba Longa, in 753 BC. NS. As in the Greek city-states, in the early period of the history of Rome it was ruled by kings who enjoyed virtually the same power as the Greeks. Under the tyrant king Tarquinius Gordom, a popular uprising took place, during which the royal power was destroyed and Rome turned into an aristocratic republic. Its population was clearly divided into two groups - the privileged patrician class and the plebeian class, which had much less rights. A member of the oldest Roman family was considered a patrician, only the senate (the main government body) was elected from the patricians. A significant part of its early history is the struggle of the plebeians to expand their rights and turn members of their class into full-fledged Roman citizens.

Ancient Rome differed from the Greek city-states, since it was located in completely different geographic conditions- a single Apennine peninsula with vast plains. Therefore, starting from the very early period its history its citizens were forced to rival and fight with neighboring Italic tribes. The defeated peoples obeyed this great empire either on the rights of allies, or simply included in the republic, and the conquered population did not receive the rights of Roman citizens, often turning into slaves. The most powerful opponents of Rome in the IV century. BC NS. there were Etruscans and Samnites, as well as individual Greek colonies in southern Italy (Great Greece). And yet, despite the fact that the Romans were often at odds with the Greek colonists, the more developed Hellenic culture had a noticeable impact on the culture of the Romans. It got to the point that the ancient Roman deities began to be identified with their Greek counterparts: Jupiter with Zeus, Mars with Ares, Venus with Aphrodite, etc.

Wars of the Roman Empire

The most tense moment in the confrontation between the Romans and the southern Italians and Greeks was the war of 280-272. BC e., when Pyrrhus, the king of the state of Epirus, located in the Balkans, intervened in the course of hostilities. In the end, Pyrrhus and his allies were defeated, and by 265 BC. NS. The Roman Republic united under its rule all of Central and Southern Italy.

Continuing the wars with the Greek colonists, the Romans clashed in Sicily with the Carthaginian (Punic) state. In 265 BC. NS. the so-called Punic Wars began, which lasted until 146 BC. e., almost 120 years. In the beginning, the Romans led fighting against the Greek colonies in the east of Sicily, primarily against the largest of them - the city of Syracuse. Then the capture of the Carthaginian lands in the east of the island began, which led to the fact that the Carthaginians, who had a strong fleet, attacked the Romans. After the first defeats, the Romans managed to create their own fleet and defeat the Carthaginian ships in the battle of the Aegates Islands. A peace was signed, according to which in 241 BC. NS. all of Sicily, considered the breadbasket of the Western Mediterranean, became the property of the Roman Republic.

Carthaginian dissatisfaction with the results First Punic War, as well as the gradual penetration of the Romans into the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, which was owned by Carthage, led to a second military clash between the powers. In 219 BC. NS. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca captured the Spanish city of Sagunt, an ally of the Romans, then passed through southern Gaul and, having overcome the Alps, invaded the territory of the Roman Republic proper. Hannibal supported part of the Italic tribes, dissatisfied with the rule of Rome. In 216 BC. NS. in Apulia, in a bloody battle at Cannes, Hannibal surrounded and almost completely destroyed the Roman army, commanded by Guy Terentius Varro and Aemilius Paul. However, Hannibal could not take the heavily fortified city and was eventually forced to leave the Apennine Peninsula.

The war was moved to northern Africa, where Carthage and other Punian settlements were located. In 202 BC. NS. the Roman general Scipio defeated Hannibal's army at the town of Zama, south of Carthage, after which a peace was signed on terms dictated by the Romans. The Carthaginians were deprived of all their possessions outside Africa, they were obliged to transfer all warships and war elephants to the Romans. After winning the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic became the most powerful state in the Western Mediterranean. Third Punic war, held from 149 to 146 BC. e., was reduced to finishing off an already defeated enemy. In the spring of 14b BC. NS. Carthage was taken and destroyed, and its inhabitants.

Defensive walls of the Roman Empire

The relief from Trajan's Column depicts a scene (see left) from the Dacian Wars; legionnaires (they are without helmets) are building a marching camp from rectangular pieces of turf. When Roman soldiers found themselves in enemy lands, the construction of such fortifications was common.

"Fear gave birth to beauty, and ancient Rome was miraculously transformed, changing the old - peaceful - policy and began to hastily erect towers, so that soon all seven of its hills sparkled with the armor of a continuous wall"- this is how one Roman wrote about the powerful fortifications built around Rome in 275 to protect against the Goths. Following the example of the capital big cities throughout the Roman Empire, many of whom have long "stepped over" the boundaries of the former walls, hastened to strengthen their defensive lines.

Building the city walls was an extremely laborious job. Usually, two deep ditches were dug around the settlement, and between them a high earthen rampart was piled up. It served as a kind of interlayer between two concentric walls. External the wall went into the ground by 9 m so that the enemy could not make a tunnel, and at the top was equipped with a wide road for the sentinels. The inner wall was raised a few more meters to make it more difficult to shell the city. Such fortifications almost did not succumb to destruction: their thickness reached 6 m, and the boulders were fitted together with metal braces - for greater strength.

When the walls were completed, the gates could be erected. A temporary wooden arch - formwork - was built over the opening in the wall. On top of it, skillful masons, moving from both sides to the middle, laid wedge-shaped slabs, forming a bend in the arch. When the last - the castle, or key - stone was inserted, the formwork was removed, and next to the first arch they began to build the second. And so on until the entire passage to the city was under a semicircular roof - the Korobov vault.

The guard posts on the gates, guarding the peace of the city, were often real small fortresses: there were military barracks, stocks of weapons and food. In Germany, the so-called (see below) is perfectly preserved. On its lower slopes instead of windows there were loopholes, and round towers towered on both sides - so that it would be more convenient to fire at the enemy. During the siege, a powerful lattice was lowered onto the gate.

The wall, built in the 3rd century around Rome (19 km long, 3.5 m thick and 18 m high), consisted of 381 towers and 18 gates with drooping bars. The wall was constantly renovated and strengthened, so that it served the City until the 19th century, that is, until the improvement of artillery. Two-thirds of this wall is still standing today.

The majestic Porta Nigra (that is, the Black Gate), towering 30 meters in height, personifies the power of imperial Rome. The fortified gate is flanked by two towers, one of which is significantly damaged. Once the gate served as the entrance to the city walls of the 2nd century AD. NS. in August Trevirorum (later Trier), northern capital empire.

Aqueducts of the Roman Empire. Imperial City Life Road

The famous three-tiered aqueduct in southern France (see above), which crosses the Gard River and its low-lying valley - the so-called Garda Bridge - is as beautiful as it is functional. This construction, which stretches for 244 m in length, daily supplies from a distance of 48 km about 22 tons of water to the city of Nemaus (now Nîmes). The Garda Bridge is still one of the finest works of Roman engineering.

For the Romans, famous for their achievements in engineering, they were especially proud of aqueducts... They brought about 250 million gallons of fresh water to ancient Rome every day. In 97 A.D. NS. Sextus Julius Frontinus, the superintendent of the water supply system of Rome, rhetorically asked: "Who dares to compare our water pipes with idle pyramids or some worthless - albeit famous - creations of the Greeks - these great structures, without which human life is inconceivable?" At the end of its greatness, the city acquired eleven aqueducts, along which water ran from the southern and eastern hills. Engineering turned into real art: it seemed that graceful arches easily jumped over obstacles, moreover, decorating the landscape. The Romans quickly "shared" their achievements with the rest of the Roman Empire, and you can still see the remnants of numerous aqueducts in France, Spain, Greece, North Africa and Asia Minor.

To provide water to provincial cities, whose population had already depleted local reserves, and to build baths and fountains there, Roman engineers laid canals to rivers and springs, often tens of miles away. Flowing at a slight slope (Vitruvius recommended a minimum slope of 1: 200), precious moisture ran through stone pipes that ran through the countryside (and were mostly hidden into underground tunnels or ditches that repeated the outlines of the landscape) and eventually reached the boundaries of the city. There, water was safely supplied to public reservoirs. When rivers or gorges crossed the path of the pipeline, the builders threw arches across them, allowing them to maintain the same gentle slope and maintain a continuous flow of water.

To keep the angle of water falling constant, surveyors again resorted to thunder and chorobat, as well as a diopter, which measured horizontal angles. Again, the main burden of the work fell on the shoulders of the troops. In the middle of the 2nd century A.D. one military engineer was asked to sort out the difficulties encountered during the construction of an aqueduct in Saldy (in present-day Algeria). Two squads of workers began to dig a tunnel in the hill, moving towards each other from opposite sides. The engineer soon realized what was the matter. "I measured both tunnels," he wrote later, "and found that the sum of their lengths was greater than the width of the hill." The tunnels just didn't meet. He found a way out by drilling a well between the tunnels and connecting them, so that the water began to flow as it should. The city honored the engineer with a monument.

Internal situation of the Roman Empire

The further strengthening of the external power of the Roman Republic was simultaneously accompanied by a deep internal crisis. Such a large territory could no longer be governed in the old way, that is, with the organization of power characteristic of the city-state. In the ranks of the Roman generals, commanders advanced who claimed to have full power, like the ancient Greek tyrants or the Hellenic rulers in the Middle East. The first of these rulers was Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who captured in 82 BC. NS. Rome and became a sovereign dictator. Sulla's enemies were mercilessly killed according to the lists (proscriptions) prepared by the dictator himself. In 79 BC. NS. Sulla voluntarily relinquished power, but this could no longer return him to his former government. A long period has begun civil wars in the Roman Republic.

External situation of the Roman Empire

Meanwhile, the stable development of the empire was threatened not only by external enemies and ambitious politicians who fought for power. Periodically, slave uprisings broke out on the territory of the republic. The largest such rebellion was a performance led by the Thracian Spartacus, which lasted almost three years (from 73 to 71 BC). The rebels were defeated only by the combined efforts of the three most skillful commanders of Rome at that time - Mark Licinius Crassus, Mark Licinius Lucullus and Gnaeus Pompey.

Later, Pompeii, famous for his victories in the East over the Armenians and the Pontic king Mithridates VI, fought for supreme power in the republic with another famous military leader - Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar 58 to 49 BC NS. managed to seize the territories of the northern neighbors of the Roman Republic - the Gauls and even carried out the first invasion of the British Isles. In 49 BC. NS. Caesar entered Rome, where he was declared a dictator - a military ruler with unlimited rights. In 46 BC. NS. at the Battle of Pharsalus (Greece), he defeated Pompey, his main rival. And in 45 BC. NS. in Spain, under Mund, he crushed the last obvious political opponents - the sons of Pompey, Gnaeus the Younger and Sextus. At the same time, Caesar managed to enter into an alliance with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, effectively subjugating her vast country to power.

However, in 44 BC. NS. Guy Julius Caesar was killed by a group of Republican conspirators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Guy Cassius Longinus. Civil wars in the republic continued. Now their main participants were Caesar's closest associates - Mark Antony and Guy Octavian. First, they together destroyed the killers of Caesar, and only later entered into a fight with each other. Antony was supported by the Egyptian queen Cleopatra during this last phase of the civil wars in Rome. However, in 31 BC. NS. at the Battle of Cape Aktium, the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra was defeated by the ships of Octavian. The Queen of Egypt and her ally committed suicide, and Octavian, finally to the Roman Republic, became the unrestricted ruler of a giant power that united almost the entire Mediterranean under his rule.

Octavian, in 27 BC NS. who took the name Augustus "blessed", is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, although the title itself at that time meant only the supreme commander, who won a significant victory. Nobody officially abolished the Roman Republic, and Augustus preferred to be called the princeps, that is, the first among the senators. And yet, under the successors of Octavian, the republic began to acquire more and more the features of a monarchy, closer in organization to the eastern despotic states.

The empire reached its highest foreign policy power under the emperor Trajan, who in 117 AD. NS. conquered part of the lands of the most powerful enemy of Rome in the east - the Parthian state. However, after the death of Trajan, the Parthians managed to return the captured territories and soon went on the offensive. Already under Trajan's successor, Emperor Hadrian, the empire was forced to switch to defensive tactics, building powerful defensive ramparts on its borders.

The Parthians were not the only ones who troubled the Roman Empire; the raids of barbarian tribes from the north and east became more and more frequent, in the battles with which the Roman army often suffered sensitive defeats. Later, the Roman emperors even allowed certain groups of barbarians to settle on the territory of the empire, provided that they would guard the borders from other hostile tribes.

In 284, the Roman emperor Diocletian made an important reform that finally transformed the former Roman Republic into an imperial state. From now on, even the emperor began to be called differently - "dominus" ("lord"), and a complex ritual borrowed from the eastern rulers was introduced at the court. title of Augustus. He was assisted by a deputy called Caesar. After a while, Augustus had to transfer power to Caesar, and he himself had to retire. This more flexible system, along with improved provincial governance, led this great state to last another 200 years.

In the IV century. Christianity became the dominant religion in the empire, which also contributed to the consolidation of the internal unity of the state. Since 394, Christianity is already the only permitted religion in the empire. However, if the Eastern Roman Empire remained a fairly strong state, the Western one weakened under the blows of the barbarians. Several times (410 and 455) barbarian tribes conquered and ruined Rome, and in 476 the leader of the German mercenaries Odoacer overthrew the last western emperor Romulus Augustulus and declared himself the ruler of Italy.

And although the Eastern Roman Empire survived as a single country, and in 553 even annexed the entire territory of Italy, it was still a completely different state. It is no coincidence that historians prefer to call him and consider his fate separately from history of ancient Rome.

And, in fact, let's talk about the date, which is usually considered the end of the Western Roman Empire. The Romans themselves did not even notice this event. Subsequently, it will be so often. Great things are seen at a distance. Historians have declared this date the end of antiquity, the end of the Western Roman Empire. For the Romans themselves, this was an ordinary event. Remember this date. The year 476.

The last Roman emperor is a boy. His name was Romulus Augustulus. Another irony of fate. Romulus - as the founder of Rome, Augustus - as the founder of the Roman Empire (Augustus Octavian, only "Augustulus" means a diminutive of "Augustus", Augustus is like "little Augustus"). Romulus Augustulus. His name combines the names of the founder of the city and the founder of the empire.

So, he was overthrown from the throne by the leader of the barbaric mercenaries Odoacer. Then Odoacer will be overthrown by Theodoric, the founder of the Visigothic kingdom. And Odoacer did not declare himself emperor, as he could. Well, what is an emperor? The Emperor is nothing. And Odoacer did something else: he sent the signs of imperial power, imperial dignity to the Eastern Roman Empire, to Constantinople with the words: "as one god in heaven, so one emperor on earth." And so the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist.

The Eastern, I repeat, has remained and will exist for another 1000 years, will become a bridge connecting Antiquity and the Middle Ages. In the West, the Dark Ages, barbarian kingdoms, and a long cultural decline are coming. In general, a completely new era begins. Nobody even noticed this fall of the Western Roman Empire. And, in general, antiquity is over. What's left?

What's left? Remained magic, mythology. The idea of an empire remained. Then, in the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation will be created. Sounds funny, right? Charlemagne will proclaim himself Roman emperor, although he is a franc. Then there will be the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. How is it - the Roman Empire of the German nation? The Empire can only be Roman. The very concept, the archetype of the empire, goes back there. Moscow is the "third Rome". Again, see: "third Rome." That is, Rome has become a symbol of empire, a symbol of power, a symbol of power.

Remained Latin. Wonderful language, very expressive, dry, laconic. Classical Latin of Cicero, the language of learned theologians, the language of cultural communication Western Europe... Now lawyers speak it, pharmacists write their prescriptions. Latin will link European culture.

Remained Christianity. The Pope is the head of Christendom. A single universal religion that originated in the Roman Empire.

Well, more bridges, arches, aqueducts, sculptures. By the way, Greek copies will reach us only in the Roman version, only in the Roman version.

Yes, the ideal of a citizen will remain. After many centuries, subsequent generations will be guided by the ideals of Roman virtue. For example, the entire French Revolution takes place under the sign of Rome. French revolutionaries at the end of the 18th century play at Brutus, Cassiev, Katonov, and dress up in Roman togas. One of the leaders of the French Revolution even took the name Gracchus Babeuf in honor of the Gracchus brothers. The French will introduce a senate and prefectures. That is, Rome is the ideal of citizenship, the ideal of absolute dedication, service to the fatherland, valor, military valor, administrative success, republican virtues.

There will remain Roman law, detailed, detailed, dividing into private law, civil law, its various branches.

What will remain is a wonderful oratory, a huge political experience.

The fragments of the great and ancient civilization that will pass to us. Greek civilization will pass to us through the Romans. This tradition will never be interrupted. Let's remember the Renaissance, when in the XV - XVI centuries Italians will suddenly discover classical Latin, discover Roman political theory in the person of Machiavelli, discover their origins. Dante, the great Italian poet, in his poem "The Divine Comedy" will bring out Virgil, the great poet of Rome, who will be his guide through hell.

It is forever, like everything real, like everything great, although the greatness of Rome is very specific, very peculiar, very limited. Rome, of course, will become a myth in a sense. And the myth is immortal. A myth is, in a sense, a known reality, more real than what we consider to be reality.

And all this varied Roman heritage will pass into subsequent eras, will largely shape the world of subsequent centuries. Including the world in which you and I live.

The reconstruction shows what part of the great Ancient Rome looked like.

On the model of Ancient Rome - the island of Tiberina, the Massimo circus and the theater of Marcellus.

Baths (that is, baths) of Caracalla, which once consisted of huge halls, including gymnastics and massage rooms, porticoes, fountains, gardens, and a library. There were pools with cool, warm and hot water.

A section of an ancient city road that has survived to this day. The road leads to the Arch of Titus.

Modern European civilization originated and grew up around the Mediterranean Sea. It is enough to look at a map or a globe to understand that this place is unique. It is quite easy to navigate the Mediterranean Sea: its shores are very winding, there are many islands, especially in the eastern part, and they are located close to each other. And ships sailed the Mediterranean back in the days when speed depended on the amount of bread and beer eaten and drunk by rowers, and the sail was considered a fashionable novelty.

The inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast got to know each other early. Enterprising merchants and pirates (usually they were the same people) introduced the surrounding barbarians to the ingenious inventions of the Egyptians and Babylonians. These are complex rituals of reverence for mysterious gods, and the technique of making metal weapons and beautiful pottery, and the amazing art of recording human speech.

Two and a half thousand years ago, the most developed people in the Mediterranean were the Greeks. They knew how to do very beautiful things, their merchants traded along the entire coast, and their warriors were considered almost invincible. From Spain to Arabia, many people spoke the Greek dialect of Koine ("common"). Poems, plays and scholarly treatises, letters to friends and reports to tsars were written on it. Among the most diverse peoples, the townspeople went to gymnasium, watched theatrical performances in Greek, organized competitions in running and wrestling according to Greek models, and Greek statues adorned palaces and temples of even minor kings and gods.

But the Greeks did not create an empire. They did not seek to create it, as, for example, ants do not seek to combine their cozy dwellings into one super anthill. The Greeks are used to living in small communities - policies. They felt themselves to be one people, but first of all they remained Athenians, Spartans, Ephesians, Phoceans, etc. The newcomers could live in a foreign policy for several generations, but did not become its citizens.

Rome is another matter. The Romans were great organizers. They fought bravely, did not get lost in case of setbacks and, moreover, knew how to negotiate.

Initially, people from different tribes settled on the Roman hills, however, they quickly found mutual language and turned into respected patricians. With later settlers - plebeians- the patricians did not want to share power for a long time, but in the end they came to an agreement with them. By the time Rome embarked on large-scale conquests, patricians and plebeians had already merged into a single Roman people.

Gradually, its neighbors were drawn into the composition of this people - italics. However, the largest source of replenishment for the Roman nation was foreign slaves.

In Greece, slaves were only released in exceptional cases; in Rome it was rather the rule. Having gained freedom, the former slave became let go- a free person, although not independent, dependent on former owner... Power over free people, from the Roman's point of view, was much more honorable than power over slaves. Later, this view was inherited by the peoples who settled on the ruins of the Roman Empire. “In my country, government officials are proud to be public servants; it would be a shame to be its owner, ”said the famous English politician Winston Churchill in the 20th century.

It was also profitable to set the slaves free: for the liberation, the master could appoint such a ransom that he bought several slaves with the money received. In addition, Roman senators, who were not allowed by the custom to earn money by "low" occupations, bought merchant ships and shares in companies through letting goers.

As for the former slaves, already their grandchildren did not bear the stamp of slave origin and were equated with the freeborn.

What's the lesson from here?

Only big people can show themselves. Due to the fact that the Romans did not boil at the newcomers and did not shout "all sorts of people came in large numbers here", the Roman people for several centuries remained numerous enough to not only subjugate huge densely populated territories, but also keep them in obedience. If the Romans were prone to disunity, like the Greeks, there would be no Roman Empire at all. This means that there would not have been such a Europe as we see today, and in general the whole history would have gone differently.

And yet every coin has two sides.

New citizens adopted Roman customs. But they themselves influenced the native Romans, who gradually dissolved among numerous strangers. The descendants of the freed slaves were no longer willing to risk their lives defending the Roman Empire. This ultimately led to her death.

True, this happened several centuries later. By that time, the Romans had left such a vivid mark in history that it was no longer possible to erase it. (The year 476 is considered to be the final date of the existence of the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern, called Byzantium, existed for another thousand years.)

Figures and facts

- The population of Ancient Rome at the peak of its power was one million people. Europe reached the same level only after 2000 years: at the beginning of the twentieth century, only a few European cities had a million inhabitants.

The Roman Empire, according to various estimates, built between 1,500 and 1,800 cities. For comparison: at the beginning of the twentieth century, throughout Russian Empire there were about 700 of them. Almost all major cities in Europe were founded by the Romans: Paris, London, Budapest, Vienna, Belgrade, Sofia, Milan, Turin, Bern ...

14 aqueducts from 15 to 80 kilometers long supplied the population of Ancient Rome with water. From them, water went to fountains, swimming pools, public baths and toilets, and even to individual houses of wealthy citizens. It was a real plumbing. In Europe, similar structures appeared more than 1000 years later.

The total length of the roads of the Roman Empire was, according to various estimates, from 250 to 300 thousand kilometers - this is seven and a half equators of the Earth! Of these, only 14 thousand kilometers ran through Italy itself, and the rest - in the provinces. Except dirt roads, 90 thousand kilometers were real highways - paved, tunnels and bridges.

The famous Roman sewer - Cloaca Maxima - was built in the 7th-6th centuries BC and existed for 1000 years. Its dimensions were so large that the workers could move by boat along the underground sewer canals.

Details for the curious

Roads of the Roman Empire

The huge powerful Roman Empire (on its territory today there are 36 states) could not exist without roads. The ancient Romans were famous for their ability to build first-class roads, and they did them for centuries. It's hard to believe, but part of the road network they built 2000 years ago in Europe was used for its intended purpose until the beginning of the twentieth century!

The Roman road is a complex engineering structure. First, they dug a trench 1 m deep and hammered oak piles into the bottom (especially if the soil was damp). The edges of the trench were reinforced with stone slabs and inside it a “layered cake” was created from a large stone, a smaller stone, sand, again stone, lime, and tile powder. On top of such a road cushion, the actual road surface - stone slabs - was laid. Don't forget: everything was done by hand!

On the edges of the Roman roads there were stone mile (verst) pillars. There were even road signs - tall stone columns indicating the distance to the nearest settlement and to Rome. And in Rome itself, the zero kilometer was laid with a commemorative sign. A postal system operated on all highways. The speed of delivery of urgent messages was 150 km per day! Sowing along the roads was a Chernobyl so that travelers could put its leaves in sandals if they rubbed their feet.

Nothing was impossible for the Romans. They built roads on mountain passes and in the desert. In northern Germany, ancient builders managed to build three-meter wide cobbled roads even through swamps. Until now, tens of kilometers of Roman roads have been preserved there, along which a truck can drive without risk. And in the days of the empire, these were military roads that could withstand heavy military equipment- siege weapons.

The Roman Empire (ancient Rome) left an imperishable mark in all European lands, where its victorious legions just stepped. The stone ligature of Roman architecture has survived to this day: walls that protected citizens, along which troops moved, aqueducts that brought fresh water to the townspeople, and bridges thrown over turbulent rivers. As if all this was not enough, the legionaries erected more and more structures - even as the borders of the empire began to retreat. In the era of Hadrian when Rome was much more concerned with the consolidation of lands than with new conquests, the unclaimed combat prowess of the soldiers, for a long time cut off from home and family, was wisely directed into another creative - channel. In a sense, the entire European owes its birth to the Roman builders who introduced many innovations both in Rome itself and beyond. The most important achievements of urban planning aimed at the public good were sewerage and water pipes, which created healthy living conditions and contributed to the increase in population and the growth of cities themselves. But all this would have been impossible if the Romans had not invented concrete and did not begin to use the arch as the main architectural element. It was these two innovations that were spread by the Roman army throughout the empire.

How it all began?

Ancient Rome differed from the Greek city-states, since it was in completely different geographical conditions - a single Apennine peninsula with vast plains. Therefore, from the earliest period of its history, its citizens were forced to compete and fight with the neighboring Italic tribes. The conquered peoples obeyed this great empire either as allies, or simply included in the republic, and the conquered population did not receive the rights of Roman citizens, often turning into slaves. The most powerful opponents of Rome in the IV century. BC NS. there were Etruscans and Samnites, as well as individual Greek colonies in southern Italy (Great Greece). And yet, despite the fact that the Romans were often at odds with the Greek colonists, the more developed Hellenic culture had a noticeable impact on the culture of the Romans. It got to the point that the ancient Roman deities began to be identified with their Greek counterparts: Jupiter with Zeus, Mars with Ares, Venus with Aphrodite, etc.

Wars of the Roman Empire

Continuing the wars with the Greek colonists, the Romans clashed in Sicily with the Carthaginian (Punic) state. In 265 BC. NS. the so-called Punic Wars began, which lasted until 146 BC. e., almost 120 years. At first, the Romans fought against the Greek colonies in the east of Sicily, primarily against the largest of them, the city of Syracuse. Then the capture of the Carthaginian lands in the east of the island began, which led to the fact that the Carthaginians, who had a strong fleet, attacked the Romans. After the first defeats, the Romans managed to create their own fleet and defeat the Carthaginian ships in the battle of the Aegates Islands. A peace was signed, according to which in 241 BC. NS. all of Sicily, considered the breadbasket of the Western Mediterranean, became the property of the Roman Republic.

The war was moved to northern Africa, where Carthage and other Punian settlements were located. In 202 BC. NS. the Roman general Scipio defeated Hannibal's army at the town of Zama, south of Carthage, after which a peace was signed on terms dictated by the Romans. The Carthaginians were deprived of all their possessions outside Africa, they were obliged to transfer all warships and war elephants to the Romans. After winning the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic became the most powerful state in the Western Mediterranean. Third Punic War, which took place from 149 to 146 BC. e., was reduced to finishing off an already defeated enemy. In the spring of 14b BC. NS. Carthage was taken and destroyed, and its inhabitants.

Defensive walls of the Roman Empire

"Fear gave birth to beauty, and ancient Rome was miraculously transformed, changing the old - peaceful - policy and began to hastily erect towers, so that soon all seven of its hills sparkled with the armor of a continuous wall"- this is how one Roman wrote about the powerful fortifications built around Rome in 275 to protect against the Goths. Following the example of the capital, large cities throughout the Roman Empire, many of which have long "stepped over" the boundaries of the former walls, hastened to strengthen their defensive lines.

The majestic Porta Nigra (that is, the Black Gate), towering 30 meters in height, personifies the power of imperial Rome. The fortified gate is flanked by two towers, one of which is significantly damaged. Once the gate served as the entrance to the city walls of the 2nd century AD. NS. to Augustus Trevrorum (later Trier), the northern capital of the empire.

Aqueducts of the Roman Empire. Imperial City Life Road

Internal situation of the Roman Empire

External situation of the Roman Empire

Internal contradictions continued to tear apart the already devastated empire as the barbarian warlord pushed his way to supreme power. He killed everyone who got in his way, even close friends. The Roman Empire lost control of the once vast western provinces due to revolts and violent attacks from barbarian tribes. In it Time of Troubles a Roman commander appears who hopes to return Rome to its former glory. But a cruel barbarian ruler stands in his way. And the ringing of their swords will give countdown to the end of an empire.

Romans and Huns

By the 5th century AD due to hundreds of years of continuous wars from the Western Roman Empire only a shadow remains... The empire plunged into deep chaos. From outside, countless enemies pressed on her - barbarians seeking to take possession of her lands. But the main thing is the terrible economic situation, the empire did not receive the income necessary to maintain a strong army and maintain state administration.

Without strong army Rome was defenseless against the most numerous hordes of barbarians the empire had ever seen - led by a fierce leader.

5th century chronicler Kalinnik recalled their cruelty: “The Huns became so strong that they were able to conquer hundreds of cities. This was accompanied by so many murders and bloodsheds that it was impossible to count the corpses. "

The Huns, a nomadic tribe from the east, devastated what little remained of the empire.

In the West there was no more state, The West just fell apart. There were many different armies and parties fighting for power, but there was no power itself.

The capital of the eastern part of the empire could survive the attack of the Huns, but the weaker Western Empire became the main target of their conquests and was forced to give up the province of Attila.

Pannonia, 449 A.D.

In the former provinces of the empire, the Romans now had to get along with their rulers, the barbarians - the Huns.

The Romans and the barbarians differed from each other in clothing, hairstyle, preferences in food and everyday life. Although by that time the Romans and the barbarians had got used to each other, the age-old enmity has not gone away.

But one of the Romans felt free in this stormy sea and even managed to extract for himself some benefits from the rule of Attila. His name was.

Orestes was a Roman and he grew up in Pannonia, captured by the Huns. However, he became one of the confidants of Attila.

The empire was falling apart, but the Roman origins of Orestes and other natives in Pannonia earned them the favor of Attila. They are Romans, because they speak and behave like Romans, these people were brought up in Rome, absorbed its customs and cultures, they were real Romans and acted as their fellow citizens did for centuries.

Orestes, who received a Roman education, stood out among many barbarian allies and close associates of Attila. Soon he took up a prominent post at the court of the ruler.

Orestes undoubtedly understood that Attila turned out to be a far-sighted politician who tried to link Huns and Romans marriage and political alliances to to lay the foundations of a new empire in the north.

Constantly being next to Attila, Orestes learned firsthand how cruel the justice of the barbarians can be. His Roman sensibility was easily offended.

We can say that Romans and barbarians did not understand and did not love each other, it was not easy for them to treat each other with tolerance. These different nations with different cultures had to live together and cooperate in many important matters but they did not accept each other.

And although Orestes disgusted that the barbarians sacrificed their enemies, he felt that the rule of Attila opened up ways for him to achieve his own goals.

Orestes, being at the court of Attila, saw how he tried to create a state almost from scratch, and Orestes realized that this a real chance to re-create the Roman state led by a king who united the forces of the barbarians and the Romans to restore the glory of Rome in the days of its founders.

Although Orestes served the barbarians, he always remained a Roman and considered himself and his people above all others. He wanted to restore the former greatness of the empire.

The collapse of the power of the Huns

In 453 A.D. during the wedding night of Attila his reign suddenly ends, and this will soon lead to the collapse of the power of the Huns and their barbarian allies.

bride found him dead, as it turned out later, from hemorrhage, and fearing that she would be accused of murder, she spent the whole night next to the corpse.

Gundobad chose him, thinking that the emperor would remain loyal to him. It is clear that Glycerius was supposed to rule to please Gundobad, depending on his support.

Now there are many more barbarians around the emperor than the Romans. The army of the Western Empire was mainly, if not entirely, made up of barbarians. It is quite possible that there were still primordially Roman units there, but when we read about this army, we see that there were Arabs, Germans and many other foreign soldiers in it.

At the head of the mercenaries of Glyceria was a barbarian named. He was promoted to the emperor's guard in large part because he showed military ability and the makings of a leader.

This is exactly how Rome was discovered by Orestes when, after several decades of wandering, he finally appeared there. When he first met Odoacer, he had no idea how much the empire had changed since its former glory.

From the might of the Western empire in 470 A.D. almost nothing left but not everyone understood that she is doomed, many saw this as a temporary weakness, the result of some unfortunate mistakes, and it seemed that it was still possible to fix it.

Orestes's diplomatic experience earned him a high position in the imperial army. But he was surprised to see the barbarian Odoacer, who, not possessing the same talents, occupied the same position.

They were both quite ambitious. They survived very severe trials: Orestes served at the court of the bloodthirsty Attila, Odoacer was a military man and later in Rome literally climbed out of their poverty, taking a high position. It was probably their ambition and great ability that made them rivals.

Each of them saw the empire in his own way: one - through the eyes of a Roman, the other - through the eyes of a barbarian. After many years at the court of Attila, the Roman Orestes became the commander of the Roman army, but in Italy he discovers that the empire is falling apart and almost no longer belongs to the Romans, and real rulers- not the emperor Glycerius, but barbarian warlords, Odokar and the Burgundian King Gundobad.

Italy, A.D. 473

In the past, Rome employed mercenaries, but they were always kept away from power. In the 5th century, they are part of the army as a monolithic group of Germans. They wore their clothes, ate their food, adhered to their customs, maintaining their usual hierarchy and ways of management. Oddly enough, they managed not to dissolve in this seething imperial cauldron.

Gundobad's warriors could achieve the same position in the army as the noble Romans. The army of Glyceria, in contrast to the army of Gundobad, was more heterogeneous, including the Burgundians and the warriors of many other peoples, but together they formed a single army in Italy.

Barbarians and Romans in the Roman army, for sure, disliked each other: The Romans believed that since this is the Roman Empire, then they, the Romans, should stand in it above the barbarians, many believed that the barbarians should be expelled from the army altogether.

Roman the army was no longer a single organism, in its ranks ripe split... Even the commander Orestes, a skilled diplomat, was powerless here.

While Rome suffered heavy losses in battles against tribes like Gaul, Roman soldiers began to doubt the loyalty of their barbarian allies.

At that moment, everyone already had their own interests, the former unity disappeared. Even among the Romans themselves, groups with conflicting interests formed in the army.

Chaos reigns in the army: no one else fought for the emperor, everyone was for himself.

Emperor Julius Nepos at the head of the Western Empire

The weakened Western Empire could no longer save its Mediterranean coasts from plunder, and the stronger Eastern empire with the capital in Constantinople, finally, intervened.

Constantinople, A.D. 473

In the imperial palace in the capital, the aging Eastern emperor lived in complete safety.

In the Roman Empire of the mid-5th century, there was a clear division between East and West. Unlike the West, the East grew stronger and flourished.

Blaming Glyceria for all the failures of Rome, Leo hoped to expand his sphere of influence by planting a new emperor in the West.

Nepot was chosen as Emperor of the West for his position at the court of Leo. Nepos's position was very reliable: he was married to a relative of the emperor and was quite suitable for lead the invasion of Italy.

In 474 A.D. Nepot gathered an army and led her from Constantinople to Italy. The East was going to once again strengthen its power and influence in the West, replacing Glyceria with its protégé. This reaction is not surprising.

As the new emperor, Nepotus had to work hard to justify the trust, but if he could not expel the barbarians from the Western Empire, he was in for ruin.

While the army of Nepot was sailing from Constantinople, the western emperor Glycerius in Rome feverishly prepared to fight back. But as soon as Glycerius gave the order to Orestes and Odoacer to prepare an army, he became convinced that he had in vain relied on the loyalty of the barbarians: Gundobad with his burgundy threw it in difficult times.

Gundobad left his post and became king of the burgundy... It seemed to him much more attractive than being the commander-in-chief of Glycerius.

This was no longer the Roman Empire. Its soldiers, brought up in completely different traditions and values, were strikingly different from the popular militia of Rome.

Without the support of the Burgundians, even the army of Orestes and Odoacer could not save Glyceria from the invasion of Nepot.

When Nepos approached Rome, Glycerius with the commanders went to meet him, but not for battle, but to beg for mercy.

Glyceria found itself in a very difficult position. He could not count on military support either from the hired barbarian mercenaries or from his own soldiers. Therefore, when the eastern emperor sent Nepotus to take the throne of the Western Empire, Glycerius made the only reasonable decision: he surrendered without a fight.

Nepos, who expected to have to wage a bloody war in order to overthrow Glyceria, now bestowed life on the deposed emperor.

Nepot wanted to give the whole thing a semblance of legitimacy. It looked as if he had become emperor with the support of the eastern sovereign and with the consent of the western, who would voluntarily leave, recognizing that Nepos was better suited for this.

He made Glyceria bishop and sent into a link away from Rome.

In June 474 CE, when Nepos became emperor of the West, he was recognized by both Orestes and Odoacer. Equally ambitious, they vied with each other to show their loyalty to the new emperor.

Orestes, himself a Roman, was still convinced that Rome was alive and must be defended. Odoacer, it seems, was convinced that Rome no longer exists. At the very time when the very fate of Rome was being decided, interests collided these two, undoubtedly, very capable people.

Nepos appointed Orestes and Odoacer to high posts at court, giving them both a power that no one else in Rome had. Raising both Orestes and Odoacer at the same time, and endowing them equal powers, he thus planted the seeds future collapse of your own power... Nepot did not understand that it was risky to elevate such strong and strong-willed people, it could become a threat.

The overthrow of Nepot

But the nuances of Roman court politics soon faded against the background relentless attacks by the Visigoths to the only province left by the Western Empire in Gaul.

During the heyday of the empire, in these lands, now known as Provence in France, civilization flourished, but in the 470s AD. they became the target of constant attacks by the Visigoths and their king Eurich.

The proud and ambitious king of the Visigoths, eager to expand the boundaries of his possessions, decided to attack the Roman territories in southern France.

The Visigoths did have a numerical advantage. This led to the constant reduction of the Gallic possessions of the Roman Empire, until a tiny piece of land remained in modern southern France.

Bloodthirsty Visigoth warriors devastated settlements in Provence, not sparing the helpless Roman inhabitants.

The poorly armed and untrained Imperial legionaries were no match for the barbarians. It seems, the goths were better organized and their kingdom was stronger. They could muster more troops, and they were excellent warriors, ready for any vicissitudes of hostilities.

The battle was fierce, a real massacre, urgent action had to be taken.

Although the Roman commander Orestes was not such an experienced warrior, the emperor Nepos sends him from Rome to Gaul to drive out the barbarians.

He was to become the commander in Gaul. But the question is: is this really such a great honor and high office, because in Gaul there are almost no territories subject to Rome? So it may well have been just a convenient excuse take Orestes away from Rome.

But having arrived at the troops stationed on the Italian border, the former diplomat Orestes intends to prove himself as a military leader and strategist, hoping to bypass both Odoacer and the emperor Nepot himself.

He offers his barbarian warriors a deal: if they go with him against the emperor Nepot, Orestes will give them lands in Italy.

We know that Orestes went against Nepot... Instead of submitting to the authority of the emperor, he decided to take the power for himself. Why did he do it? Most likely he wanted to restore the empire.

Leaving Gaul to the Visigoths, Orestes with the troops moved from northern Italy back to rome, but when the emperor Nepos found out about this, he escaped v .

In August 475 A.D. Orestes came to Ravenna and ordered a search of the city to find the emperor. The barbarians began to plunder, instilling fear in the inhabitants with their fury.

It can be assumed that Orestes either believed that the emperor Nepos was selling the empire to barbarians, or he himself thirsted for power in the empire.

But even on pain of death no one gave out where the emperor is hiding... Nepot managed to secretly escape from the city, as the 6th century chronicler Jordan testifies: “Nepot fled to... Deprived of power, he languished, leading a lonely life in the very city where he had recently made exiled Glyceria bishop.

Orestes believed that since Nepos had disappeared, and the barbarian warriors obeyed his orders, then he would now be able to restore order in an empire mired in chaos.

Surprisingly, Orestes did not sit on the throne himself, but did emperor of his 10-year-old son... Orestes believed that since he was brought up among the barbarians and served at the court of the Huns, the Italic nobility would not want to see him, Orestes, as emperor, but they would accept the pure-blooded Roman Romulus, because this was well within their tradition. Although now the views of the Romans on power have changed greatly.

The boy remained in the well-fortified city of Ravenna. He remained under the protection of his uncle Paul. Romulus was a teenager and not yet mature, his name Augustul meant "Little August".

Young Romulus was just his father's puppet. Exactly Orestes will rule the empire, finally pushing back his rival Odoacer and preventing him from becoming the most influential man in Rome.

Orest full of pride forgot about his promises to barbarians... They did what they promised - they helped Orestes to displace Nepot, and now they demanded lands.

The barbarians wanted to settle in Italy on the original Roman lands, many of which belonged to hereditary senators. Orestes was a true Roman and could not allow this: he refused.

Orestes could not pay the barbarians, but the soldiers obeyed the emperor only if he paid them. Therefore, when Orestes, who deceived him, seized power and put his son on the throne, could not give them the money they wanted or the land they demanded, they had only one thing left: to replace the emperor with another who would give them what they want.

With the help of his bodyguards, Orestes escapes. But he underestimated the determination of the barbarians seeking revenge.

Revenge of the barbarians to Orest

Rome, A.D. 476

When Orestes refused to provide the barbarians with land in Italy, they turned to his main rival Odoacer for help.

The warriors acted very wisely, turning to Odoacer, because he, as they believed, was able to satisfy their requirements. Odoacer was himself a barbarian, and the warriors expected that he would no doubt give them land and money, wherever they had to take them - the main thing was that the warriors were happy. And Odoacer had to agree to the offer of the barbarian army.

They came to him and said: "If you can get land for us, you will become our king." It was tempting. Now under his command was the Roman army, but in fact - a hodgepodge of Germanic tribes.

Together they will perform to end Roman rule in the empire... Now Odoacer, as he had long wanted, could take revenge on Orestes who dared to deprive him of his power in Rome.

And they immediately began to attack Italian cities... Cities were plundered for many days, everything that was of any value was taken away from the inhabitants.

Risking their lives for an empire they did not even consider their own, the barbarians realized that the time had come to make Rome pay with blood for what it could not pay with money or land.

Imagine for a moment that you are a warrior. You have to live on the meager means you get. And now you haven't been paid at all. Nothing can happen because of one time, but if it happens two, three, four times in a row, you will starve to death. Will you continue to serve those who made you starve to death?

Odoacer was secretly pleased that he could finally subdue Italy and settle accounts with Orestes.

Then, in 476, there was no question of an ordinary war, there was no battle, no sieges. It was just that hungry warriors were looking for a livelihood, doing what they could do. They were trained to fight, and they killed anyone who got in the way. That's why there were attacks, violence, robberies.

While Odoacer approached, Orestes left his son, the young emperor Romulus, in Ravenna in the care of his uncle Paul, while he himself escaped v Titinus in Northern Italy.

Orestes was forced to seek refuge from Odoacer in Titinus, in the city that is now called. We know that the bishop of the city granted him asylum.

But even the temple of God could not protect him from the barbarians. Orestes fled while Odoacer and his warriors ravaged the church, they desperately tried to find him.

All the collected offerings were taken away from the bishop, all the money collected to help the poor were taken away by the soldiers of Odoacer. They also burned many buildings, including the church.

As the church perished in the fire, so did Orestes' hopes for the revival of the empire. Odoacer did not care about the preservation of Rome, he had long since realized that Rome no longer exists. But what role did he play? What was he going to use his power for?

Orestes flees Ticinus with a handful of bodyguards, hoping to buy time to prepare for the decisive encounter with Odoacer. Once they both occupied a high position at the court, now they are forced to fight for their lives.

They were proud of the position they held, and neither was willing to allow the other to have a drop of power. And of course a collision is inevitable.

Orestes with the army reached Placenta modern in Italy, until finally met at Odoacer.

Northern Italy, A.D. 476

Orestes, inexperienced in military affairs, had little chance of surviving the battle against the barbarians of Odoacer. It was cruel bloody battle ... In such a battle, fighting spirit played an even greater role than skill. Someone had to win and someone had to lose. The soldiers stepped over the corpses, the wounded groaned, the people lost their composure in horror.

Surprisingly, but in the last, tragic years of the empire there was always someone who was ready to cling to the imperial power and try to rebuild the empire. They believed that the empire could still be saved, that it had not collapsed yet, but we understand that these attempts were doomed.

Although it looked reckless, he refused to admit defeat.

Odoacer and Orestes were key figures in the West. On their shoulders lay the future of Rome, and they had to find a common language with each other. A compromise should have been found, but it did not work, and Italy is overwhelmed by violence and chaos.

It was a battle to the death, and in this battle at the end of the empire, the Romans were forced to yield to the stronger barbarians.

We don't know exactly what happened when Odoacer managed to get to Orestes, but most likely a quick and cruel end awaited the Roman. There was no complicated ceremony, no funeral, Orestes had to disappear. Undoubtedly waiting for him secret and speedy execution.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Having won, Odoacer with his troops went to Ravenna to deal with the remaining case - with the young son of Ores, the last emperor of the Western Empire.

12-year-old emperor Romulus Augustulus and his uncle Paul did not know about the death of Orestes and were not ready for Odoacer's attack.

When Odoacer came to Ravenna, Romulus could not resist, but Paul, who was Romulus's guardian, tried to protect his nephew. People of Odoacer killed Paul and they followed the emperor Romulus Augustulus.

Frightened by the noise of his uncle's murder, the boy tried to escape. The last Roman emperor, driven away like an animal, could not escape the barbarian's sword, there was nowhere to run.

Romulus was just a puppet, so Odoacer had no reason to touch him. The ruthless warrior did an amazing thing: he saved the boy's life by sending that one to link.

By keeping Romulus alive, Odoacer showed mercy to the Romans and made it clear that he could act like a just ruler.

In the summer of 476 A.D. Odoacer became the first barbarian ruler of Italy.

Now Odoacer is king. He did not become the king of Italy or the Roman Empire, he was the king of his warriors, this motley horde, which was then called the Roman army.

Odoacer is now king, but not emperor, because The Roman Empire more than 500 years after its inception in 27 BC. now finally collapsed.

It has become the end of the rule of the Roman emperor in the West... Now the king will be there. The Roman Empire still existed in the East, but the Western lands were not subject to it, the Western world had changed beyond recognition.

The news of the fall of Rome quickly reached the new eastern emperor in Constantinople.

The messengers brought the news that the Eastern Empire had awaited in fear for many years. They brought the last word from the boy emperor.

The last thing Odoacer forced Romulus Augustulus to do before removing him from the throne was send an envoy on behalf of the Senate and the Emperor with a message about transfer of imperial power to Constantinople and that there will be no more emperor in the West.

Since Italy was now ruled by a barbarian, the need for the former symbols of imperial power disappeared.

We know that Odoacer announced that he was not going to wear purple clothes and a golden wreath - signs of the emperor's power, he threw away these regalia of the past, he brought something new, becoming in the West king, not emperor... Clothes, wreaths, jewelry and other imperial clothes now belonged only to the Eastern emperor.

But in his hands, they were no longer symbols of power and authority, but only signs of failure and defeat.

In Italy, the families of barbarian warriors finally got the lands for which they fought. The West was now in their hands.

Odoacer of course fulfilled what he promised his warriors... He kept his word, giving what was due to them, remaining in the eyes of his relatives an honest and generous leader.

But it was the distribution of land, and the women with the children of the barbarians who settled within the empire that had a much greater influence than armed attacks.

At first, the mighty Rome willingly accepted outsiders, deriving benefits for itself from this. But at the end when the barbarians came in great numbers and wanted to become part of the Roman Empire, the Romans were no longer ready to accept them as it was before. This inability to turn the influx of strangers into a source of strength and became one of the main reasons for the death of the Roman Empire.

Legacy of the roman empire

But despite the fall of the empire, in some corners, such as monasteries, libraries, these repositories of knowledge and other achievements of Roman civilization were miraculously saved and preserved.

Rome has stood the test of time because where there was still an emphasis on teaching, education and books, everything was based on Roman traditions, and Roman literature and culture was considered the foundation of civilization.

Legacy of the roman empire, especially in its western part, is very large: a lot of new things were introduced, including new terms, concepts, and in the languages we speak, traces of Roman influence can be traced, Roman heritage is all around us, and we must not forget about it.

The dawn and fall of Rome, its path from the republic to the fall of the empire, and what was created and accumulated along the way, largely predetermined further development of the entire western world.

This civilization has survived centuries of war, disaster, corruption and plague in order to disappear from the hand of one barbarian warrior.

We will always be fascinated by both the history of the Roman Empire itself and the history of its fall. She, of course, largely predetermined the formation modern world, but let's face it: the last fifteen hundred years have been spoken and written about the empire very, very much. Do I need to bring this up again? The answer is simple: we must remember Rome, because all the wonderful, as well as all the terrible features were manifested in it. human nature... If we look at them carefully, we can understand that perhaps we can follow good examples and not be like bad ones.