Basic theories of the origin of the universe. Origin of the universe big bang concept megami properties - abstract
Until now, the universe is huge and very mysterious place... For centuries, people have looked into space and tried to explain why we are here and where we came from. Although, to get answers to any of these questions, it may take more than one century. In the meantime, scientists offer us their theories.
It should also be noted that these are just theories. Therefore, naturally, they may not coincide with each other and even contradict.
Why is dark matter so difficult to detect?
At this point we will talk about something called dark matter. The Universe is 22% dark matter, 74% dark energy. The rest of the matter, which includes the stars, planets, interstellar gas, accounts for only about 4% of the Universe. Dark matter is invisible because it does not interact with light, but it affects gravity, that is, it affects the movements of galaxies and galactic clusters. Due to the fact that dark matter has only a gravitational effect, it can almost imperceptibly pass through "ordinary" matter. For all these reasons, dark matter has not yet been discovered, but physicists are confident that it exists ..
In the photo: A detailed picture of the Universe early age, namely cosmic background radiation (relic radiation). The image shows temperature fluctuations, which correspond to the places of origin of galaxies.
The question is, why is it so difficult to detect dark matter in experiments on Earth? One possible answer comes from particle physics. During the experiment, it was found that dark matter can interact with ordinary matter if both of them are in conditions close to the beginning of the creation of the Universe, namely, in extremely high-temperature plasma. If their simulations are true, it means that dark matter could have been observed in the early days of the universe.
It was hoped that by creating these conditions at the Large Hadron Collider, it would be possible to detect dark matter. But this did not happen. Some scientists believe that a more sensitive detector is needed, and some argue that it is not worth looking for something that does not exist.
Dark matter killed the dinosaurs
The most likely culprit for the death of dinosaurs is an asteroid or volcanic activity of Siberian volcanoes. However, discussions about the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction 66 million years ago do not stop. Despite this, physicist Lisa Randall believes dark matter was to blame.
The backbone of the theory goes back to the 1980s, when paleontologists David Raup and Jack Sepkoski found evidence that every 26 million years after the Permian Massive Extinction (which happened about 252 million years ago and 96 percent of life was destroyed), there were also animal extinctions. ... After further research, going back one and a half billion years ago, it seems that approximately every 30 million years, cataclysms hit the Earth, which the planet gave or devoted several million years. What are they worth, about which we recently wrote.
However, scientists have never been sure why the cataclysms happened on such a schedule. Randall's theory is that it comes about dark matter. It is believed that dark matter is scattered throughout the universe and is used as the forests on which galaxies are built, including our home, the Milky Way. As our solar system orbits the Milky Way, it "floats", and at times it sways like a plug in water. And this happens about every 30 million years.
In such situations, our solar system can collide with a disk of dark matter. The disk was supposed to be one-tenth the thickness of the visible disk of the Milky Way stars and have a density of at least one solar mass per square light year.
Ordinary matter and dark matter can pass through each other, but dark matter can affect ordinary matter through gravity. As a result, when some matter floating in space comes into contact with dark matter, it can direct some objects in the universe that will eventually collide with the Earth.
If Randall's theory is correct, then dark matter may be responsible for major parts of the formation of the universe.
Life spreads across the universe like an epidemic
When it comes to the universe, one question always arises: is there intelligent life different from ours? Or are we just alone here in the universe? Scientists are also asking these questions, and they are currently studying how life came about, including ours.
According to a study by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the most logical answer is that life spreads from star to star like an epidemic. The concept that life spreads from planet to planet and from star to star is called panspermia. Of course, if you've seen Prometheus, this concept is the main plot.
If life has passed from star to star, it means that the Milky Way may be filled with life. If their theory is correct, then it is possible that other planets in the Milky Way could also have life.
Another interesting thing they found in their calculations is that life could be spread by microscopic organisms that arrived on the asteroid. Or it could have been spread by intelligent beings or beings.
Besides, in recent times scientists agree that life on other planets should develop according to the same principles as on Earth. This suggests that aliens can be very similar to the inhabitants of our planet.
Why is the universe made of matter?
Matter is everything that takes up space and has weight. The opposite of matter is called antimatter. When matter and antimatter come into contact, they destroy each other (annihilate) with the release of a huge amount of energy, which happened at the beginning of the creation of the Universe and contributed to its expansion.
In the beginning, there had to be an equal amount of matter and antimatter. However, if there were equal amounts of matter and antimatter, they would destroy each other, and the universe ceased to exist. This led physicists to believe there was slightly more matter than antimatter. For matter to spread throughout the universe, a small particle of matter would be sufficient for every 10 billion particles of antimatter.
The problem was that while physicists knew there was more matter, they didn't know why. It was until 2008, when researchers at the University of Chicago observed subatomic particles that had very short life called B-mesons. Researchers who won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery found that B mesons and anti B mesons decay differently from each other. This means that it is possible that after annihilation at the beginning of the universe, B-mesons and anti-B-mesons decay in different ways, leaving enough matter to create all stars, planets, and even you and everything you touch, including the air you touch. breathe.
Clutter made life possible
Entropy plays huge role in the Universe. High entropy means disorder and chaos in the system. Low entropy tells us about more organization, orderliness.
An example for visualizing this is Lego. A Lego house would have low entropy, and a box of random, unrelated items would have high entropy.
Interestingly, entropy can be the reason that life exists. And even when speaking of such highly organized things as the brain, this statement, although it seems to be incorrect, has a place to be.
Nevertheless, according to the theory of the assistant professor of Massachusetts Institute of Technology Jeremy England, higher entropy may be responsible for life in the universe.
England says that under ideal conditions, a random group of molecules can self-organize to efficiently dissipate more energy in the heterogeneous environment that is our universe.
However, England's theory has to pass many tests. If he's right, then experts suggest that his name will be remembered as much as we remember Charles Darwin.
The universe has no beginning
The prevailing theory for the beginning of our universe is that more than 13.8 billion years ago, in terms of singularity, the Big Bang spawned the universe and has been expanding ever since.
The Big Bang was first theorized in 1927, and the model is based on Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. The problem is that there are some gaps in Einstein's theory. Basically, that the laws of physics break down before reaching the singularity. Another big problem is that the other dominant theory in physics, quantum mechanics, is inconsistent with general relativity. Moreover, neither the theory of relativity nor quantum mechanics take dark matter into account. This means that while the Big Bang is one of the best theories about how the universe came about, the theory may be wrong!
An alternative theory is that the universe has never been at a singularity point, nor has there been a big bang. Instead, the universe is infinite and has no beginning or end. The researchers arrived at this theory by applying quantum corrections to Einstein's theory of general relativity using an older model of interpreting quantum mechanics called Bohman mechanics.
Their theory test method will also help explain dark matter. If their theory is correct, that the universe is infinite, that would mean that the universe has pockets of superfluid filled with theoretical particles like gravitons and axioms. If superfluidity matches the distribution of dark matter, then it is possible that the universe is infinite.
And this is not the end ...
This topic is so boundless that it can be continued for a very long time. You can read other, even more amazing theories about the Universe in
The Big Bang belongs to the category of theories that try to fully trace the history of the birth of the Universe, to determine the initial, current and final processes in its life.
Was there something before the universe began? This fundamental, almost metaphysical question is being asked by scientists to this day. The emergence and evolution of the universe has always been and remains the subject of heated debate, incredible hypotheses and mutually exclusive theories. The main versions of the origin of everything that surrounds us, according to the church interpretation, assumed divine intervention, and scientific world supported the hypothesis of Aristotle about the static nature of the universe. The latter model was followed by Newton, who defended the infinity and permanence of the Universe, and Kant, who developed this theory in his writings. In 1929, the American astronomer and cosmologist Edwin Hubble radically changed the views of scientists on the world.
He not only discovered the presence of numerous galaxies, but also the expansion of the Universe - a continuous isotropic increase in the size of outer space, which began at the moment of the Big Bang.
To whom do we owe the discovery of the Big Bang?
Albert Einstein's work on the theory of relativity and his gravitational equations allowed de Sitter to create a cosmological model of the universe. Further research was tied to this model. In 1923, Weil suggested that what was placed in outer space the substance should expand. The work of the outstanding mathematician and physicist AA Fridman is of great importance in the development of this theory. Back in 1922, he allowed the expansion of the Universe and made well-founded conclusions that the beginning of all matter was in one infinitely dense point, and the Big Bang gave development to everything. In 1929, Hubble published his articles explaining the subordination of radial velocity to distance, later this work became known as "Hubble's law."
GA Gamov, relying on Friedman's theory of the Big Bang, developed the idea of a high temperature of the initial substance. He also suggested the presence of cosmic radiation, which did not disappear with the expansion and cooling of the world. The scientist performed preliminary calculations of the possible temperature of the residual radiation. Their estimated value was in the range of 1-10 K. By 1950, Gamow made more accurate calculations and announced the result at 3 K. In 1964, radio astronomers from America, while improving the antenna, by eliminating all possible signals, determined the parameters of cosmic radiation. Its temperature turned out to be 3 K. This information became the most important confirmation of Gamow's work and the existence of relic radiation. Subsequent measurements of the cosmic background, carried out in open space, finally proved the accuracy of the scientist's calculations. You can get acquainted with the relic radiation map by.
Modern understanding of the Big Bang theory: how did it happen?
One of the models that comprehensively explain the appearance and development of the universe known to us is the Big Bang theory. According to the version widely accepted today, there was originally a cosmological singularity - a state with infinite density and temperature. Physicists have developed a theoretical basis for the birth of the Universe from a point that had an extreme degree of density and temperature. After the outbreak of the Big Bang, the space and matter of the Cosmos began an incessant process of expansion and stable cooling. According to recent studies, the beginning of the universe was laid at least 13.7 billion years ago.
Initial periods in the formation of the Universe
The first moment, the reconstruction of which is allowed by physical theories, is the Planck era, the formation of which became possible 10-43 seconds after the Big Bang. The temperature of the matter reached 10 * 32 K, and its density was 10 * 93 g / cm3. During this period, gravity gained independence, separating from the fundamental interactions. The incessant expansion and decrease in temperature caused a phase transition of elementary particles.
The next period, characterized by the exponential expansion of the Universe, came in another 10-35 seconds. It was called "Cosmic inflation". An abrupt expansion occurred, many times higher than usual. This period gave an answer to the question, why are the temperatures at different points in the Universe the same? After the Big Bang, the matter did not immediately scatter across the Universe, for another 10-35 seconds it was quite compact and thermal equilibrium was established in it, which was not violated during inflationary expansion. The period gave the basic material - quark-gluon plasma, which was used to form protons and neutrons. This process took place after a further decrease in temperature, it is called "baryogenesis". The origin of matter was accompanied by the simultaneous emergence of antimatter. Two antagonistic substances annihilated, becoming radiation, but the number of ordinary particles prevailed, which allowed the emergence of the universe.
The next phase transition, which occurred after the temperature decreased, led to the appearance of elementary particles known to us. The era of "nucleosynthesis" that came after this was marked by the union of protons into light isotopes. The first nuclei formed had short term existence, they decayed in the inevitable collisions with other particles. More stable elements arose after three minutes after the creation of the world.
The next significant milestone was the dominance of gravity over other available forces. After 380 thousand years from the time of the Big Bang, the hydrogen atom appeared. The increase in the influence of gravity served as the end of the initial period of the formation of the Universe and gave rise to the process of the emergence of the first stellar systems.
Even after almost 14 billion years, relic radiation is still preserved in space. Its existence in combination with redshift is presented as an argument in support of the consistency of the Big Bang theory.
Cosmological singularity
If, using the general theory of relativity and the fact of the continuous expansion of the Universe, we return to the beginning of time, then the dimensions of the universe will be equal to zero. The starting point or science cannot accurately describe using physical knowledge. The applied equations are not suitable for such a small object. A symbiosis is needed that can combine quantum mechanics and general relativity, but, unfortunately, it has not yet been created.
The evolution of the Universe: what awaits it in the future?
Scientists are considering two possible options development of events: the expansion of the universe will never end, or it will reach critical point and the reverse process will begin - compression. This fundamental choice depends on the value of the average density of the substance in its composition. If the calculated value is less than the critical value, the forecast is favorable, if it is greater, then the world will return to the singular state. Scientists currently do not know the exact value of the described parameter, so the question of the future of the Universe is hanging in the air.
Religion's relationship to the Big Bang theory
The main religions of mankind: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Islam, in their own way support this model of the creation of the world. Liberal representatives of these religious denominations agree with the theory of the emergence of the universe as a result of some inexplicable interference, defined as the Big Bang.
The name of the theory, familiar to the whole world - "Big Bang" - was unwittingly given by the enemy to the version of the expansion of the Universe by Hoyle. He considered this idea "completely unsatisfactory." After the publication of his thematic lectures, the amusing term was immediately picked up by the public.
The reasons for the Big Bang are not known for certain. According to one of the numerous versions, belonging to A. Yu. Glushko, the original matter compressed into a point was a black hyper-hole, and the cause of the explosion was the contact of two such objects, consisting of particles and antiparticles. During annihilation, the matter partially survived and gave rise to our Universe.
The engineers Penzias and Wilson, who discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation from the Universe, received the Nobel Prizes in physics.
The temperature of the background radiation was initially very high. Several million years later, this parameter turned out to be within the limits ensuring the origin of life. But by this period, only a small number of planets had managed to form.
Astronomical observations and research help to find answers to the most important questions for mankind: "How did everything appear, and what awaits us in the future?" Despite the fact that not all problems have been solved, and the root cause of the appearance of the Universe does not have a strict and orderly explanation, the Big Bang theory has found a sufficient number of confirmations that make it the main and acceptable model for the emergence of the universe.
1. Basic cosmological hypotheses
2. The Big Bang Concept
3. The problem of the existence and search of extraterrestrial civilizations
Bibliography
1. Basic cosmological hypotheses
The results of cognition obtained in cosmology are formalized in the form of models of the origin and development of the Universe. This is due to the fact that in cosmology it is impossible to set up reproducible experiments and derive some laws from them, as is done in others. natural sciences... Moreover, each cosmic phenomenon is unique.
1. Classical cosmological model... The successes of cosmology and cosmogony of the 18-19th centuries. ended with the creation of a classic polycentric picture of the world, which became the initial stage development of scientific cosmology. The universe in this view of the world is considered to be infinite in space and time, i.e. eternal. The basic law governing the movement and development of celestial bodies is the law universal gravitation... Space has nothing to do with the bodies in it, playing a passive role as a receptacle for these bodies. Time also does not depend on matter, being the universal duration of all natural phenomena and bodies. The number of stars, stellar systems and planets in the Universe is infinitely large. Each celestial body goes through a long life path... The dead, or rather extinct, stars are replaced by new, young stars. In this form, the classical cosmological model of the Universe dominated science until the end of the 19th century.
By the end of the 19th century, serious doubts arose in the classical model, which took the form of cosmological paradoxes - photometric, gravitational and thermodynamic.
In the 18th century, the Swiss astronomer R. Shezo expressed doubts about the spatial infinity of the Universe. If we assume that an infinite number of stars exist in the infinite Universe and they are evenly distributed in space, then in any direction the gaze of an earthly observer would certainly stumble upon some star. Then the firmament, completely covered with stars, would have infinite luminosity, i.e. such a superficial brightness that even the Sun against its background would seem like a black spot. However, this does not happen, so this paradoxical statement is called in astronomy the Shezo-Olbers photometric paradox.
At the end of the 19th century. German astronomer K. Seeeliger drew attention to another paradox, which also arises from the concept of the infinity of the Universe. In an infinite Universe with bodies evenly distributed in it, the gravitational force from all the bodies of the Universe on a given body turns out to be infinitely large or indefinite (the result depends on the method of calculation). Since this does not happen, Seeeliger concluded that the number of celestial bodies in the Universe is limited, which means that the Universe itself is not infinite. This statement is called gravitational paradox.
The thermodynamic paradox was also formulated in the 19th century. It follows from the second law of thermodynamics, the principle of increasing entropy. The world is full of energy, which obeys the law of conservation of energy. It seems that the eternal circulation of matter in the Universe inevitably follows from this law. If in nature matter does not disappear and does not arise from nothing, but only passes from one form of existence to another, then the Universe is eternal, and matter is in constant circulation. Thus, the extinct stars again turn into a source of light and heat.
Therefore, an unexpected conclusion was made from the second law of thermodynamics, discovered in the middle of the 19th century. Kelvin and R.Yu.E. Clausis. During all transformations, various types of energy ultimately transform into heat, which tends to a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e. scattered in space. Since this process of heat dissipation is irreversible, sooner or later all stars will go out, all active processes in nature will cease, and the "thermal death of the Universe" will come.
Thus, three cosmological paradoxes made scientists doubt the classical cosmological model of the Universe, prompting them to search for new consistent models.
4. Relativistic model of the Universe. A new model of the Universe was created in 1917 by A. Einstein. It was based on the relativistic theory of gravitation. Einstein abandoned the postulates of the absoluteness and infinity of space and time, however, he retained the principle of stationarity, immutability of the universe in time and its finiteness in space. The properties of the Universe, according to Einstein, are determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in it, the Universe is limitless, but at the same time it is closed in space. According to this model, space is homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. in all directions has the same properties; matter is evenly distributed in it; time is infinite, and its flow does not affect the properties of the universe. Based on his calculations, Einstein concluded that world space is a four-dimensional sphere.
The volume of such a Universe can be expressed, albeit very large, but by a finite number of cubic meters. But the universe, finite in volume, is at the same time unlimited, like the surface of any sphere. Einstein's universe contains a limited number of stars and stellar systems, and therefore the photometric and gravitational paradoxes are inapplicable to it. At the same time, the specter of heat death gravitates over Einstein's universe. Eternity is not inherent in it.
Thus, despite the novelty and even revolutionary nature of his ideas, Einstein in his cosmological theory was guided by the usual classical ideological attitude towards the static nature of the world.
5. Model of the expanding Universe. In 1922, the Soviet geophysicist and mathematician A.A. Friedman, on the basis of rigorous calculations, established that the universe cannot be stationary in any way. Friedman made this discovery, relying on the cosmological principle formulated by him, which is based on two assumptions: the isotropy and homogeneity of the Universe. The isotropy of the Universe is understood as the absence of selected directions, the sameness of the Universe in all directions. Uniformity of the Universe is understood as the sameness of all points of the Universe.
Friedman proved that Einstein's equations have solutions according to which the universe can expand or contract. In this case, it was about the expansion of the space itself, i.e. about increasing all distances in the world. Friedman's universe was like an inflating soap bubble, with both radius and surface area constantly increasing.
Initially, the model of the expanding Universe was hypothetical and had no empirical confirmation. However, in 1929 the American astronomer E.P. Hubble discovered the "redshift" effect of spectral lines. This was interpreted as a consequence of the Doppler effect - a change in vibration frequency or wavelength due to the movement of the wave source and the observer in relation to each other. The redshift was explained as a consequence of galaxies moving away from each other at a speed that increases with distance (about 55 km / s for every million parsecs).
As a result of his observations, Hubble substantiated the idea that the Universe is a set of galaxies separated by huge distances.
Friedman proposed three models of the universe.
1. The Universe is expanding slowly so that due to the gravitational attraction between different galaxies, the expansion of the Universe slows down and eventually stops. After that, the universe began to shrink. In this model, space is curved to form a sphere.
2. The universe is expanding infinitely, space is curved and infinite.
3. space is flat and infinite.
Which of these options is the evolution of the Universe, depends on the ratio of the gravitational energy to the kinetic energy of the expansion of matter.
If kinetic energy the scattering of matter predominates over the gravitational energy, which prevents scattering, then the forces of gravity will not stop the scattering of galaxies, and the expansion of the Universe will be irreversible. This version of the dynamic model of the universe is called the "open universe".
If gravitational interaction prevails, then the rate of expansion will slow down over time to a complete stop, after which the compression of matter will begin until the Universe returns to its original state of singularity. This version of the model is called the oscillating, or "closed universe".
In the case when the forces of gravity are equal to the energy of expansion of matter, the expansion will not stop, but its speed will tend to zero over time.
2. The Big Bang Concept
The idea of the development of the Universe led to the formulation of the question of the beginning of the evolution (birth) of the Universe and its end (death). There are currently several cosmological models explaining certain aspects of the origin of matter in the Universe, but they do not explain the reasons and the process of the birth of the Universe itself. Only the theory of the Big Bang by G.A. Gamow has by now been able to explain almost all the facts related to this problem. The main features of this model have survived to this day, although it was later supplemented by the theory of inflation, or the theory of the swelling Universe, developed by American scientists A. Guth and P. Steinhardt, and supplemented by the Soviet physicist A.D. Linde.
In 1948, Gamow suggested that the universe was formed as a result of a giant explosion that occurred about 15 billion years ago. Then all the matter and all the energy of the Universe were concentrated in one superdense bunch. According to mathematical calculations, at the beginning of the expansion, the radius of the Universe was zero, and its density was infinity. This initial state is called singularity.
But according to V. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, matter cannot be pulled into one point, therefore it is believed that the Universe in its initial state had a certain density and size.
The world around us is great and diverse. Everything that surrounds us, be it other people, animals, plants, tiny particles and giant clusters of stars, microscopic atoms and huge nebulae visible only under a microscope, make up what is commonly called the Universe.From time immemorial, the human mind has been interested in the question of the origin of the world. There were no such concepts as religion and science yet, and a person was already thinking about the world order and his position in the space around him.
The emergence of the universe and on this moment remains one of the most interesting and unexplored mysteries of modern cosmology. How did the Universe appear, what processes contributed to the emergence of stars, solar systems, galaxies, planets, what was before the appearance of the Universe, does it have a beginning and an end? These are just a few of the questions that modern scientists are trying to get answers to.
The question of the origin of the universe is kind of fundamental. The mystery of the origin of life on Earth, as well as the possibility of the origin of life on other planets, is somehow revealed based on the theories about the birth of the Universe.
So, there are many hypotheses about the origin of the Universe, these are scientific concepts, and individual theories, and religious teachings, and philosophical ideas, and myths about the creation of the world of ancient July. However, all of them can be roughly divided into two groups:
1. Theories of the origin of the Universe (primarily religious), in which the Creator acts as a creative factor. In other words, according to them, the Universe is a spiritualized and conscious creation, which appeared as a result of the will of the Higher Mind;
2. Theories of the origin of the Universe, based on scientific factors and rejecting both the very concept of the Creator and his participation in the creation of the world. They are often based on the principle of ordinariness, which considers the possibility of the existence of life not only on ours, but also on other planets located in other solar systems or even galaxies.
The difference between these concepts lies, first of all, in different terminologies, for example, nature - creator, creation - origin. On the other hand, in some other issues, separate scientific and religious theories overlap or even repeat each other.
In addition to various concepts about the origin of the Universe, there are also religious and scientific dating of this grandiose event. So, the most widespread scientific theory about the origin of the Universe - the Big Bang theory - claims that the Universe arose about 13 billion years ago.
According to various Christian sources, from the creation of the world by God to the birth of Jesus Christ, it took from 3483 to 6984 years. In Hinduism, approximately 155 trillion years have passed since the beginning of the universe.
However, let us consider some concepts of the origin of the Universe in more detail.
Kant's cosmological model
Until the beginning of the XX century. among scientists, the dominant theory was that the universe is infinite in space and time, static and homogeneous. Even Isaac Newton made the assumption that it is unlimited in space, and the German philosopher Emmanuel Kant, based on the works of Newton and developing his ideas, put forward the theory that the universe also has no beginning in time. He referred to the laws of mechanics and by them explained all the processes taking place in the Universe.
In his theory, Kant went even further, extending it to biology as well. He argued that in the ancient and vast Universe, which has no beginning or end, there are an infinite number of possibilities, thanks to which any biological product can appear. This theory of the possibility of the emergence of life in the Universe later formed the basis of Darwin's theory.
Kant's cosmological model was confirmed by the observations of astronomers in the 18th-19th centuries. behind the movements of the luminaries and planets. Soon, his hypothesis became a theory, which by the beginning of the XX century. was already considered the only true one. It was not in doubt, even in spite of the photometric paradox, or the paradox of the dark night sky, which consists in the fact that in the infinite Universe there are an infinite number of stars, the sum of the brightness of which should form an infinite brightness. In other words, the night sky would be completely covered with bright stars, but in reality it is dark, since the number of stars and galaxies is countable.
Einstein's model of the universe (static universe)
In 1916, the work of Albert Einstein, The Foundations of General Relativity, was published, and already in 1917, on the basis of the equations of this theory, he developed his model of the Universe.
Majority scientists time agreed on the opinion that the Universe is stationary, and Einstein also adhered to this opinion, so he tried to create a model in which the Universe should not expand or contract. In some places, this was contrary to his own theory of relativity, from the equations of which it follows that the Universe is expanding and at the same time all deceleration occurs. Therefore, Einstein introduced such a concept as the cosmic repulsive force, which balances the attraction of stars and stops the movement of celestial bodies, due to which the Universe remains static.
Einstein's universe had finite dimensions, but at the same time it had no boundaries, which is possible only when space is curved, as, for example, in a sphere.
So, space in Einstein's model was three-dimensional, it closed itself and was homogeneous, i.e. it had no center and no edges, and galaxies were evenly distributed in it.
Expanding Universe Model (Friedmann Universe, Nonstationary Universe)
In 1922, the Soviet scientist A.A.Fridman developed the first non-stationary model of the Universe, which was also based on the equations of the general theory of relativity. Friedman's works remained unnoticed at that time, and A. Einstein rejected the possibility of the expansion of the Universe.
Nevertheless, already in 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered that galaxies located near the Milky Way are moving away from it, and the speed of their movement remains proportional to distance before our galaxy. According to this discovery, stars and galaxies are constantly "scattering" from each other, and therefore the Universe is expanding. As a result, Einstein agreed with Friedman's conclusions, and later said that it was the Soviet scientist who became the founder of the theory of the expanding Universe.
This theory does not contradict general relativity, but if the universe expands, then some event must have occurred that led to the dispersal of stars and galaxies. This phenomenon was very similar to an explosion, which is why scientists called it the "Big Bang". However, if the Universe appeared as a result of the Big Bang, then there must be a Supreme Cause (or the Designer) that allows this explosion to occur.
The Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang theory is based on the fact that matter and energy, of which everything in the universe consists, were previously in a singular state, i.e. in a state characterized by infinite temperature, density and pressure. In a state of singularity, not a single law of physics operates, and everything that the Universe currently consists of was a microscopically small particle, which at some point in time entered an unstable state, as a result of which the Big Bang occurred.
Initially, the Big Bang theory was called the "dynamic evolving model". The term "Big Bang" became widespread in 1949 after the publication of the works of the scientist F. Hoyle.
At the moment, the Big Bang theory has been developed so well that scientists undertake to describe the processes that began to occur in the Universe 10-43 seconds after the Big Bang.
There are several proofs of the Big Bang theory, one of which is the relic radiation that permeates the entire Universe and emerged as a result of the Big Bang due to the interaction of particles. The relic radiation can tell about the first microseconds after the birth of the Universe, about those times when it was in a hot state, and galaxies, stars and planets had not yet formed.
Initially, relic radiation was also only a theory, and the probability of its existence was considered by GA Gamow in 1948. It was only in 1964 that American scientists were able to measure the relic radiation and prove the reality of its existence thanks to a new device that possessed the required accuracy. After that, the relic radiation was sadly studied with the help of ground and space observatories, which made it possible to see what the universe was like at the time of its birth.
Another confirmation of the Big Bang is the cosmological redshift, which consists in a decrease in radiation frequencies, which proves that stars and galaxies are moving away from each other in general, and from the Milky Way in particular.
The Big Bang theory answered many questions about the origin of our Universe, but at the same time it became the reason for the emergence of new mysteries that remain unanswered today. For example, what caused the Big Bang, why did the singularity point become unstable, what was before the Big Bang, how did time and space appear?
Many researchers, for example R. Penrose and S. Hawking, studying general relativity, added indicators such as space and time to its equations. In their opinion, these parameters also appeared as a result of the Big Bang along with matter and energy. Therefore, time also has a certain beginning. However, it also follows from this that there must be a certain Essence or Higher Mind, which does not depend on time and space, and was always present. It is this Supreme mind that became the cause of the emergence of the Universe.
Exploring what came before the Big Bang is a new chapter in modern cosmology. Many scientists are trying to answer the question of what happened before the birth of our Universe and what preceded it.
Big bounce
This interesting alternative theory to the Big Bang suggests that another universe existed before our universe. Thus, if the birth of the Universe, namely the Big Bang, was considered a unique phenomenon, then in this theory it is only one link in the chain of reactions, as a result of which the Universe constantly reproduces itself.
The theory implies that the Big Bang is not the point of origin of time and space, but also appeared as a result of the limiting compression of another Universe, the mass of which, according to this theory, is not zero, but only close to this value, while the energy of the Universe is infinite. At the moment of ultimate compression, the Universe had the maximum energy contained in the minimum volume, as a result of which a large rebound occurred, and a new Universe was born, which also began to expand. Thus, the quantum states that existed in the old universe simply changed as a result of the Big Bounce and moved into the new universe.
The new model of the birth of the Universe is based on the theory of loop quantum gravity, which helps to look beyond the Big Bang. Before that, it was believed that everything in the Universe appeared as a result of an explosion, so the question of what happened before it was practically not raised.
This theory belongs to the number of theories of quantum gravity and combines the general theory of relativity and the equations of quantum mechanics. It was offered in the 1980s. such scientists as E. Ashtekar and L. Smolin.
Loop quantum gravity theory says that time and space are discrete, i.e. are made up of discrete parts, or small quantum cells. On small scales of space and time, not a single cell creates a divided discontinuous structure, and on large scales, a smooth and continuous space-time appears.
The birth of a new Universe took place under extreme conditions that forced quantum cells to separate from each other; this process was called the Big Bounce, i.e. The universe did not appear out of nothing, as in the Big Bang, but began to expand rapidly from a collapsed state.
M. Bozhovald sought to obtain information about the Universe that preceded ours, for which he somewhat simplified some quantum-gravitational models and equations of the theory of loop quantum gravity. These equations include several parameters of the state of our Universe, which are necessary in order to find out what the previous Universe was like.
The equations contain complementary parameters that allow describing the quantum uncertainty about the volume of the Universe before and after the Big Bang, and reflect the fact that none of the parameters of the previous Universe survived after the Big Bounce, therefore, it is absent in our Universe. In other words, as a result of an endless chain of expansion, contraction and explosion, and then a new expansion, not identical, but different universes are formed.
String theory and M-theory
The idea that the universe can reproduce itself all the time seems reasonable to many scientists. Some believe that our Universe arose as a result of quantum fluctuations (oscillations) in the previous Universe, therefore it is likely that at some point in time such a fluctuation may occur in our Universe, and a new Universe will appear, somewhat different from the present one.
Scientists go further in their reasoning and assume that quantum fluctuations can occur in any quantity and anywhere in the Universe, as a result of which not one new Universe appears, but several at once. This is the basis for the inflationary theory of the origin of the Universe.
The formed universes are different from each other, different physical laws operate in them, while they are all in one huge mega-universe, but isolated from each other. Proponents of this theory argue that time and space did not appear as a result of the Big Bang, but have always existed in an endless sequence of compression and expansion of the Universes.
A kind of development of inflationary theory is string theory and its improved version - M-theory, or the theory of membranes, which are based on the cyclical nature of the universe. According to M-theory, the physical world consists of ten spatial and one temporal dimensions. In this world there are spaces, the so-called branes, one of which is our Universe, which consists of three spatial dimensions.
The Big Bang is the result of a collision of branes, which scattered under the influence of a huge amount of energy, then expansion began, gradually slowing down. The radiation and matter released as a result of the collision cooled down, and galaxies appeared. Between the branes there is a positive energy, which again accelerates the expansion, which slows down again after some time. The geometry of space becomes flat. When branes are again attracted to each other, quantum fluctuations become stronger, the geometry of space is deformed, and the places of such deformations in the future become the seeds of galaxies. When branes collide with each other, the cycle repeats.
In the above scientific concepts the emergence of the Universe, the Creator is absent as a creative spiritualized force. However, besides them, there are other theories of the appearance of the universe, in which the Supreme Mind acts as a creative factor, named in each of the theories differently.
Creationism
This worldview theory comes from the Latin word "creations" - "creation". According to this concept, our Universe, planet and humanity itself are the result of the creative activity of God or the Creator. The term "creationism" originated in late XIX century, and the supporters of this theory assert the truth of the history of the creation of the world, set out in the Old Testament.
At the end of the XIX century. there was a rapid accumulation of knowledge in various fields of science (biology, astronomy, physics), the theory of evolution became widespread. All this led to a contradiction between scientific knowledge and the biblical picture of the world. We can say that creationism appeared as a reaction of conservative Christians to scientific discoveries, in particular, to the evolutionary development of living and inanimate nature, which at that time became dominant and rejected the emergence of all things from nothing.
Christian creationism
Creationism in Christianity is represented by several currents, which differ in the degree of divergence with scientific views on the origin of the universe and the Earth.
According to young earth, or literalist, creationism, the world was created by God in 6 days, as the Bible says. At the same time, some followers (primarily Protestants) of this theory argue that the world was created about 6 thousand years ago. This statement is based on the Masoretic text of the Old Testament. Others (mainly Orthodox researchers) proceed from the text of the Septuagint (the oldest translation of the Bible) and believe that the world appeared 7.5 thousand years ago.
Followers of old-earth, or metaphorical, creationism believe that 6 days of creation is a metaphor more understandable to people of that time. In the Bible, the word "day" means rather not a day, but an indefinite period of time, therefore, one day of creation may include millions of earthly years.
At the same time, metaphorical creationism is divided into the following subspecies:
- creationism of gradual creation. The followers of this concept agree with some scientific discoveries, in particular, they accept astrophysical dates of the birth of the Universe, stars and planets, but do not accept the theory of the evolution of the formation of species in the process natural selection... They argue that it is God who influences the emergence of new and changes in existing species;
Everyone has heard of the Big Bang theory, which explains (at least for now) the origin of our universe. However, in scientific circles there are always those who want to challenge ideas - from this, by the way, great discoveries often grow.
However, Dicke realized, if this model were real, then there would be no two kinds of stars - Population I and Population II, young and old stars. And they were. This means that the Universe around us has nevertheless developed from a hot and dense state. Even if it was not the only Big Bang in history.
Amazing, right? What if there were several of these explosions? Dozens, hundreds? Science has yet to figure this out. Dicke suggested to his colleague Peebles to calculate the temperature necessary for the described processes and the probable temperature of the residual radiation today. Peebles' approximate calculations showed that today the Universe should be filled with microwave radiation with a temperature of less than 10 K, and Roll and Wilkinson were already preparing to look for this radiation when the call rang ...
Lost in translation
However, here it is worth moving to another corner. the globe- in USSR. The closest to the discovery of relic radiation came (and also did not complete the matter!) In the USSR. Having done a huge amount of work for several months, the report on which was published in 1964, Soviet scientists seemed to have put together all the pieces of the puzzle, only one was missing. Yakov Borisovich Zeldovich, one of the colossus of Soviet science, carried out calculations similar to those carried out by the team of Gamow (a Soviet physicist living in the United States), and also came to the conclusion that the Universe should have started with a hot Big Bang, which left background radiation with a temperature in a few kelvin.
Yakov Borisovich Zeldovich, -
He even knew about an article by Ed Ohm in the Bell System Technical Journal, which roughly calculated the temperature of the relic radiation, but misinterpreted the author's conclusions. Why did the Soviet researchers not understand that Ohm had already discovered this radiation? Due to a translation error. Ohm's article stated that his measured sky temperature was about 3 K. This meant that he subtracted all possible sources of radio interference and that 3 K was the temperature of the remaining background.
However, by coincidence, the same (3 K) was the radiation temperature of the atmosphere, for which Ohm also made a correction. Soviet experts mistakenly decided that it was these 3 Ks that remained with Ohm after all the previous adjustments, and they subtracted them and were left with nothing.
These days, such errors of understanding would be easily eliminated in the process of electronic correspondence, but in the early 1960s, communication between scientists Soviet Union and the United States was very difficult. This was the reason for such an insulting mistake.
The Nobel Prize that floated out of hand
Let's go back to the day the phone rang in Dicke's lab. It turns out that at the same time astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson reported that they accidentally managed to catch a faint radio noise coming from everything. Then they did not yet know that another team of scientists independently came to the idea of the existence of such radiation and even began to build a detector to search for it. It was the Dicke and Peebles collective.
Even more surprising is the fact that the cosmic microwave background, or, as it is also called, relic, radiation was described more than ten years earlier in the framework of the model of the emergence of the Universe as a result of the Big Bang by Georgy Gamov and his colleagues. Neither group of scientists knew about this.
Penzias and Wilson accidentally found out about the work of scientists under the direction of Dikke and decided to call them to discuss it. Dikke listened carefully to Penzias and made a few comments. After hanging up, he turned to his colleagues and said: "Guys, they overtook us."
Almost 15 years later, after many measurements made at various wavelengths by many groups of astronomers confirmed that the radiation they discovered was indeed a relic echo of the Big Bang, with a temperature of 2.712 K, Penzias and Wilson shared the Nobel Prize for their invention. Although at first they did not even want to write an article about their discovery, because they considered it untenable and did not fit into the model of a stationary universe, which they adhered to!
It is said that Penzias and Wilson would have found it sufficient to be mentioned as the fifth and sixth names on the list after Dicke, Peebles, Roll and Wilkinson. In this case Nobel Prize apparently Dikke would have gone. But everything happened the way it happened.
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