Monuments of Old Russian writing Russkaya Pravda. The question of the appearance of writing in Russia

Monuments of ancient Russian writing have come down to us since the era of the Kiev state.

The earliest monuments date back to the 11th century. But there are also monuments dating back to the first quarter of the 10th century. This is a monument called "Gnezdovskaya inscription", discovered during the excavation of one of the Gnezdovsky burial mounds near Smolensk (1949). The monument is an earthen vessel with an inscription, which is read in different ways: “gorukhshcha” (mustard), “gorushna” (mustard), “dog's mountain” (Gorukh wrote). Published in 1950 by D. A. Avdusin and M. N. Tikhomirov. But this monument provides little for the historical study of the language.

By the middle of the XI century. (1052, 1054) include graffiti in St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev discovered by the historian and archaeologist S.A. Vysotsky.

From the XI century came Novgorod birch bark letters, found in 1951, Novgorod letters are very important in the sense that they were written by "ordinary people", non-professionals who write a little and infrequently. This suggests that writing in Russia at that time was widespread. The importance of birch bark letters lies in the fact that they reflect the living spoken language of the people to a greater extent than any other written monuments. Monuments of the 11th century, written by scribes, are mostly church works copied from the Old Slavonic original. These include:

Ostromir Gospel 1056 - 1057 A book of gospel readings, arranged in the order in which they were read in church throughout the year. Such a Gospel is called aprakos - this is a kind of the Gospel or Apostle, otherwise called the "Weekly Gospel (Apostle)" or "Divine Gospel (Apostle)", in which the text is organized not in the natural order of books, but calendar, according to the weekly church readings, starting with Holy (Easter) week. In particular, the text of the Aprakos Gospels begins with the first chapter of the Gospel of John, and not with the Gospel of Matthew, as is customary in the usual four Gospels. Aprakos are many of the oldest Slavic evangelical manuscripts. Ostromir Gospel rewritten Deacon Gregory from the Old Church Slavonic original. It is believed that Gregory was a Kievite, summoned to Novgorod with his assistants. The Gospel is called Ostromirov after the Novgorod mayor, to whom Gregory was summoned... This monument contains ancient Russian linguistic features, since it was created in Russia. The Ostromir Gospel was published three times: in 1834. Russian philologist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov, and in 1883 and 1889. photolithographic method (photomechanical printing) at the expense of the merchant Savinkov. The monument is kept in the public library. M.E.Saltykova-Shchedrin in St. Petersburg.

Arkhangelsk Gospel 1092- Cyrillic handwritten gospel-aprakos. It is assumed that it is written in the south, how it got to the north, where it was found, is unknown. The Gospel was published in 1912. At the present time it is kept in Moscow, in the RSL.

Novgorod official men-menaea 1095 - 1097- three books of readings of religious songs and hymns, arranged by day and month (Menaion - Greek "month"). In the service Menaia intended for worship, hymnographic texts are arranged in the sequence of their reading or singing at Vespers, Matins, sometimes also at Liturgy, Compline, etc. Published in 1881. Croatian Slavic philologist, academician of the Petersburg Academy of Sciences Vatroslav (Ignatiy Viktorovich) Yagich. Currently kept in the Historical Museum in Moscow.

Svyatoslav's collections 1073 and 1076... created in Kiev for Prince Svyatoslav by Deacon John.

Izbornik 1073g. - a kind of encyclopedia of knowledge of that time in different areas of life: it contains information on astronomy, expressive means artistic speech, recommendations for eating food, information about the amount and time, etc.

Izbornik 1076 - a collection of articles of a religious and moral character. It was written on the basis of the "princely books", i.e. books stored in the library of Svyatoslav.

The first collection was published in 1880 and is located in Moscow, in the State Historical Museum; the second was published in 1876, reprinted in 1965. Academy of Sciences of the USSR with comments and indexes.

The manuscript is currently kept in the library. M.E.Saltykova-Shchedrin in St. Petersburg.

From the XI century. there are still such books as "Chudovskaya explanatory psalter", "Eugene Psalter"... The Psalter is a book of psalms. Psalms are chants (religious hymns and prayers) that make up the psalter.

The Psalter - one of the books of the Bible, contains 150 psalms, occupies an important place in the Christian cult, had a huge impact on folklore and medieval literature; in the Middle Ages it was the main educational book for mastering literacy.

Most of the XI century manuscripts. has not survived. Information about them remained only in references and in lists of manuscripts of later centuries. For example, the "Book of the Prophets" (one of the parts of the "Bible") of the Novgorod priest Ghoul Dashing (1047) has come down to us only in the list of the 16th century, the original of the 11th century. has not survived. A copy was made from the book, where the name of the ancient author was mentioned. This book was most likely intended for the church library.

Ghoul Dashing - the first known copyist of books in Russia, a priest who worked in Novgorod in 1047. In 1047 he translated and wrote The Book of the Prophets. His entry on the book is the oldest dated entry on ancient Russian books:

“Glory to you, Lord, the king of heaven, as grant me to write books of si. Is kourilovitsa prince Vlodimir Novgorod princely sons and Yaroslavl the Big. Teach you how to write in the summer of 6555 in the month of May 14. And the end of the same summer in the month of December at 19. Az priest Oupir Dashing. So I ask everyone to read this prophecy. Great are you for writing these prophecies for us in these books. May the prince be healthy and live forever, but ... do not forget what you wrote. "

By the XI century. the original inscription on the Tmutarakan stone (1068), which refers to the measurement by Prince Gleb of the width of the Kerch Strait. This inscription is interesting in that it reflects the features characteristic of the living Russian language of that time.

In the 40s of the XI century it was written "The Word of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion- the first original monument of solemn eloquence. Full title: “On the Law given through Moses, and on the Grace and Truth revealed through Jesus Christ, and how the Law departed, (a) Grace and Truth filled the whole earth, and faith spread to all nations, and to our Russian people (reached). And praise to our kagan Vlodemir Vladimir, whom we were baptized with. And a prayer to God from all our land. " In "Word ..." the Old and New Testaments are contrasted. Hilarion was the first Russian metropolitan of Kiev, lived in a country residence Kiev prince, the village of Berestove. "The Word of Law and Grace" was read by him in a solemn atmosphere in the presence of Yaroslav the Wise and his family. This work affirms the idea of ​​equality of Russia and the Russian people with all other Christian states and peoples, praises the Christian faith.

Let us turn again to the words of Hilarion: “The grace-filled faith will spread throughout the whole earth and reach our pagan Russian, but it will flood everything with the Gospel source, and it will pour out everything covering us. For already we with all Christians glorify the holy trinity, but Judea (Judaism) is silent. "

"The Word" is a patriotic publicistic work, which is an example of rhetorical formulation of thought. Known on 44 lists. It had a great influence on the development of the high style of Old Russian literature.

In the 80s of the XI century. great Russian writer Nestor the Chronicler, the author of the lives of Boris and Gleb and the oldest chronicle collection "The Tale of Bygone Years", written "Life of Theodosius of the Caves". The life has come down to us in the list of the 12th century, as part of the manuscript collection of the 12th - 13th centuries, which was kept in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin under the name "Assumption Collection".

This work begins like this: “Thank you, my master, the Lord Jesus Christ, for giving me an unworthy confessor (the one who carries the message with someone in this case with Jesus Christ) to be your saint. For first, writing about the life and about destruction, and about the miracles of the saints and blessed passion-bearers Boris and Gleb, he forced himself to begin another confession ”.

The introduction can be called a lofty example of oratorical prose.

The Life of Theodosius of the Caves tells about the birth and childhood of Theodosius, the death of his father, conflicts with his mother, and her persecution. Theodosius was an unusual child: he did not play with children, went to church every day, joined divine books, studied grammar, dreamed of going to all the places where Jesus Christ walked, and prayed incessantly. His mother wanted him to be like all children: to communicate with peers, to take care of the house. In the end, he escapes from home to Kiev (he himself lived in a suburb of Kiev), ends up in a cave to Anthony, who accepted him and tonsured him a monk at the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The description of Theodosius's life in the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery contains many interesting everyday details, in particular about the life and writing of famous figures of Russian literature of the middle of the 11th century. - Hilarion and Nikon the Great. Much attention in the life is paid to the description of the relationship of the monastery to the Kiev princes.

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* Prince of Rostov Boris was killed along with his brother Gleb by supporters of Svyatopolk.

The life also speaks about the production of books and the writing of Theodosius, it is mentioned that Theodosius was encouraged to this by the Great Nikon, the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, the chronicler who compiled the Kiev-Pechersky vault in 1073.

The relationship of the Old Russian language to the common Slavic and Old Slavic languages. The main differences between the Old Russian language and the Old Church Slavonic.

An integral part of the Old Slavic language course is the reconstruction of the Proto-Slavic language, the restoration of its history, general patterns that determine the development of all Slavic languages ​​at an early stage. In this regard, the material of the course of the Old Church Slavonic language is of a source study nature: the evidence of Old Church Slavonic monuments is evaluated primarily as a collection of the most ancient facts of Slavic language history recorded in writing. This part of the course contains data that are then summarized in the course of comparative grammar of Slavic languages ​​and used in comparative grammar of Indo-European languages. The inclusion of the material on the basis of which the history of the Proto-Slavic language is built into the course of the Old Slavic language turns this course into an introduction to the history of individual Slavic languages, including Russian. The historical grammar of the Russian language begins where the presentation of the fate of the Proto-Slavic language in the course of the Old Church Slavonic ends.

Another aspect of the connection between the course of historical grammar of the Russian language and the course of the Old Church Slavonic language concerns the characteristics of individual phenomena of the ancient Slavic languages ​​in connection with their reflection in the Old Church Slavonic texts of various editions. The analysis of such phenomena requires the involvement of specific East Slavic features opposed to the South and West Slavic ones. It is in the course of studying the course of the Old Slavonic language that one becomes familiar with the results of processes related to the immediate prehistory of the Russian language.

See the printout for the main differences between the Old Russian language and the Old Church Slavonic language.

The subject and objectives of the history of the Russian language. The main sources of the study of the Russian language in its historical development.

History of the Russian language examines int. the laws of development of the OC, the laws of its development from the most ancient period, i.e. from the moment of its separation from praslav. lang. (V - VII centuries), up to the present. comp. IS is studying all language levels in development. An object- live colloquial. speech in all its dialectical. diversity.

In the process of studying the IRL, we turn to the monuments of writing, tk. they are. witnessing the development of lang. But here you need to be careful, because noun different forms of letters. speech: 1) book-lit.(Lives, the Gospel are the most literary, but still rely on lively speech); 2) stationery(letters, notes - live speech). We will use both those and other monuments, but it is still important to distinguish between them.

The main sources in the study of the history of the Republic of Ya. Are its ancient written monuments, modern dialects and the literary language, as well as toponymy data, various facts of borrowing into Russian from other related languages ​​and unrelated and borrowings from Russian into other languages. A number of important information on the history of the Republic of Ya. Is provided by a comparative historical study of modern Slavic and Indo-European languages. The most significant material for the study of the history of development contains written records and modern Russian. dialects. Written monuments of the other Russian language, starting from the era of Kievan Rus, have come down to us in relatively large numbers. The earliest monuments date back to the 11th century, since that time 14 Novgorod birch bark letters have come down to us. For the most part, however, the monuments of the 11th century. are ecclesiastical works rewritten from Art. original.

The question of the appearance of writing in Russia. The most ancient monuments of writing.

The oldest written monuments:

1) Novg. birch bark letters, (one found in 1951 belongs to the 11th century. They occupy a special place among the monuments of Russian writing. Their authors are "ordinary people", men, women and children, not professionals who write a little and infrequently. with this, birch bark letters broadly reflect the living language of the people, reflecting it in a much larger art. than any other writing.

2) Monuments XI v. represent in the main. church. production of census. with st-slav. original.

a) Ostrom world gospel 1056-1057 biennium In its character, it is a book of the gospels. readings, spread. in the order in which they were read in the church in tech. of the year. This gospel has been transcribed from st-glories. the original by deacon Gregory, by origin, is supposed to be from Kiev, for the Novg. posadnik Ostromir (hence the name). Since this monument was created in Russia, yaz. it contains a number of dr-rus. individuals. Sharp. evang. was published 3 times: in 1843 A.Kh. Vostokov, and in 1883 and 1889. photolithograph. way to the merchant Savinkov's family. The monument is kept in Publ. biblical named after S-Shch in St. Petersburg.

b) Arkhang. gospel 1092 written in the south, but ended up in Arkhangelsk, where it was found. Published in 1912, stored in the biblical them. Lenin.

v) Novg. service menaea(1095-1097), 3 books of readings of religions. songs and hymns, dec. by day and month.

G) Svyatoslavov izborniks 1073 and 1076 were created in Kiev for Prince Svyatoslav by Deacon John. Collection of 1073 yavl. a kind of enz-diet of the then knowledge in different regions. life: it contains information on astronomy, on the paths and figures of thin. speech, it is indicated what food should be eaten in different ways. time, information is given about the number and measure, etc. Izbornik 1076 is a collection of articles religious-moralizing. har-ra. It was written on the basis of the "princely books", ie. books stored in the library of Svyatoslav. Stored in Publ. biblical named after S-Shch in St. Petersburg

3) By 11c... the original also applies. inscription on the Tmutarakan stone(1068), which refers to the measurement by Prince Gleb of the width of the Kerch Strait, the interest of this inscription for the historian lang. in what is reflected in it. a number of features that are evidently characteristic of a living Russian language. that time (spelling of the word kn # зь without b, use of perfect mhril without a ligament, form on ice)

From 12th century monuments to the law have come down to us. har-ra. Mstislav's letter- one of the ancient surviving Rus. diplomas. In terms of content, this is a deed of gift from the son of Vladimir Monomakh, the Grand Duke of Kiev Mstislav and his son Novg. Prince Vsevolod Yuryevsky monastery near Novgorod. Written in gold on parchment. Dana in Kiev approx. 1130, when both princes met there. 1132 Mstislav died.

TO 13th century includes a large number of monuments. The most important monument of this era is yavl. Novg. helmsman 1282, in comp. cat. b. found Rus. Truth... This is the original. Russian monument of the older time. He yavl. the oldest vault of Rus. laws. According to legend, " Rus. The truth"compiled by Yaroslav the Wise, but in fact it was compiled for a long time: some of the laws included in it are older than the era of Yaroslav, and some were introduced into it later. The final edition of Russkaya Pravda refers to the time after Yaroslav's death, that is, after 1054 The Russkaya Pravda came down to us in several copies, of which the oldest known list of the so-called extensive edition, found in the composition of Novg. v.). Helmsman is a collection, a collection of church decrees. and secular authorities, cash registers. church, and therefore "Russkaya Pravda", which has a different character, fell into the composition of the Helmsmen, as you can see, by accident.

TO the turn of the 13-14 centuries. rel. undated monument - Novg. chronicle (according to the Synod. list).

14th century date is one of the most important rus. monuments - Laurent. chronicle(named after the scribe) 1377, created. in Suzdal. It contains. the oldest annalistic vault- " Tale of Bygone Years". Stored in St. Petersburg, in the Publishing Library named after S-Shch.

In the 15th century. was created Walking the Three Seas Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (it came down to us in the lists of the XVI-XVII centuries) - a story about his journey to India.

TO 16th century refers to the list Words about Igor's regiment... However, like the original of the 12th century. did not reach us: he died during the Moscow time. fire of 1812 Until our time. saved 1800 edition of this list. Cr. in addition, even before the fire of Moscow, a copy was removed from the same list for Catherine II. This copy of Catherine's was also subsequently published.

All R. XVI century... typography appeared in Russia. In Moscow b. main royal printing house, in the cat. the first printers Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets worked. In 1564 the first Russian came out of this printing house. dated printed book - " Apostle". V XVII in., other printed books are published. Among them Cathedral Code 1649 - the code of laws of Moscow. state-va. However, in Xvi and in XVII centuries the manuscript is still being created. books, for example: Code of Law of Tsar Ivan the Terrible 1550, reached in the lists of the 17th century, Domostroy, Book to the Big Blueprint 1627 Life of Archpriest Avvakum(m / d 1667 and 1682), etc.

A history of nasal vowels.

Nasal vowels Ѫ, Ѧ, their changes I LANG. east Slavs.

Nasal sounds have developed in general. language during the AIA period. Slav. nose voice originated from the origin. combinations of voice. from the nose. acc.

Nasal Q arose from the origin. common Slavic combinations * on, * om, * an, * am, * ъn, * ъm. In the Cyrillic alphabet, the signs Ѧ and Ѩ were used to denote the nasal Q. Nose. sound ę designation. in the Cyrillic alphabet with the letters Ѫ and Ѭ, evolved from the common language. combinations * en, * em, * bn, * bm, * in, * im. The listed combinations were diphthongs, cat. in position before acc. or at the end of the word formed closed. syllables. Under the influence of AIA, the vowels o, e in these conditions began to be pronounced from the nose. sound, etc. eliminated closed. syllable. Compare: general glory. * ron-ka - rQka - РѪКА (pronounced RO N -KA.) - hand, obscleslav. * dъm-ti - dQ-ti - dѪti (pronounced DO M -TI) - duti, obscheslav. * zem-ti - zę-ti - ZHѦGI (pronounced SAME m TI) - reap, press. Nose. sounds in DRYa to ser. X century changed to pure vowels: q (Ѫ) nasal changed to y; a ę (Ѧ) nasal - in `a (i) with saved. MGK preceded. acc.

Opening the nose. vowels belong to rus. to the scientist A.Kh. Vostokov. He also determined the pronunciation of the nose. sounds in STSL lang.

The development process of the nose. voice. took place in all glories. lang. at an early stage of development. But only Polish. saved nose. vowels to the present time.

In SRLYa saved. in some. related words alternation, ex. by origin to the nose. sounds, for example: sound - ringing (where y is from Ѫ); memory - remember - remember (where `and from Ѧ);

5. Development of I full accord and initial combinations * -ort, * -olt.

Combinations of oro, olo, ere, barely, nah are called full-heartedness. m / d consonants within one morpheme. In STSL and sovr. bulg. lang. they correspond. disagreement, i.e. combinations of ra, la, re, le. For example, Russian peas, head acc. in STSL grakh, chapter. Full Consent a characteristic feature of the Eastern-Slav. languages. It developed on the basis of obscenities. combinations * оr, * ol, * er, * el in conv-y, when these combinations of tries. m / d acc. in a word within one morpheme. In such cases, when consonants converge, closed. syllables, for example: * gor-dъ, * gol-va. Ways to eliminate closed. syllables to glory. languages ​​were different. In language. east Slavs combinations * оr, * ol, * er, * el(conv. they are called tort, tolt, tert, telt, where t is any acc. sound) changed into oro, olo, ere, elo. Syllabus. smooth into glory. languages ​​gradually lost longitude. The loss of longitude was compensated for by development after r, l short voices. b, b- go-r ъ -d, go-l ъ -va, cat. gradually increased and became vocal. complete education oh e: go-ro-d, go-lo-va, be-re-g... In combination * telt in east-slav. lang. consonant l was a labiovelar sound, i.e. tv and somewhat labialized, This caused the voice labialization. sound ( e went to about) and combined. * telt took the form * tolt coinciding with the original * tolt... Therefore, in DRYa, on the basis of obschslav. * melko the word arose milk; * meltl - thresh... After the primordially MGK sizzling obsseslav. the combination * telt has changed into telot: * helmъ - other Russian. shelom,

The development of full accord dates back to the time before. the appearance of writing, around the 8th-9th centuries.

In DRYa widely b. not only full-voiced forms are presented, but also incomplete-voiced ones, Old Orthodox. by origin, which is explained by the proximity and interaction of these languages. in the process of forming Russian. lit. yaz .. In the result of such interaction, the vocabulary of rus. lang. enriched. In SRLYA, there are many words st-glory. or with st-slav. roots, e.g. head, country, time, cold-blooded, enemy, captive... Many of them diverged in their meanings. Wed: head and head, side and country, citizen (city dweller) and citizen, parish and power.

* ort * olt - initial combinations

If the combinations * ort * olt were under an ascending intonation, then in all dialects of the DRYa, the release from the closed syllable went the same way: in this case, the longitude in the combinations was considered in a vowel, i.e. the Slavs here had combinations * ort (* art) * olt (* alt). Therefore, the liberation from the closed syllable, carried out with the help of permutation of sounds, led to the formation of combinations rat, lat. In the Eastern and Western Slavs, rot, lot developed in place of the combinations * ort * olt, since the vowel in these combinations was short. The initial combinations ro, lo before the consonant in the РЯ developed from * ort * olt are East Slavic. Combinations of ra and la at the beginning of the word are Old Church Slavonic.

6. Secondary softening of consonants.

Secondary mitigation of consent. - the process when it is solid. agree. in front of the front vowels are given the full degree of softness

Previously, the system included:

firm in position before the voice. front. row, hard., primordially soft, semi-soft

New secondary softening of consonants b, m, v, p, d, t, s, z, n, r, l

S, z, n, p, l - coincide with the original soft

The process went through in connection with a universal feature - it is easier to distinguish between a double TV. soft

1 the composition of soft phonemes has expanded

2 solid and soft. agree. turned out to be inextricably linked with the quality of the subsequent vowel

the opposition of words and word forms began to be designated not by separate phonemes, but by syllables

this greatly limited the possibility of combining phonemes, began to limit the development of the language system.

With the continued operation of the law of the open syllable, the language system was forced to free itself from unnecessary, in this regard, the fall of the reduced ones - they were no longer needed to cover the syllable, the loss of the a-anterior phoneme after the secondary softening of consonants.

In the original system, a and a-forward are different phonemes. There was a position of reporting opposition after firm. agree .:

mal, m (i) l

Neutralization of a, a-front in position after soft consent. Matched in one alophone, which was more anterior than a.

After softening the semi-soft a-front is lost as a separate phoneme, the alophone turns out to be associated with a after hard

7. Reduced vowels. Causes and mechanism of their loss. (??)

There is a voice in the system. DRYa had 2 reducers. sound, cat. in Cyrillic they were designated by signs ъ and ь. The name "reduct." (from Lat. reductio "reduction", "weakening") these vowels. got because of their brevity and ambiguity of pronunciation. Reduced sounds ъ, ь n. back in obscheslav. lang. By origin... these vowels go back to and-e short vowels, acc. ъ to the short ŭ (Wed sts. dschi, other Russian dachi, Lithuanian dukte), and the sound Ь to ĭ (Wed sts. sheep, other Russian sheep, Lithuanian avika, lat. arls). From obscheslav. lang. short vowels b, b were inherited by all glories. language, saved for a long time. in them, but then in the process of further development, were subjected to different phonetic. changes. Moreover, in each of the groups Old Slavs. languages ​​- south., zap. and east. - the changes had their own specifics. In dr-rus. lang. reducer. b, b were not the same. in duration, and the clarity of pronunciation depended on the position (position) in the word. In strong positions b, b approached o, e ( sn, lb, dn, flax), and in weak positions reduct. b, b shorten. and weakened so much that they were completely lost: sna, forehead, dnya, flax(Wed modern Russian, sleep, forehead, day, flax). On the loss of reducers. sounds in the monuments of dr-rus. letters are evidenced by such spellings as who (vm. kto), books (vm. knigy).

V weak position reducer. b, b nah:

1) before a syllable with a voice. complete education: who, who, truth, zhdati;

2) before a syllable with strong b, b: zhnts, shvts, Smolnsk, pravdn;

3) at the end of a word: house, son, horse, autumn.

Strong the sounds b, b were in the next. provisions:

1) under beats: snooze, posl, uh;

2) before a syllable containing a weak b or b: elbow, uzk, nail, go;

3) at the root of the word in combination, with smooth p, l: g'rlo, vlna, t'lst, v'rh, slza;

4) at the end of monosyllabic words: тъ, нъ.

The fall of reduced vowels is understood as the process of loss of reduced vowels as special phonemes. If we proceed from the fact that the main differential feature of the reduced ones was their quantitative characteristics, then it should be considered that the fall of the reduced ones completed the long process of transformation of Proto-Slavic vocalism, associated with the loss of the phonological significance of the initial differences in vowel duration.

The loss of the reduced ones occurred as the disappearance of vowels to a sound zero - in weak positions and coincidence with the vowels of complete education - in strong positions. The beginning of the process, obviously, dates back to the time before the appearance of the oldest written monuments, since the most ancient texts know the omission of the letters b, b in cases where they once denoted vowels in an absolutely weak position.

The fact that the coincidence of the reduced [b, b] with [e, o] ended before the cessation of common ancient Russian linguistic changes is also evidenced by the fact that its results do not give isogloss in the territory of the spread of East Slavic languages.

8. Consequences of the fall of the reduced vowels in the area.

The process of the fall of the reducer. (in strong and weak positions) covered the entire territory of the distribution. DRYa and ended in the middle of the 13th century. Fall of reducers. led to a fundamental restructuring of the entire sound. sis. DRYA; this process caused great changes in the field of morphology.

In the vowel system abbr. number of vowels - disappeared b, b. And as a consequence of this disappearance, the sphere of the use has expanded. sounds o, e. Compare: house, ice- oh, e here are primordial: sleep, day, forehead, piece, end, whole(here about from b, e from b - sn, dn, lb, kusk, konts, vys).

After the loss of the weak b, b, the AIA was violated. Closed syllables, uncharacteristic ones appeared. for DRYa senior period. Wed: after the fall: sol, boat, all, scary; before the fall: poso-l, lo-d-ka, v-s, fear-sh-n... However, it should be borne in mind that the general tendency towards the openness of the syllable (the arrangement of sounds according to the degree of age. Sonority) persisted, and what is important, it has not lost its significance in the FRY until now.

Due to the fall of the reducer. in Russian lang. new alternations of vowel sounds arose within different forms of the same word - alternation o, e with zero sound: sleep - sleep, rye - rye, lie - lie, piece - piece, day - day, dog - dog, stump - stump... That kind of black. called phonetic. fluency on the grounds that the appearance of fluent sounds about, e is due to the clarification b, b strong and their disappearance in weak positions. From phonetic. fluency should be distinguished by analogous fluency, or imitative fluency: ice - ice, stone - stone, ditch - ditch, ceiling - ceiling... In words ice, stone, moat, ceiling vowels about, e are primordial; in indirect. the same cases (ice, stone, ditch, ceiling), the sounds about, e drop out by analogy to the forms of the r.p. sleep, day and the like ..

9. Consequences of the fall of the reduced in the area of ​​consonants.

Loss of weak reducers. in DRYA and the clarification of the strong led to the fact that the AIA and ZSS ceased to operate. As a result, the syllable has lost its autonomy. Manhood à mu-ness, mu-gesture... Syllabic section when confluent acc. becomes free. And this is reflected in the present. Russian language: sisters, sisters, sisters... That. violation of the AIA has led, At first, to a free syllable section, Secondly, to the occurrence of closed. syllables, third, it became possible to interact acc. different syllables. This interaction became possible in abs. early words (prefix + root), inside the root (within one morpheme), at the junction of the root and suffix. Within the root morpheme: bachela - bee: regressive deafness assimilation. Here - here: regressive assimilation by voicing... At the junction of the prefix and the root: do - do... At the junction of root and suffix: boat - tray... That. developed assimilation process mainly regressive... Hardness assimilation: truth is truth. Assimilation has become a common Russian. har-r and established itself as one of the phonetic. laws of Russian. lang. ... Moreover, as a result of the assimilation of sound V in a position in front of the deaf. acc. deaf arises. parallel [ f]: shop - [lafka]. Edema first appeared. sound [f] - like deafness assimilation result. BUT!!!Ф - appears only if In the labiodental... If B labial, then a sound will develop Have... In addition to assimilation, DRYa is developing dissimilation(distribution). Who: reducer. disappears and in dialects the first sound begins to be similar. There is a fricat. H. [hto] - south-rus. dialects. However, in Russian. lit. lang. this norm has not been fixed. And in Ukrainian. and Belarusian. it says. norm. Who: since in this word the affricate t'sh '+ t, then the explosive e-t is lost, and then the process of assimilation proceeds. [ INTO] - says. Russian norm. lit. lang. In Ukrainian: shsh'o à shho... In dialects of Russian. lang. the second element is lost: ch'o. Dissimilation did not become natural for the Russian. lang. Dissimilation, transformation of the combination of CHN B fell into a weak position and disappeared - who (+) whose (-) but- clears up in a strong position, hn> t sh ’(assimilation of sh on TV.) [horse wn O]. New gr. acc., cat. arose after the loss of weak reducers. Two combination became impossible for the east. Slavs: "Dl" and "Tl": vidla - fork - pitchfork- "d" drops out, vedal - vedl(kzhidlo - Polish., Russian wing). Such combinations. were at an early stage of the transformation. lang. With the loss of reducers. combinations became possible broom (b) la, sed (b) lo, but at the end of a word it is still not acceptable. Z-s, d-t- dental sounds could not be combined with j, all of them in the position before j turned into hissing, after the loss of the reducer, such a possibility appears - judgment [ü j] → [su d´j a] the possibility of combining d´j , ears → there are many such combinations, those combinations arose. acc., cat. were previously impossible for native speakers. (so it was in the dialects, which formed the basis of the Great Russian dialect). But for Ukrainian. and Belarusian dialects, this turned out to be unacceptable. They happened progressive assimilation- court j a - judging (Ukrainian), court ´z´ya(Belarusian.). The resulting combinations. not previously characteristic were not acceptable for all East. Slavs. Knowledge - knowledge (Ukrainian), life ~ - life (Russian), life (Ukrainian, Belarusian), at night - night. Simplifying two consonants ... If there are 3 cons, then they were arranged according to the principle of increasing sonority, after the loss of reducers. vowel happens consonant confluence ... Combination ACC with e rdtse (after p "b" is in a strong position, and after q - in a weak position, therefore it falls out and a combination of 3 consonants is obtained - behold pdc e but we say heart, but we can check the word cordial). RDC - a rare combination, more common - Private label th (s) st (s) ny(everything in brackets dropped out), other combinations - STG ch (t) (b) ga - s (t) ga - zga(path, from here the path). D ъ ska - dsg - cka(this word is still preserved in northern dialects, has a very narrow sphere of use, the board on which the icon is written). Dstokan - stokan- with the development of acanya - Cup... The resulting combinations. acc. are simplified - this leads to change. the shell of the word. Yavl. end of word. At the end of a word, vowels are full and short. education and acc. a sound not supported by a vowel begins to behave arbitrarily - dhd b - [d'et]- stun. call. at the end of a word occ. to the center. dialectal dialect, but not con. ukr.x dialects, but on the other hand, con. Belarusian. dialects. In ukr. same dialects preserved. voiced pronunciation → [ did] Is a cas. absolutely all calls. acc. sounds. In Russian. dialects stunning the consonant at the end of the word took natural character, absolutely everything in the Russian language obeys him. Hardening of labial consonants - b, p, (c), Steppe - [step](Ukrainian) phonetic transformation leads to transformation in gender - in Russian. steppe language - f.r., in ukr. - m.r., / dove - or a solid sound in Ukrainian. [blue], [golup '] [golup]... The sound "m" becomes mhk - [seven], there are fluctuations [this]. Blood - [crof´], there are fluctuations - [crof]. Ship - [ship] or [ship´] - stun [krap]. Ruble - [rup´] or [rup]. Crane - [crane]... Gubn. in k. words harden in mosk. colloquially preserved. soft mouth sounds, excl. sound "m". At the end of the word, various kinds of simplifications were still possible - ~ smm, mok l // - could (l). "B" - labial-dental sound will give "f", labial-labial → "w", non-syllable TV. at the end of the word ў, Belarusian. lang. isp. directly such a designation for this sound is ў. [lof] Russian [loў] - Belarusian. Lov- ukr., But pronounce ў, although denoted. - v.

10. Changing combinations like * tьrt, * tьlt, * tьrt, * tьlt. Development of the II full accord.

Phenomenon II of full accord (2P). 2P - change of reducers. in combination * tьrt, * tьlt, * tьrt, * tьlt... In combination. reducer. + smooth r, l nah. m / d two acc. under the influence of AIA. r, l get the syllable à tb-p 0 -gb, vv-p 0 -xb. General Russian. trend - bargaining, top ... However, in dialects other phenomena can occur here. One of the so. Sp. on this issue belongs Potebne and Sobalevsky, cat. believe that the east. Slavs in the additional letter. period in these combinations. developed add. reducer.: тъ-р-б-гъ, вь-р-б-хъ à hence such forms as torog, verekh, tk. general Russian. the tendency is the clarification of the reducers. with smooth acc.... Myself term 2P introduced Potebnya... Those. this t. sp. based on the fact that the syllable of the smooth in the east. Slavs were eliminated due to the development of b, b after syllabic acc. Second t. Sp. belong Shakhmatov, cat. justified it the influence of church glories. lang.(yuzhn-slav): trg, dlg, vrkh. At east. Slavs reduce. preceded by a smooth one. And in the south. Slavs reduce. stood after smooth. Those. Shakhmatov explains the influence of letters:

Those. we observe the layering of two processes. This phenomenon is widespread. In Russian. dialects can still be found: мъл о ni ~ - molonya. This phenomenon is called 2P, because it arose on a different basis and is associated with the fall of the decomposers. This phenomenon is found in sowing. dialects. As a result of this phenomenon in lit. lang. we have saved. 2P. Vr o v (community) - rope(2nd full agreement), plo n - full, dal o gb - long... This phenomenon is partially reflected in ukr. lang.: trn - t [e] r [e] n... Clarification of the reducers. in combination. with smooth acc. slowed down the process of the fall of reducers. (11th - mid 13th centuries). General Russian. the tendency is the clarification of the reducers. in E, O a and, as a consequence, the development of 2P. [Russian: top, long, wolf- ukr .: top, dovgy, wovk- Belarusian: top, doug, wook ]

But in other glories. languages ​​reduce. could be lost and saved. syllabic smooth: Czech. vr o h(top), tr o g(bargaining), bulg. clearly, Serbo choir. zr o but... In combination b + l a y: Serbo choir. вълкъ - wook, yellow - horrible... Those. in glory. lang. loss of reducers. led to various changes. In the group of combinations * trъt, * tlъt, * trьt, * tlьt reducer. was syllabic. Therefore, sonorous in these combinations. were not syllabic. In these combinations. there was a trace. changes: reduced sounds in strong positions become clearer, and in weak ones they disappear: glutka - pharynx (in a strong position it becomes clear), but: gltati - gluta about tati (and here L became smooth) .Krst - cross (b), but: krstiti - kr about sti. After the loss of weak reducers. P, L get syllable. That. in this group in prasslav. lang. there was no syllable. smooth, the syllable opened the following reduced one. In a weak position after the loss of reducers. R, L acquired syllables. In DRYa, as soon as new syllable R, L appeared, the process of loss of syllable began and immediately the desire to restore the vowel: anxiety... And in other glories. lang. syllabic smooth ones appeared again: Czech. hl o tati, sl o za, and in Serbian b + l à y: [suza]. The emerging syllabic smooth (tr o (b) voga, gl o (b) tati) in the west. and southwest. dialects (Ukraine, Belarus) eliminated syllables in another way, they developed Y, I: ukr. triviality-white. anxiety; ukr. glitch- white glitats... In Russian. lang. "Difficult pronunciation" is simplified: P o (s) skov - Pskov, cr o (s) sti - xstiti (Okst! Cross!) When the reducer. occurs at the beginning of the word r (b) zany (oh), then with the loss of the reducer. immediately in dialects there is an adjoining sound: orzhany, arzhany, irzhany... This dialectal phenomenon is alive and now in the north. And in the south. dialects. And in lit. lang. this phenomenon is enshrined in the name of the city: rsha a Orsha.

11. Change e> ‘o

e → e (original) village, wife

f → b (strong)

e → ѣ (ē) (closed) vѣra, mѣra.

We only take 1 and 2 positions. The E of b clears up in a strong position and then clears up in O. CONDITION: inside the word after the soft before the next. tv with "aelo - solo;" zhena - zh'ona; n "bs - p" es - p "os. The transition process refers to the moment when the reducer becomes clear. 12c. What influenced the development of this pronunciation? When the AIA and ZSS ceased to operate, it became possible to influence acc. to the voice. This phenomenon occurs. in front of tv. acc. Solid acc. region labialization. That is, acc. sound conveys labialization to a vowel. E with labialization goes into O. O was previously used only after TV. This phenomenon did not cover all dialects. Widely represented in the North Great Russian. dialects (okan and yokan). First. such a transition was not associated with beats. Now traceable means. connection with ud. (eagle, fun). The first cases of reflection of the transition e to o date back to the end of the 11th century. in Izbornik Svyatoslav. However, in most sources from the 12th century. 12th - 15th centuries - process development. In the 15th century. the process ceases to exist, and this reflection remains only on the dialect. ur .. Western-Belarusian. dialect is widely spread. this is a phenomenon. To the Belarusian. language reflects this phenomenon. in the norms of lit. lang. in beats positions. Ukr. lang. it doesn't reflect. The first cases of transition from e to o were noted after soft hissing: zhovty - zhlt, human, zanyomy. Go e to o after spike. is common for Ukrainian. Belarusian. and Russian. Causes of decline: 1. part of the dialect split off due to the appearance of AND in the next position: STONE. 2.begins came through bookishness and yavl STSL: victim, cave, universe

Not realizing the transition to the words that came from STSL - sky, finger, cross; in later borrowings - theme, newspaper, meter.

Sound c hardened to 16 in., although it was originally soft: merchant, father... These words do not have a transition, because was still soft female: N saved for a long time. its softness. How was this conveyed in the monuments of writing? Specialist. there was no sign, and the tradition is very strong. Native speakers convey this in different ways: io - after a soft acc. sound. This pronunciation was in Lomonosov's gram, although Lomonosov himself was incl. of this norm in lit. the norm and translated this pronunciation into the lower style (tiox). A.S. Pushkin introduces this phenomenon into poetry and prose. In orthography, it was first reflected in two ways: io, yo. Karamzin later suggested Y. This was the reform of 1918. This facilitated literacy. The reform of 1956 abolished the obligatory use of Y. Yo is now in the main. noun to distinguish between forms: recognizes and recognizes. This is yavl. comp. the specifics of east. Slavs (Russian and Belarusian). And now we are writing about after sizzling, if there are no single roots. There is a transition at the end of the word: shoulder (where H is primordially soft), face - face. There is no influence of the afterbirth. acc .. There is an adaptation to other names, ie alignment of gram. forms cf. kind.

12. History of the phoneme yat

ĕ (ѣ) → ẽ narrow (closed) lit. sẽmen

ĕ (ѣ) → * oi, * ai * koina c ѣ in lit. kaina

The letter ѣ denoted, according to Shakhmatov, a special sound, a cat. in DRYA it was pronounced as a diphthong IE or as an E closed. Differential. pronunciation ѣ gradually disappeared, and in its place in many dialects of dr-rus. lang. began to pronounce I or E, depending on. on which of the components of the diphthong was enhanced. In the 11th century. there is a replacement for e in Novg. service menaea: shl e m'm, t'rp and nie-yot. In the Galician-Volyn dialects, which later formed the basis of the Ukrainian. lang., in Novg., Pskov yat in pronunciation approached I, in most of the Russian dialects to E. Moscow vernacular learns yat as E. Lomonosov believed that he should pronounce E-DIBELOE. In the 17th century. in Moscow dialects yat are pronounced as E. In 1918 yat was eliminated. However, in Russian. there are deviations (it is pronounced like I in rarely used words): sat down - sit - you sit (like it), myzinets - little finger. The first cases of the transition to e belong to the 14th century. end. in the 17th century. In ukr. in place yat is pronounced i, and in Russian and Belarusian e. ukr. lis, and rus. and white Forest. In sev-rus. dialects are marked with the pronunciation of IE, I, ế closed on the spot yat: hlieb, sieno, lies; hl b, sếno, lếs, and in Novgorod there is bread, hay, wood. ế

13. Major historical changes in the category of gender of nouns.

14. Major historical changes in the category of numbers.

This is a borderline. (active and lively nouns - f, m). Cat. soul. not explicit we will extricate gram. To K. praslav. period among carriers of lang. there was a demand for gram-ki to extract the spirit of an object. This was the result of phonetic and synth use. I.p: name; V.p: specify.

Phonetic change:

I. p. * mong- ọs (husband) → mѪzh → mozh

V. p. * mong- ọm → can → can

Pr: Otts love son → R.p.

R. p. used to express an object when negated.

Control. R. p. in ƒ add. presence; carriers of the language began to use this category with the names of persons. This tendency is developing in all prasslav-x-yaz-x.

NS: uzre iisus a ( R.p.); father, son, prince - some of the first acquired spirit.

* Does not express the spirit: slave, servant.

* Odush noun - prince- often. consumed with I. p.

By 16 in appeared. kateg air in zh.r.

Fully formed by 18. category of soul.

Residual forms in cat's categories. souls are not expressed: " From rags to riches. "

16. Major historical changes in the declension of a noun: singular. (?)

V Old Russian language by the era of the beginning of writing, there was a multitype declension, which was expressed in the fact that the same cases in nouns different types declensions had different endings. V early period In the Proto-Slavic language, each type of declension was characterized by the last sound of the stem, depending on which vowel or consonant the stem ended in (later the final sound departed to the ending, i.e. morphemes were re-decomposed in favor of the ending).

1. Words with a stem on * o had a hard and soft (* jo and words like father, where there was no * j, and a primordially soft consonant arose from a back-lingual consonant after a front vowel according to the third palatalization) varieties of declension. This type of declension included the words of the masculine and neuter gender, which have in Him. n., respectively, the endings -ъ, -o after a hard consonant - stol, village and -ь, -e after a soft consonant - horse, field, as well as masculine words - such as edge, robbery.

2. Words with a stem on * a had a hard and soft (* jа and words like a maiden, where there was no * j, and the primordially soft consonant arose from the back-lingual field of the front vowel as a result of the third palatalization) varieties of declension. This type of declension included a) feminine nouns that have in them. n. endings -а, -'а (water, earth), b) some masculine nouns on –а, -'а (servant, voivode, youth), c) masculine nouns on –ii (judges, helmsmen), d) feminine nouns in –yni (knyagyni, slaves).

3. Words with a stem in * i were masculine and feminine words that have in Him. n. ending –ь. Feminine nouns at the end of the stem could have both a semi-soft consonant (bone) and a primordially soft consonant (night), and masculine nouns before the ending could only have a semi-soft consonant, and not a primordially soft consonant. It is the semi-soft consonant in Him. and B. cases and allows to distinguish masculine words with stems on * o and * i: cf. the word path, where the stem ends in a semi-soft consonant (if * j were present here, then * tj would give [h ’] in the Old Russian language); Wed also a dove, where there is a semi-soft consonant at the end of the stem (if there were * j, then * bj would give [bl ']), therefore, these are words with a stem on * i.

4. Several masculine nouns with the ending -ъ in Im were related to words with a stem ending in * u. p. after a hard consonant: son, dom, vrkh, vol, half ‘half’, ice, med, possibly also the words ryad, dar, chin, pir and some others.

5. Nouns with a stem ending in * u included several feminine words with the ending -ы in Im. p .: father-in-law, tsrky, lyuby, etc.

6. Nouns with a base on a consonant are subdivided into several groups depending on the consonant base, which manifests itself in indirect cases or cognate words: a) with a base on * n (m. P.) - dn and root; b) with a stem on * n (cf. p.) - im., sm. (compare name, seed); c) with a base on * s (cf. p.) - miracle, heaven (cf. miracles, heavenly); * n (m. r.) - kama, remy (compare stone, belt), g) with a stem on * r (f. r.) - mother, dchi (compare mother, daughter); e) with a stem on * t (cf. p.) - tel., goat. (cf. in the proverb “Catch our calf and the wolf”).

The history of nouns is that instead of six types of declension, three types of declension were established (productive declensions became the basis of such a combination). If initially the division of words by types of declension was formed on the basis of a semantic feature, then the beginning of a change in the types of declension was laid by the influence of generic differentiation of words. In the Old Russian language, initially, words of different genders were included in many types of declensions. This can be represented as the following diagram:

Feminine words

* a - productive

* i - productive

* u - unproductive

consonant * r - unproductive.

Masculine words

* o - productive

* a - unproductive

* u - unproductive

* i - unproductive

consonant * n - unproductive.

Neuter words

* o - productive

consonant * n, * s, * t - unproductive

In the modern Russian literary language, there are three productive declensions - the first, second, third, which combined the following former types of declensions:

The I declension includes words with the former stem on * a (water, damsel) and * u (letter); in declension II - with the former stem on * o (wolf, father, window, sea), * u (son), * i (guest) and a consonant * n (stone), * s (miracle), * t (calf ); in the III declension - with the former stem on * i (night), * u (church), * r (daughter).

In some cases, words did not immediately move from unproductive to productive declension, but had an intermediate stage in their history. So, the word day was originally declined to the consonant * n. This is the only noun of the masculine gender, in the word forms of which, not only in the literary language, but also in dialectal speech, the old endings were retained for a long time (cf. R. - M. pad. Dne). This word very early acquires the form on –en and coincides in phonetic appearance and morphological structure with the masculine words with the former stem on * i, and then, together with these words, moved to the stem on * o.

Giving a characteristic of a particular noun, for each word form it is necessary to indicate whether it is original or new. In the original forms, the ending that was originally in the Old Russian language or survived phonetic change(for example, the sound [m] coincides with [e]). Forms that have experienced grammatical changes are called new.

17. Unification of types of declension in plural forms.

18. History of the masculine plural nominative forms. The development of variance in them. The case of the plural. (??)

1. Forms such as tables, pillars, gardens are new for the Russian language, because in the Old Russian language, originally there was a form of a table, a pillar, a sadi. This grammatical change can be explained by the interaction of Him. and V. cases. If in the modern Russian language the choice of the ending -и or -ы depends on the final consonant of the stem, then in the Old Russian language in the solid version: pad. –And, V. pad. –Y, but in a soft version: Im. pad. –And, and V. pad. –H. As a result of the general tendency towards rapprochement and unification, there is a loss of differences between the forms of Him. and V. cases. In the hard version, the V. pad. Form won, and in the soft version, the form of Im. pad. Only two words of the solid version (neighbors, devils) have retained their original form. pad.

2. The forms of the side, eyes, shores are also new (or rather, rethought): in the Old Russian language, from the names of paired objects, the forms of the dual number were used mainly (cf. . - sides). In the literary language, the former form of dv. numbers, but in some dialects (compare dialects adjacent to the Belarusian language) regular forms can be used - for example, eyes.

3. Forms such as islands, snows, forests, voices, teachers are new because have undergone grammatical changes. In such cases, the occurrence new form due to several reasons: a) the influence of masculine nouns denoting paired objects (see sides); b) masculine nouns are included in the same declension type as neuter nouns, where the ending -а was original (seas, villages); c) in the plural in the 17th - 18th centuries. in D., T., M. pad. Unified forms with the endings -am, -ami, -ax (from the slope-

niya with a stem on * a), that is, [a] acts as an indicator of the plural form, which also affects the consolidation of a in Him. pad. pl. h

4. The words of the gentlemen, the watchman require special attention. Initially, the words lord and gentlemen are different words.

The word gentlemen previously referred to declension with a stem on * a and denoted the totality of a plurality (compare in the Pskov and Novgorod written monuments this word was used to denote persons who govern the state). This word had a syntactic peculiarity: the predicate was in plural with it. number, which led to the fact that the word of the Lord began to be perceived as plural. number from mr.

5. Collective nouns denoting a collection of animals, plants, objects, were formed using the suffix –j-: leaf - leaf, chair - chair. Collective nouns were grammatically different from modern collective nouns, because could vary in numbers: a leaf is a collection of leaves of one plant ’, and leaves‘ about several leaves ’. Thus, the form of a leaf is a natural form of collective nouns of plural. h. Wed gender (compare with specific nouns m. r. im. pad. pl.: sheets< листи).

6. Forms of townspeople, Romans are primordial. Such words in the singular were declined by declension with a stem to * o, and in the plural - by declension with a stem to a consonant * n. Then, in the plural, they lost the singularity -in.

19. History of pronouns.

In the original. sist. were: personal, reflexive, indicative, possessive, attributive, interrogative, relative, negative, indefinite.

two types of declensions:

Personal and reflexive pronouns.

Impersonal pronouns.

Character. peculiarity:

Lack of personal pronoun. 3 persons

Suppletivism of foundations in the declension paradigm

Communication changes with phonetic. phenomena:

Fall reduced

Change E short (yat) in E

Hardening M in some forms is impersonal. pronoun.

Morph. cheating. - complete loss of the dual number

* personal places. YAZ with [j] in front of A to the 12th century. transformed into I. In the written tradition - in different ways

* from the end of the 14th century in personal pronoun. ME, YOU, YOURSELF - appeared. final ["a] - me, you, myself.

Why? 1) under the influence of enclitich. forms of Win. pad. these pronouns. MY, CH, SY (Yagich)

2) by analogy with the forms of the genus pad. noun from skl. on * -ŏ type "horse, sea" (Sobolevsky)

3) since change [e] to ["a] in an impediment. position with stress on 1 syllable (chess)

In some. Russian conversations - primordial forms.

* YOU, YOURSELF ---> YOU, YOURSELF. m. this is a borrowing of the form of dates = local. pad. from the old man. lang .; m. change from O to E, or inter-syllable assimilation.

* were enklitich. date forms. and wines. n. personal and return. pronoun. MI, MA (1l, unit h), TI, TYA, NY, YOU, SI, SYA. These forms were lost quite late (those times! God knows you!). СЯ ---> into the particle СЯ (return ph. Verb.)

6. personal pronoun. 3 persons:

a) it was not in other Russian languages. Have been indicated. pronoun. I, I, E (m \ zhsr.r). Later in them. - he, she, it, in other cases - remained and, I, e.

b) new personal. mstm. 3l. differed from the original indications of mstm in stress (sheA and She, Onaya)

c) a single form of them has been established

d) after the prepositions B, K, C in oblique. in case of mstm, the initial H appeared (to him, with him, in him)

7.Indicate. pronoun.

differed semantically: if they talk about a subject close to the author, then mstm CH, SI, CE, if the interlocutor - THAT, TA, THEN, if about a distant one - I, I, E, then HE, SHE, IT.

2) THAT appears. since doubling is short and inexpressible. forms Tb in other p. : ТъТЪ, after pad. reducer. THAT

3) TOGO is pronounced [tavo], because weakening of g-plosive, development of labial B m-du oo + akane

4) TE replaced the original forms of them. plural m.zh.sr. childbirth TI, YOU, TA

5) THIS, THIS, THIS = indicate. particle E + indicate. msmtm. that, that, that. - pronoun. an indication of an object close to the speaker.

20. History of forms of the present time. History of athematic verbs in Russian. (??)

In the forms of the present - simple future tense, special commentary is required for the forms of the 2nd and 3rd persons sing. h., the rest of the forms mostly survived only phonetic changes.

Present conjugation of verbs:

I class II class III class IV class V class

carry the articles of the nobility praise being and dati

units h. 1 l. Nesou stanow I know I praise I am ladies

2nd l. carry it stand know it praise you dasi

3rd l. to bear to begin to know to praise there is to give

pl. h. 1 l. we will know we will praise I am ladies

2nd l. carry you will know praise the essence of dasta

3rd l. to praise the essence to give

dv. h. 1 l. nonsev ѣ stanevh knowingѣ praising esvѣ giving

2nd l. bearer will become know praise eata dasta

3rd l. bearer will become know praise eata dasta

It should be noted that in the forms of the 2nd and 3rd person unit. h. and in the 1st person plural. h. there was a transition [e> ‘o] (by analogy and in the 2nd person plural).

In the form of the 2nd person unit. h. in the Old Slavonic language there was only the ending -shi, and in the Old Russian language we meet both -shi and -shh, the latter was fixed in the Russian language. This ending can be considered as a result of the tendency to reduce syllables in the ending, which was possible, since and after that the morphological appearance of the form remained complete, i.e. the form was not homonymous with any other form.

In the form of the 3rd person unit. h. in the Old Russian language there was an ending -t(with -ty in Old Church Slavonic), but from about the XIII century. the ending -т also appears in the Old Russian language. In addition, in the XII - XIV centuries. the forms of the third person are also recorded. and many others. hours without endings, they can be classified as dialectal formations. The ending - тъ in linguistics is explained in different ways. A. A. Shakhmatov believes that the hardening [t '] occurred after the loss of the reduced ones, but it should be noted that not all words received hardening (cf. the reversed adverb). SP Obnorsky believes that [t] is a member of the demonstrative pronoun (тъ attached the meaning of definiteness, and forms without endings - indeterminacy). PS Kuznetsov gives an explanation of this phenomenon, indicating two reasons: phonetic (articulation of less tension) and morphological (as the subject, it was strengthened in the singular).

History of future times.

From praslav. language DRYa inherited 2 forms of bud.time. – simple bud. and folded. bud. time. Development of forms bud. simple planned back in praslav. language based on the present. vr... Verb forms SV with prefixes in the present. time. comp. simple bud.time Prefixed verbs indicate future action. As the species is formed, there is a demarcation of the present / bud.time.

The verbs SV form the future simple, and the verb. NSV form the present time. and the future is difficult.

Don't ~ dem(present time - we will not go) neither on horseback nor on air.

In dr-rus. simple period bud. time. nah. in the stage of formation, and with graduation. contrasting SV / NSV form-Xia simple bud. time. Forms and endings as in the present. time.

But now we can answer the question posed by the TV presenter of the channel "Russia 1": how did it happen that the events in Kiev, described by Bulgakov, repeated after 96 years?

• Introduction
  • Book history subject
  • A brief overview of the main literature on the history of Russian and Soviet books
  • Periodization of the history of the book
• Writing and book business in Russia in the 9th-15th centuries.
  • The origin of the Slavic writing
  • Spreading a letter in Ancient Rus
  • Books in Ancient Rus X-XII centuries. Topic and types of books
  • Book business in Russia XIV-XV centuries.
  • Monuments of book writing of the XIV-XV centuries.
  • Writing material and tools. Handwritten book decoration
• The beginning of book printing and book business in Russia in the 16th century.
  • General characteristics of the book business to the beginning of printing
  • Subjects and types of handwritten books. Monuments of book writing of the 16th century.
  • Reasons for the introduction of book printing in the Moscow state
  • Anonymous typography and dead-end publications
  • Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets. Moscow period of activity
  • Ivan Fedorov's activities in Lithuania and Ukraine
    • Ivan Fedorov's activities in Lithuania and Ukraine - page 2
  • Printing in Moscow after the departure of Ivan Fedorov. His successors - Andronic Nevezha and Nikifor Tarasiev
• Book in Russia in the 17th century.
  • General characteristics of the book business in the XVII century.
  • Handwritten book
  • Book centers
  • Subjects and types of handwritten books
  • Handwritten newspaper "Chimes"
  • Forbidden Literature and Book Censorship in the 17th Century
  • Activities of the Moscow Printing House
  • Contents and topics of printed books of the 17th century. First secular printed books
• • Book in Russia in the first half of the 18th century.
  • Reform of the alphabet and printing
  • General characteristics of the book business
  • The beginning of book printing in St. Petersburg
  • Themes and types of publications of the first quarter of the 18th century.
  • The first Russian printed newspaper
  • Handwritten book
  • Characteristics of the book business in 1725-1750
  • Publishing activity of the Academy of Sciences
  • Subjects and types of publications
    • Subjects and types of publications - page 2
• • Book in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
  • General characteristics of the book business. Decree of 1783 on "Free Printing Houses"
  • Subjects and types of publications
  • Publishing activity of Moscow University
  • "A meeting trying to translate foreign books into Russian"
  • Publishing activity of N.I. Novikova
    • Publishing activity of N.I. Novikova - page 2
  • Publishing activity of A.N. Radishcheva
  • Publishing activity of I.A. Krylova
  • Provincial publishing houses
• • The book in post-reform Russia (second half of the 19th century)
  • General characteristics of the second book business half of the XIX v. Themes of books
  • The main bourgeois educational publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century.
    • The main bourgeois educational publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century. - page 2
    • The main bourgeois educational publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century. - page 3
    • The main bourgeois educational publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century. - page 4
  • Democratic publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century. The publishing activity of the revolutionary democrats
    • Democratic publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century. The publishing activity of revolutionary democrats - page 2
    • Democratic publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century. The publishing activity of revolutionary democrats - page 3
    • Democratic publishing houses of the second half of the 19th century. The publishing activity of revolutionary democrats - page 4
  • Publication of "books for the people"
  • Creation of a free Russian press abroad. Publishing activity of A.I. Herzen
    • Creation of a free Russian press abroad. Publishing activity of A.I. Herzen - page 2
  • Illegal revolutionary printing houses and publications of the 60-70s. XIX century.
    • Illegal revolutionary printing houses and publications of the 60-70s. XIX century. - page 2
    • Illegal revolutionary printing houses and publications of the 60-70s. XIX century. - page 3
  • Publishing activity of the first Russian Marxist organizations. The beginning of the publication and distribution in Russia of the works of K. Marx and F. Engels
    • Publishing activity of the first Russian Marxist organizations. The beginning of the publication and distribution of the works of K. Marx and F. Engels in Russia - page 2
• The book in Russia during the period of imperialism (late 19th - early 20th centuries)
  • Legislation on the press. Censorship
  • General characteristics of the book business in 1895-1917. Themes of books
    • General characteristics of the book business in 1895-1917. Book topics - page 2
  • The main bourgeois educational publishing houses of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
    • The main bourgeois educational publishing houses of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. - page 2
  • Progressive publishing houses of the early XX century.
    • Progressive publishing houses of the early XX century. - page 2
  • Illegal publishing activities of Marxist revolutionary organizations
    • Illegal publishing activities of Marxist revolutionary organizations - page 2
    • Illegal publishing activities of Marxist revolutionary organizations - page 3
  • Bolshevik legal publishing houses
    • Bolshevik legal publishing houses - page 2
  • conclusions
• • The book during the Great October Socialist Revolution and civil war(1917-1920)
  • The state of the printing industry
  • Organization of the first Soviet publishing houses
    • Organization of the first Soviet publishing houses - page 2
  • Private and cooperative publishing houses
  • Organization of the State Publishing House of the RSFSR
  • Publication of books in the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR
• • The book during the period of the restoration of the national economy and the beginning of industrialization (1921-1929)
  • General state of book publishing
  • Gosizdat activities
  • Activities of other state and party publishing houses
  • Cooperative and private publishing houses
  • Organization of the publication of books in the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR
  • Publication of socio-political books
  • Publication of technical and natural science books
  • Publishing encyclopedias and reference books
  • Publication of fiction
• • The book during the period of reconstruction of the national economy and the consolidation of socialist society (1930-1941)
  • Restructuring of the publishing industry. Creation of OGIZ (1930)
  • Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) "On publishing". Further typification of publishers
  • Publication of socio-political books
  • Publication of technical and natural science books
  • Publishing agricultural books
  • Publication of fiction
  • Publication of books for children and youth
  • The role of A.M. Gorky in the development of publishing
• The book during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945)
  • Condition of the printing base
  • General state of book publishing
  • Publication of socio-political books
  • Publication of military and military-technical books
  • Publication of technical and natural science books
  • Publication of fiction
• • The book during the period of the restoration of the national economy and the completion of the construction of socialism (1945-1958)
  • Recovery and development of the printing industry
  • General state of book publishing
  • Publication of socio-political books
  • Publication of technical and natural science books
  • Publishing agricultural books
  • Publication of fiction in the post-war period
  • Publication of children's books
• • Book in the period of developed socialism and the transition to communism
  • Condition of the printing base
  • General state of book publishing
    • General state of book publishing - page 2
    • General state of book publishing - page 3
  • Publication of socio-political books
    • Publication of socio-political books - page 2
  • Publication of technical and natural science books
  • Encyclopedic editions
  • Publishing agricultural books
  • Publication of fiction
    • Publication of fiction - page 2
  • Publication of books for children and youth
  • conclusions

Monuments of Old Russian book writing of the XI-XIII centuries.

Handwritten books of the XI-XIII centuries. not so many have survived to this day. According to the Archaeographic Commission, from the XI century. 33 manuscripts have survived, and from XII - 85, although at that time there were undoubtedly a significant number. According to some experts, in the XI-XIII centuries. in Russia, at least 85 thousand church books were in circulation.

Frequent fires, civil strife and invasions of nomads, leading to the devastation of cities and villages, were the reasons for the death of ancient Russian book depositories and remarkable written monuments. In 1185, during a huge fire in Vladimir Rostov, "no less the whole city and churches 32" burned down, all things, jewelry and books were taken out into the courtyard, but "the fire took everything without leakage." The Laurentian Chronicle under 1163 describes the capture of books by the Polovtsy from Kiev. Telling about the attack of the Livonians on the Pskov region in 1240, the chronicler notes: "And there was a lot of evil: churches and honest icons and books and euangelism were destroyed."

During the Tatar-Mongol invasion, trying to save the most valuable books, the Russian people hid them in stone churches, but this did not help either. According to the chronicler, during the capture of Vladimir in 1237, the Tatars plundered the church treasures and books "odrasha and put themselves in full." In 1382, on the eve of the invasion of Moscow by Khan Tokhtamysh, so many books were brought to the Kremlin from all over the city and from neighboring villages "for the sake of protection" that they filled the cathedral churches to the very rafters. A lot of books were destroyed in 1571 during the invasion of Devlet-Giray's troops, in 1574, when almost all of Moscow was burned down, during the years of the Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the 17th century.

Books perished from other reasons as well. They were dilapidated, torn, deteriorated from inept storage. "Cheti", i.e. books intended for reading, especially the most popular ones, were read to the core. Precious parchment sheets of books were used for pasting walls instead of wallpaper, for binding other books, destroyed by rats, etc.

For all these reasons, many valuable handwritten books have come down to us in a damaged form and are difficult to restore: many sheets are missing, there is no beginning or end, the parchment sheets are rotten, the ink has faded, etc. However, each surviving ancient parchment sheet of a manuscript or an old manuscript can be of great cultural and scientific value and require the most careful attitude and attention.

The oldest surviving Russian books date back to the 11th century. There are a little more than two dozen of them (including excerpts), most of them are liturgical or religiously moral, six Mena, four Gospels, four Psalms; the lives of the saints, the writings of the church fathers.

The rarest and most precious monument of ancient book writing is the famous Ostromir Gospel, kept in the State Public Library named after M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in Leningrad. This earliest dated Russian book was written by the scribe deacon-Gregory by order of one of the confidants of the Kiev prince Izyaslav - the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1056-1057. It contains 294 parchment sheets, large format.

The Ostrom World Gospel is written in a large, clear charter, richly decorated with figured headpieces and initials, brightly painted with unfading colors (green, red, blue and white) and circled in pure (overlaid) gold. Attached to the Gospel are three large images of the Evangelists (John, Luke and Mark), executed with amazing art)

The initials are the most remarkable feature of the decoration of the Ostromir Gospel. Each of them is original, with a special pattern and color combination. The eastern features in the drawing of capital letters depicting the heads of birds of prey, fantastic chimeras - crocodiles and salamanders - remain mysterious for researchers. Human faces (in profile or frontal view) are skillfully inscribed in the complex geometric ornament of the initials.

Another remarkable monument of ancient Russian book writing - "Izbornik Svyatoslav" 1073 g. The original for it was a collection of similar composition, translated from Greek for the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon. Rewritten by the clerk John for the son of Yaroslav the Wise, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, the collection consists of theological and didactic articles. Izbornik 1073 can be considered the first Russian encyclopedia, covering a wide range of issues, and not only theological and church-canonical: it contains articles on botany, zoology, medicine, astronomy, grammar and poetics. " The design of Izbornik is similar to the design of the Ostromir Gospel and is made in the spirit of Old Russian ornament. In addition to colorful headpieces, endings, initials, there are decorations on the margins (for example, the signs of the Zodiac).

In "Izbornik" in 1073 there are several miniatures. Of particular interest is the miniature depicting Prince Svyatoslav with his wife and sons. This is the first Russian secular portrait that has survived to our time.

The manuscript of Izbornik was discovered in 1817 by K.F. Kalaydovich and P.M. Stroyev in the library of the Resurrection (New Jerusalem) monastery and is now kept in the State Historical Museum in Moscow.

In 1076, the Russian scribe John rewrote for Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich another “Izbornik” It included a wide variety of articles, including religious, moral, philosophical and historical. This is the first sample of ancient Russian secular literature that has come down to us, a collection of "Words", "Teachings", "Punishments ... reasonable and useful" on the topic of "how it befits a person to be", "how to have an orthodox faith", etc. ... The first article of Izbornik in 1076 - "The word of a certain kaluger (literally -" kind "old man) about reading (reading) books" - was devoted to the glorification of the book and began with the following words: "Good is brotherhood, reverence for books more than any Christian."

The author wrote: "A ship without a nail will not be feared, nor a righteous man without reverence for the book", "Beauty is a weapon for a warrior, for a ship - sail, so and for a righteous man is book worship." The reader could glean a lot of curious and valuable advice from such chapters of the Izbornik as Punishment to the Rich, On Wicked and Kind Wives, On Love for Gold, On Honey, etc. According to the historian of the manuscript book N.N. Rozov, the Izbornik included texts from books kept in the prince's library (“Selected from many of the princes' books,” says the postscript on the last page of the book). "Izbornik" 1076 was used by Vladimir Monomakh, composing his lesson to children. "Izbornik" is kept in the State Public Library. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

State Library of the USSR. IN AND. Lenin, the Arkhangelsk Gospel, written in 1092, is kept in Moscow. The monument was discovered in the Arkhangelsk province by a peasant - hence its name. The manuscript is written in charter on parchment, in two handwritings, decorated with headpieces and initials painted with cinnabar (red paint), and covered with a thick binding of two wooden boards. The significance of the Arkhangelsk Gospel is that this is the first translation in which the influence of the Bulgarian language is not as noticeable as in the Ostromir Gospel.

The first Russian dated handwritten books are represented by excellently executed editions that reproduce the original (document, manuscript) quite accurately.

And Veles said:
Open a box of songs!
Unwind the ball!
For the time of silence is over
and it's time for words!
Songs of the bird Gamayun.

The most ancient monuments of writing, called by scientists "Slavic Runica", were discovered in 1961 in the village of Terteria on the land of modern Romania and are represented by three clay tablets dating back to the 5th millennium BC. At the same time, it turned out that the Sumer tablets (considered the most ancient) are a whole millennium younger than the Terterian ones. Similar letters were found in the village of Turdashi Vinca in Yugoslavia. On the basis of these findings, scientists concluded that “the writing of Terteria did not arise from scratch, but is an integral part of the widespread in the middle of the 6th - beginning of the 5th millennium BC. written Balkan culture Vinca ”.

Soon the Yugoslav scientist R. Pesic, on the basis of archaeological finds on the right bank of the Danube (near the Iron Gate), dating from the 7th-5th millennia BC, made the first ordering of the Vinchan script. Peshich considered it with the help of the Etruscan-Pelasgic alphabet and the Slavic-Aryan way of reading this writing, according to which the old Slavic-Aryan language has its roots in Etruscan soil.

The same point of view was adhered to by Doctor of Philosophy E.I. Klassen, Polish researcher Fadei Volansky, and others. At the end of the 20th century, V.I. Shcherbakov and G.S. Belyakova, Slovenian scientist Matej Bor and Russian-Ukrainian writer A.S. Ivanchenko. The Russian linguist G.S. Grinevich. He also compiled a summary table of the signs of the Proto-Slavic writing.

“Runic scripts similar to those of Vinchan were found in Tripoli, in the layers of the early 3rd millennium BC, and later in Troy and Crete, in Etruria and Parthia, on the Yenisei and in Scandinavia. The same letter existed in the Caucasus. This writing also got to other continents - to North Africa and America. In the end, it served as the basis for the well-known alphabets: Phoenician and Ancient Greek, Proto-Indian and Latin, Glagolitic and Cyrillic, ”writes G.S. Belyakov.

The Slavic-Aryan runitsa was a syllabic script in which a stable set of syllabic signs was used, and these signs conveyed syllables of only one type, namely, open ones, consisting of combinations of "consonant plus vowel" or a pure vowel. Such a writing system did not allow doubling of consonants.

But since the sound structure of the language of the ancient Slavs was still somewhat more complex, a special sign was used - an oblique stroke - "viram" (still existing in the Indian syllabic writing of Devanagari - "the language of the gods"), which was usually placed at the bottom of the line, on the right from a written mark. Viram was called to remove the vowel, creating syllables of the "consonant-consonant-vowel" type, formed as follows: cr + cr = ssg.

G.S. Grinevich, relying on the results of the decryption, proves that the oldest there are monuments on earth Proto-Slavic writing... He emphasizes that among the monuments discovered in our century, inscriptions filled with "lines and cuts", that is, runes, are of the greatest interest.

In such a letter, for example, on spindle wheels found by archaeologists, it is written:

The inscription, laid out in stone on the floor of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople, orders (translation): "Bend your lower back to the floor." The Mikorzhinsky stone, found in the Poznan region (Poland), depicts a man with his left hand raised up, in which a triangular-shaped object is clamped, displaying the constellation Taurus - 4 points-stars: three form a triangle, the fourth in the center of this triangle. The accompanying caption reads:

ROSIYA MOYA MESHEN YUN - “My Russia became the target of the attack (target) of June,” that is, Taurus. The innermost meaning of this image is that Taurus is a sign of the elements of the earth and the base, aggressive, demonic beginning of creatures (remember the worship of the golden calf). The alpha of the constellation Taurus - Aldebaran (the eye of Taurus) is associated with Antares - the alpha of Scorpio, since it is on the same line, laid through the "center of the universe" - the Pole Star. When the Sun is in the constellation, and not in the sign of Taurus (it was earlier in June: due to the precessional motion, the Sun shifts along the ecliptic by 50.24 seconds per year) and connects with Aldebaran, the Earth falls under the influence of Antares, which is the projection of the point of intersection of all layers galactic bottoms - demonic worlds (abode of creatures). The very appearance of the person depicted means the constellation Orion (the image of Russia), fighting Taurus.

MYA MESHEN NAZIGINAMEN YA ZAZOKOALA.

Its innermost meaning is: "My enemy is from the constellation of Scorpio." On the hand holding the triangle (sign of the constellation Taurus), it is written: "I will destroy this evil."

According to archaeologists, at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. in the lower Dnieper-Danube region, a large (Slavonic - according to A.Ya.Bryusov) ethnic unity developed, which created the Trypillian culture. According to scientists, the Tripolians were culturally superior to their neighbors. They also had a writing system, very similar to the signs of writing "features and cuts".

Moreover, the forerunner of the Tripolye culture in the Danube was the Vinca-Turdashi culture, with which, as we already know, the oldest written monuments on Earth are associated.

At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. there was a sudden stop in the development of the Trypillian culture, which was of a catastrophic nature: the Trypillians left their homes, leaving their property and even sculptures of their domestic deities. The time of the exodus of the Trypillians exactly coincides with the time of the appearance in the Balkans, in prehistoric Greece, on the islands of the Aegean Sea and on Crete of the Pelasgians, whose name is usually associated with the flourishing and power of the Cretan state. Possessed of Pelasgi and writing, akin to writing "devil and cut". But the main thing is that the overwhelming number of linear signs of the Cretan inscriptions in the outline turned out to be similar to the signs of the Slavic-Aryan runes. Taking this into account, using the etymological method of decoding, the Cretan signs were assigned phonetic meanings of the latter, and the Cretan texts "spoke" in a language very close to Slavic-Aryan:

POINT RYZHA BE IN YOU THE POWER HAS BEEN YOUNGER MA DORA TOYE E TA NIVT DLE NZHI - “Sharpens the rust (“ rust ”- separation) the force that was in you. And this is the thread that connects us. " "The thread that connects us", in the innermost sense, is an energy channel that connects a person with the Genus, with its egregor - an information and force field created by the national and spiritual aspirations of a certain people.

This channel, called in Sanskrit "aharat (ie - not the central) pillar", goes from the egregor to the head of a person, to the place where the fontanel is located. Therefore, those who worship Vyshenya, the Most High God, shaving off the hair on their heads, leave at this place a bun of hair, called in Sanskrit "shikha"; the Zaporozhye Cossacks also wore the same chubrina - "oseledets" (that is - located on the ear of the head).

Thus, even 5 thousand years ago, the sorcerers who lived in Crete explained that the division of a single body of Russia into separate (even for some time) powerful states, by and large deprives her of her spiritual strength.

In the past, the island of Crete was covered with evergreen forests, which were home to bulls, cows, lions and even dwarf elephant and hippopotamus species. The people who settled ancient crete, created a culture that later became the cradle of modern European civilization. The magnificent art of the inhabitants of Crete was the first in Europe to rise to the heights of realism: it was on its basis that the art of Ancient Greece grew and flourished.

Homer in the XIX song of the Odyssey wrote: The island is Crete in the middle of the wine-colored sea, beautiful, fat, from everywhere enveloped in waters, abundant in people.

Crete was a powerful maritime power, and the Cretan navy was unmatched throughout the ancient world. His rowing and sailing ships, light galleys and powerful cargo ships plowed the waves of the Mediterranean; they reached the shores of Egypt and Spain, the Bosphorus and Gibraltar, and even went out into the Atlantic Ocean.

The Egyptian chronicle of Medinet-Habu testifies: "Not a single country resisted their right hand, starting from Hatti ..." (a tribe of non-Aryan origin that settled in the northeast of Asia Minor). The people of Crete had close trade relations with Egypt (Keftiu - Crete is very often mentioned in Egyptian papyri), with Mesopotamia (characteristic Mesopotamian cylinder seals were found on Crete) and many other countries.

The Cretan Empire was at the height of its power when a natural disaster struck it with a crushing blow. The explosion of a volcano on the island of Santorini, located 110 km north of Crete, which occurred around 1450 BC, caused a strong earthquake. A powerful blast wave reached Crete, causing great destruction. Following it, huge tsunamis hit the northern coast, the height of the waves reached several tens of meters. And finally, the island was covered by a huge ash cloud caused by the eruption. Cities and villages were turned into ruins, numerous ships of Crete were destroyed, fertile fields in the most inhabited part of the island (in its east and in the center) were covered with a thick layer of volcanic ash destructive to vegetation, and the previously blooming land turned out to be a lifeless desert for many years.

The general death of livestock caused by the death of pastures and the infection of the surviving grass cover with poisonous fluorine contained in the products of volcanic eruptions, completed the terrible disaster that struck the Cretan culture.

The economy of Crete and its power were irreparably damaged. Now completely devoid of protection from attack from the sea, the island soon became an easy prey for the Achaeans, who freely crossed from the mainland and took possession of it. The single Cretan state with its capital at Knossos continued to exist, but numerous newcomers seized the dominant position in it. Around 1400 BC, after another invasion from the mainland, the Palace of Knossos was finally destroyed, and a long period of decline began.

The outstanding English archaeologist Arthur Evans (1851-1948), who in 1900 began excavating the city of Knossos, managed to discover a vast palace - the mysterious labyrinth of King Minos, built at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. and completely rebuilt around 1700 BC. A magnificent building with a throne room, complex corridors, bathrooms, exquisite paintings and luxurious ceramics appeared before amazed archaeologists - a monument ancient culture... But a more important discovery was the archives of the Palace of Knossos - hundreds of clay tablets covered with unknown writings.

Later, in other parts of Crete and on the lands of mainland Greece, in the palace of Nestor in Pylos, a total of over 5 thousand clay tablets with inscriptions were discovered.

G.S. Grinevich reports that Arthur Evans was the first to attempt to unravel the Cretan letters, but he could not go beyond simple analysis and limited himself to ordering, highlighting: the Cretan hieroglyphic writing of class A (XVII-XV centuries BC) and linear letter of class B (XV-XIII centuries BC) - defining in linear writing "the syllabic character of a significant part of the signs used." Arthur Evans was the first to point out "the genetic relationship of Cretan hieroglyphics and Linear A and B with other scripts of the Mediterranean ...".

By 1963, about 220 short linear A inscriptions were found, made on a wide variety of objects: stone monuments, wine jugs, libation vessels, bowls, ax handles. Most of the inscriptions were discovered in the Ayia Triada region of Crete, then archaeologists managed to find a clay tablet written with this letter on the mainland of Greece. In 1964, 12 new Linear A tablets were discovered in an excavated Minoan palace in Zakro (East Crete), similar in appearance to the tablets from the Aia Triada.

By now, about 5 thousand inscriptions made with Linear B are known. According to their content, all inscriptions are divided into economic and spiritual ones.

The year 1908 became an important date in the study of the heritage of the people who stood at the origins of European civilization. An Italian archaeological expedition in southern Crete excavated the royal palace in the acropolis this year. ancient city Festa. On July 3, archaeologist Luige Pernier, while examining the cultural layer in one of the auxiliary palace premises, discovered a remarkable example of a previously unknown writing.

It was a small disc made of well-baked clay with a diameter of 15.8-16.5 cm and a thickness of 1.6-2.1 cm. Both sides of it covered, like a bizarre pattern, a spiraling inscription, composed of many carefully stamped on clay the surfaces of the signs are the oldest stamped inscription and the first printed product, except for the Achinsk rod-calendar. The signs were combined into groups separated by vertical lines. In some groups in the lower part of the line, to the right of the sign, there was an oblique stroke similar to "viram" - as already mentioned, a special sign of the Slavic Runica and Indian syllabic writing Devanagari

Many scholars have tried unsuccessfully to read the Phaistos disc and interpret it from Greek, Hittite, Lycian, Carian, Hebrew and other Semitic languages. But, convinced of the inadequacy of the means used, they decided, in the words of the English expert in archeology of Crete, J. Pendlebury (1904-1941), that this find "it is better to pass over in silence" (another link in the chain of information blockade).

And finally, our compatriot G.S. Grinevich, relying on modern methods of decryption, the theory of communication in secret systems by Claude Shannon and the method of acrophony in combination with the etymological method, proved that the text of the Phaistos disc was made in the Proto-Slavic language.

Translated into modern language of the text, it follows that the Slavic tribe Rysich (Rusich) was forced to leave their homeland - RYSYUNIYA (Russia):

YOU CANNOT BE BURNED BY THE PAST,
HOWEVER, THE CURRENT POTE IS BURNING.
IN A NEW PLACE YOU WILL FEEL THEM.
GOD SENT TO YOU ANOTHER PLACE IN THE WORLD OF GOD.
DON'T COUNT THE PAST.
WHAT GOD SENT TO YOU, OBTAIN
IN CLOSE ROWS.
PROTECT HIM DAY AND NIGHT.
NO PLACE IS WILL.
JOY FOR HIS POWER.
HER CHILDREN ALIVE, LEADING WHOSE THEY ARE
IN THIS WORLD OF GOD.

On the other side of the disc it says:

LET'S LIVE AGAIN, THERE WILL BE A SERVICE TO GOD,
EVERYTHING WILL BE IN THE PAST - LET'S FORGET WHO WE ARE.
WHERE YOU WILL BE, CHAPTERS WILL BE, NIVES WILL BE,
GOOD LIFE - LET'S FORGET WHO WE ARE.
CHAPTER THERE IS - THE BOND IS - LET'S FORGET WHO IS.
WHAT TO COUNT, LORD! RYSYUNIYA ENCHANTS OCHI.
HERE CANNOT GET ANYWHERE FROM HER,
WILL NOT BE CUREED FROM HER.
WILL NOT BE ONE ONE TIME, WE WILL HEAR:
WHOSE YOU WILL BE, LITTLE, WHAT IS FOR YOU HONOR;
IN KUDRYA HELMETS; TALKING ABOUT YOU.
THERE IS NO MORE, STILL WE WILL BE,
IN THIS WORLD OF GOD.

Rusichi found their new homeland in Crete. “The tragedy of the events experienced by the Rysichs,” writes G.S. Grinevich, - echoes the fate of the Tripolians, and this gives us reason to believe that the Rysichi-Pelasgi (as the Greeks called them) is a Slavic tribe that lived in the Dnieper region in the III-II millennium BC. "

After the catastrophe that befell Arctida, the Rusichi only partially recovered from the terrible losses, but retained their language. In their Phoenician, Cretan, Malaysian, Aegean villages, they spoke the same Slavic-Aryan language. Later they were named Pelasgami.

At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. a thunderstorm came. Greeks-Achaeans came from the mainland regions. They, like genuine pagans, seized the lands of present-day Greece, destroying the cities of the Pelasgians, their fortresses, razed to the ground Pelasgikon, on the site of which the Parthenon was built only after one and a half thousand years.

Many of the Pelasgians, fleeing the invasion, crossed over to Crete, where the cities of the Pelasgians-Minoans still flourished.

In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. The Greeks also reached Crete. The full-blooded art of the Pelasgians-Minoans gave way to dry and lifeless stylization. Motifs common for Minoan painting - flowers, starfish, octopuses, dolphins, depicted on palace frescoes and vases - disappear or are reborn into abstract graphic schemes.

And yet the Achaean culture of the Greeks was able to borrow a lot from the Minoans, including linear syllabic writing, spiritual rites and deities, plumbing, fresco painting, cut clothes and much more.

About 700 years later, the Achaean-Mycenaean culture flourished, but the second invasion of the Greeks, known as the Dorians, fell on the land of Greece and the surrounding areas. After him, a new era of Greek heritage began - Homeric, named after the blind singer Homer. The Doric conquest threw Greece back several centuries.

Subsequently, the Romans, determined to prove their origin from the gods, tried to destroy the traces of the Pelasgians from the memory of mankind. That is why the scientific world nowadays considers it generally accepted that the ancient Romans were the teachers of Western Europe.

Nevertheless, the ancient researchers knew very well that the teachers of these "teachers" were Etruscans... For example, the Greek writer Gellanicus (5th century BC) argues that the offshoot of the Aegean Pelasgians are the Etruscans, who, being expelled by the Greeks, settled in an area called Tirrenia.

The Romans-Latins called them "Etruscans"; The Greeks called them "Tyrrhenians"; the Etruscans themselves, according to the ancient Greek author of "Roman Antiquities" Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century BC), called themselves "Rasena". In the Geographical Dictionary of Stephen Byzantine, the Etruscans are absolutely unconditionally called the Slavic people. In addition to these researchers, the Slavs of the Etruscans are confirmed by Livy Titus (1st century BC), the ancient Greek geographer Strabo (1st century BC), the ancient Greek scientist Ptolemy (2nd-1st centuries), Diodorus Sicilian (1st century BC) BC), the Roman scientist Pliny the Elder (I century AD) and many other pre-Christian authors. The Etruscans gave the Romans: musical instruments, rostr (bow of the ship) and anchor, theater, mining, ceramics and metalworking, herbal medicine, the art of irrigation (reclamation) of lands, cities in Italy, the art of fortune-telling, the Capitoline she-wolf (symbolic: under the Slavic she-wolf, the Romans slipped "suckers" into the legendary founders of Rome ). The first kings of Rome were Etruscans: Tarquius Priscus, Servius (Serbia) Tullius, Tarquinius the Proud. Etruscan fist fighters participated in Roman festivities. Almost everything that the Etruscans built in Rome, the Romans later prefaced the definition of "greatest." Yes and Rome, in reality, founded by the Etruscans, and their system of underground canals is still part of the urban economy of the "eternal city". The Etruscan shield, spear and armor were also adopted by the Romans. Belong to the Etruscans and the oldest written monuments on the Apennine Peninsula, and namely their letter lay in basis modern Latin alphabet, which is used by a significant part of humanity. But the cunning Latins, in order to hide from the world the truth about their teachers, slyly declare: "Etruscan non legatur" - Etruscan is not read ...

In modern official science, it is believed that the Etruscans allegedly borrowed their alphabet from the Greeks, and the Romans, in turn, borrowed the alphabet from the Etruscans, and therefore it will not be difficult for scientists who know Greek and Roman writing to learn to read Etruscan texts. Already in 1789, L. Lanz, who is considered the "father of Etruscology", knew the entire Etruscan alphabet, with the exception of two letters, the meaning of which was determined later. But, freely reading Etruscan texts, scholars-shabezgoi (servants of creatures) could not understand their content. Russian linguist V.V. Ivanov defines the state of affairs in the interpretation of Etruscan texts in the following way: “The situation in the field of the study of Etruscan texts seems paradoxical. Their study and probable phonetic interpretation does not cause difficulties due to the sufficient clarity of the Etruscan graphic system .., nevertheless, the understanding of Etruscan texts has made extremely little progress, if we do not take into account the very small funerary inscriptions, standard in their content and usually consisting of sequences of their own names with an indication of the relationship between their carriers. More and more complex texts are so far completely impossible to translate. "

Certainly so, because creatures and cannot comprehend the speech of a Russian; but Russian researchers, both modern and pre-revolutionary, freely read and explain Etruscan inscriptions even without a dictionary.

No wonder our ancestors back in the 1st millennium BC. made an inscription on one of the Medvinsky pillars in Slavic runic:

UNIT SCHIRISA TREBETE GLASI GREZIALE LBO VELERETSI BELOPEVIA NAMIA KIA LISII KUSKALE LBO GURTSE LEEETI NASIA KIO KOBILIA RASHIVIA TREBETE NIKIA SAKRA SVIA NIA PORESHIETI say whether they say like males - they extort gifts. They do not keep their vows or promises. The vindictive ones. "

According to E.I. Klassen, back in the 18th century it was proved that "the Greeks and Romans borrowed all their education and learned literacy from the Slavs." Further, he writes: “... that all the ancient tribes of the Slavs had their own runic letters, there is now an undoubted matter, realized even by the Germans, who dispute every step of the Slavic enlightenment.

And Schletser himself - this rejection of everything that elevates the Slavs over other peoples, did not dare to disagree, due to the testimony of Herodotus and other Greek writers, that many Scythian tribes knew literacy and that they themselves Greeks adopted the alphabet from Pelasgov- the people are also Scythian, or, which does not matter, Slavonic origin.

From everything deduced here, it is clear that the Slavs had a literacy not only before all the Western peoples of Europe, but also before the Romans and even the Greeks themselves, and that the outcome of enlightenment was from the Russ to the west, and not from there to them. "

Velesova Book.

The monument of Slavic-Aryan writing deserves special attention - “ Velesov book", Written in the 8th - 9th centuries AD. But the Soviet "experts" declared Velesov's book a fake "because of the inconsistency of the language of this book with the norms of the Old Russian language."

This attitude of official science to the ancient Russian book is not surprising. The writer-researcher Yu.P. Mirolyubov, transliterating the text of the Veles book, when he warned: "It is clear that such texts as" Isenbek's Planks "should have been in the eyes of the Greek Christianizers of Russia" devilish "," black books "and subject to indispensable destruction."

And nevertheless, the participants of the Fifth International Congress of Slavists, held in 1963 in Sofia, became interested in Veles's book. In the reports of the congress, a special article was devoted to her, which caused a lively, acute response in the circles of antiquity lovers and a whole series of articles in the public press.

In defense of Veles's book, A.V. Artsikhovsky, a famous archaeologist and scientist who discovered the Novgorod birch bark letters. True, only orally. Candidate of Historical Sciences V.E. Vilinbakhov called for a comprehensive study of the Veles book. Doctor of Historical Sciences S.A. Vysotsky said that it was "an interesting monument and not a fake." The chairman of the Russian Historical Society, paleographer I.V. Lyovochkin, as well as Doctor of Philology Yu.K. Runners.

The texts of the Veles book tell about the ancient Slavs and cover the time from the 5th century BC. to the seventh century of the current chronology. So, in one of the tablets of the Book of Veles it is said that 1300 years before Germanarich (the leader of the Goths, who conquered vast expanses of Eastern Europe from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the Volga to the Danube and defeated by the Huns in 376 in the middle of the 4th century AD) the ancestors of the Slavs lived in Central Asia, in the "green land". Further, the departure of a part of our ancestors from Semirechye through the mountains to the south, to India, is described in detail, while the other part went to the west, "to the Carpathian Mountain."

The content of the Veles book is not limited to this. It also talks about philanthropy of Slavic-Aryans, their high culture, oh honoring the forefathers, O love to my dear earth... In it completely rejected inventions of Russia's enemies about human sacrifice Slavic-Aryans. Here is how, for example, Yu.P. Mirolyubov translates the text of tablet number 4: “The Gods of the Rus do not take human victims and neither by animals, only fruits, vegetables, flowers, grains, milk, hearty drink (whey), herbal infusion and honey, and never a live bird or fish, but the Varangians and Alans the gods are given a different sacrifice - terrible, human, this we shouldn't do because we are Dazhbogov's grandchildren and we cannot follow other people's footsteps ... ".

It has already been said above that the Etruscans are the former Trypillians, who in turn are the heirs of the Vinca-Turdashi culture. The oldest written monuments known to modern scientists are associated with this culture, and, in particular, a clay tablet found in the 60s near the Romanian village of Terteria. The age of the monument, according to the radiocarbon method, is 7 thousand years.

Terterian signs in descriptive terms are completely similar to the signs of the Slavic-Aryan runes, sound value which were established by reading the inscriptions, filled with "lines and cuts", and also similar to Etruscan, Cretan and proto-Indian inscriptions; and therefore the reading of the Terterian text is not difficult.

The general conclusion after getting acquainted with the Proto-Slavic writing in general and reading the Terterian inscription, in particular, is simple and clear:
SLAVO-ARYAN WRITING IS THE OLDEST ON THIS PLANET.

... but the most beautiful and necessary for the Race
they recognized the code of the Light Commandments,
they were inscribed in runes in Santia ...
Source of Life
Slavic-Aryan Vedas

Monument - 1) an architectural or sculptural structure in memory of or in honor of any person or event; 2) an object that is evidence historical event, part of the cultural heritage of the country, people, humanity;

Writing is a graphical system for recording information, one of the forms of existence of the human language.

The Old Church Slavonic language is the oldest known Slavic literary language. The term refers to the language of the 9th-11th centuries, sometimes also the 12th century.

The term "Old Church Slavonic", introduced by A.Kh. Vostokov in 1820, is the most accepted in modern Russian-language science;

In different linguistic traditions, the Old Church Slavonic language is called: Old Church Slavonic (in the Russian tradition of the 19th-early 20th centuries, German Altkirchenslavisch, English OldChurchSlavonic), Old Slavic (N.I. Tolstoy, F. Maresh, N.A. Meshchersky, M.M. . Kopylenko), Old or Old Bulgarian (in the Bulgarian tradition, sometimes in German: Altbulgarisch). Until the middle of the XIX century. in the Russian tradition it was called (together with Church Slavonic) simply "Slovenian", "Slavic" or "Slavic" (in Lomonosov, Shishkov, etc.). The term Slavism still means borrowing from the Old or Church Slavonic language. The emergence of the Old Church Slavonic language is associated with the names of Cyril and Methodius, who undertook to translate liturgical texts and some parts of the Bible (the Gospel, Psalms, paremias) into the language of the Slavs. The dialect basis of the Old Slavonic language was one of the dialects of the South Slavs - the Solun dialect http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0 % BB% D0% B0% D0% B2% D1% 8F% D0% BD% D1% 81% D0% BA% D0% B8% D0% B9_% D1% 8F% D0% B7% D1% 8B% D0% BA - cite_note-0 # cite_note-0. In those days, the differences between the Slavic languages ​​were still small, so the Old Slavic language could claim the role of a common Slavic literary language.

In order to consider the Old Slavonic language in the Cyrillic written monuments, first you need to figure out who the Slavs are as a people. That is, in this work I will try to apply the deduction method in practice.

And so, before talking about the Slavs as a special ethnic association, it is necessary to clarify the meaning of some ethnolinguistic terms.

The term people is usually understood as 1) linguistically the same as ethnos; 2) in the socio-political and historical plan - the population of the country, the totality of classes, nations, nationalities that have a common historical destiny; 3) in everyday life - a large group of people.

However, the word people as a term is not very convenient, since it has several meanings. In this regard, the term ethnos seems to be more convenient.

Ethnicity (from the Greek ethnos "tribe, people") is a stable population of people historically formed in a certain territory, which has common features and stable features of culture (including language), mental makeup, as well as the consciousness of its unity and difference from other similar formations. The characteristics of each ethnic group and the factors of education are different. The formation of an ethnos occurs on the basis of the unity of the territory and economic activity... The signs that distinguish an ethnos and separate it from other ethnic groups are language, folk art, customs, rituals, traditions, norms of behavior, habits, that is, such components of culture that are passed down from generation to generation and ultimately form a specific ethnic culture. Each ethnic group is characterized by ethnic identity.

The Slavs (in antiquity, Slovenia) are the largest group of language-related ethnic groups in eastern and southwestern Europe, united by a common origin. Depending on the linguistic and cultural affinity, the Slavs are divided into three large groups: eastern, western and southern.

The Western Slavs stand out:

Slovaks

Luzhitsa (upper, lower)

South Slavs:

Bulgarians

Croats

Bosniaks

Macedonians

Slovenes

Montenegrins

East Slavs:

Belarusians

Russians

Ukrainians

Rusyns (sometimes stand out as a separate Slavic nation, according to another version - a subethnos of Ukrainians).

The Slavs occupy a vast territory of Eastern Europe, as well as northern and central parts of Asia. It is immediately striking that the Slavic states are not gathered in one handful, but scattered, scattered. In the second half of the XIX century. independent Slavic states did not exist. Slavic peoples were part of three empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman. The only exceptions were the Montenegrins, who lived in a small independent state of Montenegro, and the Lusatians, who were located in Germany. By the end of the XX century. all the Slavic peoples, except for the Russians and the Lusatians, already had state independence.

After the Slavic ethnos has been described, you can proceed to the story of the activities of Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius - the founders of the Slavic writing.

There are various sources of information about the activities of Cyril and Methodius and they are divided into 3 main groups:

Greek; - Slavic; - Latin.

At present, a huge amount of literature has accumulated, which, based on an analysis of Greek, Roman and Slavic sources, tells about the life and work of the Solunsk brothers. The Cyril and Methodius problem is the subject of the works of the 19th century scientists N.V. Yastrebova, V.P. Bilbasova, O. M. Bodyansky, A.V. Gorsky and others; Among the researchers of the twentieth century, the study of the life and work of Constantine and Methodius was studied by S. Bernstein, V.A. Istrin, M.N. Tikhomirov, B.N. Florea and others. The nature of the activities of the Solunski brothers in these works received different assessments. So, V.P. Bilbasov, M.K. Lyubavsky considered their activity among the Slavs as missionary, V.A. Istrin, S.B. Bernstein and others considered it educational, focusing on the creation of the Slavic alphabet by the brothers, their translation and teaching activities. It is difficult to say whether Constantine created a completely new alphabet or revised and adapted the letter that already existed among the Slavs for better transmission of Slavic speech, but the undoubted merit of the missionaries is the creation of the Slavic book tradition, which was expressed in the creation of translations of Byzantine and Roman Christian literature, which served as a model for creating original Slavic works.

Constantine and Methodius are natives of the bustling port city of Thessaloniki (now Thessaloniki), one of the largest cities in Byzantium. Most scientists are inclined to think that the brothers were Bulgarians. According to one of the Athonite legends, the brothers' father, Leo, was a Slav, a Bulgarian, he held the position of "drungaria under the stratig" (military leader), and his mother was Greek. Leo and Mary had seven children: the eldest was Methodius (about 815 - 885), the younger was Constantine (about 827 - 869). Methodius - the name given during the tonsure, his real name is unknown (it is assumed that his name was Michael). Methodius and Constantine knew both Greek and Slavic languages ​​from childhood.

In all the lives, traditionally, more attention is paid to Constantine, the same is observed when describing the childhood and adolescence of the brothers. There is much more information about the childhood and adolescence of Konstantin, apparently also because full life, Methodius was directly involved, well aware of the life of his younger brother. From this "Life" we learn that from childhood Constantine succeeded in teaching and soon after the death of his father an inquisitive fourteen-year-old youth was noticed by the logothete Theoktist, regent under the juvenile emperor Michael III. Around 840, thanks to Theoktistus, Constantine moved to Constantinople and was educated at the court school, where he was taught by the most prominent teachers of that time. At the end of his studies (about 850), a promising future opened up in front of Constantine. Logofet Theoktist offered him his goddaughter as his wife, which would mean an early receipt of the voivodship and the post of strategist, but Constantine refused the lucrative offer and, ordained a priest, received the modest post of librarian at the Patriarch's library. Soon he gave up this place and retired to a monastery for six months, and, returning to Constantinople, became a teacher of philosophy. In 856, as a result of a palace coup, the patron saint of Constantine Logofet Theoktist was killed, who actually headed the Empire. Constantine, together with his disciples, among whom were Clement, Nahum and Angelarius, settled in a monastery, of which Methodius was the abbot. According to a number of scientists, a group of like-minded people has formed in the monastery around Cyril and Methodius, a kind of scientific circle, in which the idea of ​​creating Slavic alphabet and work begins on its implementation. In 860 or 861, a mission arrives in Byzantium from Khazar Kaganate(4) asking for an explanation of the basics of Christian teaching. The Byzantine Emperor Michael III and Patriarch Photius took the opportunity to consolidate their political and religious influence on the Khazars, and Constantine and Methodius went to the Khazar Khaganate to preach Christian teachings there. On the way to the Khazars, the Byzantine envoys stopped in the Greek city of Chersonesos (in Slavic sources it appears as Korsun) in the Crimea, where Constantine replenished his knowledge of the Hebrew language. In Chersonesos, Constantine, according to the testimony of the "Pannonian Life", discovered the Gospels and the Psalter, written by "Russian letters" ("Ruskyi" had a different meaning. Rus - Kiev land). At the headquarters of the Khazar Kaganate, Constantine defeated Jewish and Muslim theologians and baptized about two hundred Khazars. Upon his return from the Khazar Kaganate to Byzantium, Constantine again retired to the monastery.

In 863, ambassadors from Great Moravia from Prince Rostislav arrived in Byzantium to Emperor Michael III with a request to send them a bishop and a person who could explain the Christian faith in the Slavic language. The Moravian prince Rostislav strove for the independence of the Slavic Church and had already turned to Rome with a similar request, but was refused. Michael III and Photius, just as in Rome, treated Rostislav's request formally and, having sent missionaries to Moravia, did not ordain any of them as bishops. Thus, Constantine, Methodius and their entourage could only conduct educational activities, but did not have the right to ordain their disciples themselves to priestly and deacon dignities. This mission could not be successful and have of great importance if Constantine had not brought the Moravians a perfectly developed and convenient alphabet for the transmission of Slavic speech, as well as a translation into the Slavic language of the main liturgical books.