The origin of the solar system. §30.1
Data on the "age" of celestial bodies are from a cosmogonic point of view as important as astronomical data in their own sense of the word.
The problem of "age" may seem completely different from those that we have just considered because it refers to time, and we still as if they were engaged only by space. But in reality, the difference is not very large. In previous paragraphs, we saw how astronomers were able to gradually disseminate the laws opened on Earth, to the entire space, which reaches our eye, armed with perfect telescopes. With the help of these laws, scientists can quite satisfactorily explain the processes occurring in various stars and even in the most distant spiral nebula.
True, astronomers are watching the heavenly bodies, from which the world goes to us thousands and millions of years. Consequently, the phenomena that are studied in these stars occur no longer, but there were exactly so many years ago as it is necessary for a beam of the light that talk about it, - went away from heavenly shining to us (just as a letter sent for example from Moscow, brings us in Paris not fresh news, but late for several days). Thus, the phenomena that happened thousands and millions of years ago, you can successfully apply laws that take place today on our planet and information about which is purchased on the basis of experience for only two to three centuries. *
* (The fact that we are watching the heavenly bodies as they were many thousands and millions of years ago (since the light from them comes to us thousands and millions of years), does not play a special role, because the deadlines for the evolution of heavenly bodies are usually very high and are calculated hundreds of millions and billion years. (Approx. Ed.))
Scientists, wanting to calculate the age of heavenly bodies, proceed from the facts that are currently observed, and try to explain these facts on the basis of the alleged evolution of the world, consistent with the laws of nature known. There is no doubt that the use of such a method cannot pass without some difficulties, especially since the periods under consideration are thousands of times more. Our knowledge of the laws of nature is and will always be an approach to reality, and nothing suggests that all laws are fair today can be applied without any changes to the epochs remote from our billions of years. Nevertheless, it is the wonderful fact that various scientists using entirely different methods, came to the considerable results relating to the age of the Earth. As for the age of the stars, the same clarity has not yet been reached in this matter, but nevertheless, very important results were obtained.
Age of land
The first methods to which were resorted by determining the age of the Earth were "geological". It was the geology that the first showed that the earth's crust did not have the same species for all centuries, but continuously changed and undergoes gigantic catastrophes - raising and settlement.
The problem was to determine how much time it took to form earth crust (In the form, in which it is now). This time is called "the age of the earth."
The first ways to calculate the age of the Earth relied on the laws of geology. It was, for example, it was noted that the salt contained in seawater was brought to the sea by rivers, which dissolve soil salts on their way. Knowing, on the one hand, the amount of salt, brought by various rivers, and fluctuations in this amount during the geological periods and, on the other hand, the total amount of salt contained in the oceans can easily obtain an idea of \u200b\u200bthe time required to accumulate this amount. Salts in the oceans.
It was also possible to determine the thickness of different layers of the soil, gradually deposited as a result of river nansions of the day of the former seas. At the same time, other studies allowed us to calculate the growth rate of these sediments. Simple division gave the number of years needed for their education.
These various geological methods led to the conclusion that the age of the earth should be measured at least hundreds of millions of years.
Later, methods based on studying the decay of radioactive elements having an exceptionally regular character began to determine the age of the Earth. For example, as a result of the radioactive decay, uranium gradually turns into lead, and at the same time there is a certain amount of helium (gas that serves for filling airship). By the ratio between the amounts of uranium and lead contained in some rocks, you can determine the age of these breeds. With the help of such methods, not only the age of the earth is estimated, but also the duration of the formation of individual layers of the earth's crust.
Analyzing the totality of the results obtained by the specified method, the English scientist Holmes determined that the most likely the age of the earth's crust is 3 billion 300 million years. It goes without saying that one should not create illusions regarding the accuracy of this number; In any case, a mistake of several hundred million years is quite admissible. One can only argue that all evaluations that take attention that is currently obtained is concluded between 3 and 5 billion years.
We add that these results fully satisfy biologists. Indeed, according to the recent, the evolution of living matter lasted about 500 million years.
Age of Star
a) Long and short time scale. The problem of determining the age of stars excited much more hot discussions. It was in connection with this problem that supporters of a long time scale (which evaluate the duration of the evolution of heavenly bodies trillions of years) and supporters of a short scale (leading billions of years).
Despite the fact that the short scale supporters won some advantages (for example, when assessing the age of the brightest galaxy stars), their victory cannot be considered complete, and therefore it is necessary to highlight some details of this conflict, mentioning first of the methods used to assess the desired time intervals. These methods of two types: Some estimate the time of internal physical changes that lead to changes in stars, and try to determine the duration of the "life" of stars; Others put a task to calculate the time that needed to establish in stellar systems (clusters of stars, double stars) characteristics of their current state as a result of mutual attraction of stars.
b) sources of radiant energy of stars. Bethe's theory. When they talk about the "life" of the stars, then the duration of such a star is the duration during which it detects its presence due to light and thermal radiation. Consequently, the problem of the possible duration of the star's life is closely related to the problem of sources of energies emitted. This energy is exceptionally large. For example, each square centimeter of the Surface of the Sun radiates continuously energy sufficient to force the engine with a power of eight horsepower.
At first, they wanted to explain the excretion of the energy of the Sun with ordinary burning, then gradually compressed the sun under the influence of the forces of gravity. But these hypotheses led to too small agedness of the Sun: in accordance with the first hypothesis, it was estimated in thousands of years, in accordance with the second - in millions of years.
The theory, adopted by all scientists, relies on one of the fundamental results of the theory of relativity, operating in 1905 at the same time Einstein and Lanzhen: "The body's mass in rest is nothing but a measure of the internal energy of this body." In other words, the substance (matter in the corpuscular state) can partially or even completely "disappear" (i.e., go to another form of existence - to radiation), and this phenomenon is accompanied by the release of energy.
This hypothesis was proposed for the first time by French physicist Jean Perenom in 1919, which meant a significant release of energy in the process of turning hydrogen in helium. She was picked up and brought to the most extreme consequences ("complete destruction" of matter as a result of turning it into energy) by various scientists, in particular, English Astronomer Jeans. *
* (In fact, there is no "destruction" of matter, not turning it into energy, but the transformation of one form of matter is substance - to another - radiation. (Approx. Ed.))
The energy that is distinguished by such processes is colossal. With the complete turn of the coal substance in radiation, you can get three billion times more energy than with its usual burning, and jeans quite rightly said that a small piece of stone coal in the pea is enough to travel on the largest ocean steamhouse from Europe to America and back .
We note for comparison that during the breakup of uranium, which takes place in a conventional atomic bomb and which corresponds to only the partial conversion of the substance into radiation, is released in two and a half million times more energy than when combustion of the same amount of coal. As for the conversion of hydrogen in helium, which takes place in a hydrogen bomb, then it is released at 10 million times more energy than when combustion of the same amount of coal.
Some types of conversion of the substance (in corpuscular form) into radiation, which, until recently, we never observed on Earth, occur inside the stars, where temperatures of order of millions of degrees reign.
Under the assumption that the star will transform the entire number of substance from which it consists, it can be calculated that the energy released can maintain its radiation, that is, the star has something to "live", for trillion years. For example, the sun can live another 10 trillion years, and if it was "born" in the form of a red giant of ordinary sizes, then this birth happened about eight trillion years ago.
Supporters of a long time scale, such as jeans, supported the hypothesis of the complete decay of the substance, which leads to periods of time stacked in their cosmogonical hypotheses. At the same time, supporters of a short scale, considered on the basis of various considerations that these intervals are too large, adhered to the point of view of Jean Pereren.
It seemed that this controversy question would be solved, but shortly before the war of 1939, the successes of atomic chemistry, in particular, the discoveries of Frederick and Irene Zolio-Curie, shed some light on this problem. Creating a cyclotron, with which it was possible to expose the substance to the action of significant electrical and magnetic fields, made it possible to partially implement conditions similar in the laboratories similar to those that exist inside stars. Indeed, in these devices it was possible to accelerate the charged particles to such velocities that they acquired the energy comparable to the one they (on average) are in the center of such a star, as the sun at a temperature of millions of degrees.
Thanks to this solely powerful medium, scientists could create the theory of transformation of the substance inside the stars; She was developed by the American Astrophysician Bethe.
An essential agent of these transformations is hydrogen. The final result of the combination of these nuclear reactions is the conversion of four hydrogen nuclei into one helium core. *
* (Atoms of various chemical elements consist of a central kernel with a positive electric charge and a certain number of electrons charged negatively, and the total charge of electrons in the conventional (electrically neutral) atom is numerically equal to the charge of the kernel. The magnitude of the positive charge of the nucleus determines the so-called atomic number of the chemical element. If you place the chemical elements in the order of increasing their atomic numbers, then we obtain the known classification of elements by their atomic weights ( periodic system Mendeleeva). Add also that the nuclei of atoms themselves have complicated structureVarious for different elements that phenomena inside atoms are subject to very specific laws and that, in contrast to the opinion that existed some other time ago, atoms in their structure are not at all similar to the solar system in miniature.)
As for the duration of these processes, the conversion of hydrogen in helium, corresponding to the loss of only 1/14 share of the mass (transformed into radiation), occupies a much smaller period of time than those that are obtained in hypotheses emanating from the assumption of the complete conversion of the substance into radiation. According to the new point of view, the stars observed by us began to radiate light only a few billion years ago.
Some stars - the white and blue giants, the mass of which reaches the twenty mass of the Sun, is emitted so intensively that they cannot exist in such a state more than a few years old, so they probably passed until a long "life path".
It should be shown now, as you can, with the help of the theory, Bethe interpret the Ressel diagram. We will return to this issue somewhat later when we present the latest cosmogonical theories. Note, however, now that if nuclear reactionsThe proposed by the Bethe, allow you to well explain the observed facts regarding the stars of the main sequence, then in relation to the giants it turns out necessary to assume the existence of other nuclear transformations, far from yet fully established. As for the White Dwarfs, only in 1946. The French Astronomer Shazman could clarify our idea of \u200b\u200bthe processes occurring within these stars.
The age of galaxies
Among the various methods of assessing the age of stars included in our galaxy, statistical methods were also used. In this case, the influence on the double stars of attraction of neighboring stars, produced on average for very large intervals. You can, for example, knowing the present distance between the stars of the pair, to approximately estimate the period of time, proceeding after the formation of pair stars, unless, of course, assume that both stars couples have a common origin (as it is considered to be currently) and if you know quite accurately average The values \u200b\u200bof the mass lines and speeds of adjacent stars. You can also assess the time required in order for some ball clusters that have a small density dispelled due to the attraction of passing near stars.
These calculations are quite delicate and easy to make mistakes. For example, jeans, studying some pairs of stars, concluded that the age of these couples should be several trillion years. In this he found confirming his views on a long time scale. However, in reality, as a few years later, V. A. Ambartsumyan, the age of these couples does not exceed several billion years.
As a rule, the latest calculations both in terms of double stars and with respect to ball clusters, lead to estimates expressed by billion years. But it is impossible to make it quite definitely to conclude that this should be the actual age of our galaxy. This conclusion would be fair only if all the pairs of stars, all the balls of the clusters that we know were formed simultaneously with our galaxy. The recent works of Ambartsumian, on the contrary, showed that the continuous formation of new stars in the Milky Way. Therefore, nothing prevents suggesting that along with double stars and ball clusters that we are now known now, there were also other couples and other balllings, fully cured and transmitted to single stars. Therefore, it is only possible to argue that the actual age of the Milky Way is at least a few billion years.
Prerequisites for the evolution of galaxies
Is it possible to go further and try to estimate the time of the complete evolution of any galaxy just as we determined the duration of the whole "life" of the stars? Of course, such a problem is much more complex. However, when comparing various known types of galaxies, you can still get some interesting data (Fig. 7). Indeed, the simple comparison of the forms of galaxies makes suspect that we have a deal with different stages of evolution. True, now the question arises, in which direction this evolution goes: from spherical to spiral nebulae or vice versa.
Fig. The evolution of the spiral nebula in Hubble. (The observer is in the equatorial plane). Dark plots in Figures IV and V correspond to areas where there is dark matter
At first, the first hypothesis expressed by Hubble was adopted, and the corresponding, roughly speaking, the evolution of the liquid rapidly rotating mass (flattening, and then the release of matter in the direction of tangent). But observations showed that, on the one hand, the elliptical nebulae are the size of the same order, like spiral nebula, and on the other hand (Baada works of 1943), they are "overcoolesy" stars, but deprived of any traces of scattered matter. Therefore, most scientists are inclined to believe that galaxies are developing in opposing direction, i.e. their evolution begins with the galaxy of the wrong form and ends with a giant ball accumulation. In this scheme, the spiral form of the galaxy is only an intermediate step, quite close to the beginning of the evolutionary path and, therefore, contrary to what previously thought, our galaxy should be relatively "young".
Fig. View of a spiral nebula with the resulting sleeves. (The observer is on the axis of rotation of the nebula)
As for estimates of the full life expectancy of one galaxy, they are still quite unreliable, but not lower than tens of billions of years. Finally, the distribution of galaxies in the clusters indicates, according to some astronomers (for example, Zwicks), that the age of clusters of galaxies is tens of trillion years.
Thus, contrary to the premature conclusions of some supporters of a short scale, the following idea is quite definitely identifiable: there is no single time scale in astronomy, and there is a lot of scales. * The age of the planets of the solar system differs from the life expectancy of most stars of the Milky Way, and the latter cannot apparently evaluate the same value as the age of large clusters of galaxies.
* (Similar pattern is observed in the micrometer. The duration of "life" is different in different types of "elementary" particles: in some (for example, in an electron), it is almost infinite, others (Mu-mesons) are equal to only 10-14 seconds. However, as the latest data show, for various celestial bodies, the difference between "times of life", apparently, is significantly less. (Approx. Ed.))
The age of the land is determined by different methods. The most accurate of them consists in determining the age of rock. It consists in calculating the ratio of the number of radioactive uranium to the amount of lead in this breed. The fact is that lead is the final product of the spontaneous decay of uranium. The speed of this process is known for sure, and it cannot be changed in any ways. The smaller the uranium remains and the more lead has accumulated in the breed, the greater its age. The most ancient rocks in the earth's crust have a few billion years old. The land as a whole arose, obviously, somewhat earlier than the earth's crust. The study of petrified remnants of animals and plants shows that latest hundreds Millions of years the radiation of the Sun has not changed significantly. According to modern estimates, the age of the Sun is about 5 billion years. Sun older than earth
There are stars that are much younger than the Earth, for example, hot supergiangants. By the rate of energy spending with hot supergigants, it can be judged that the possible reserves of their energy allow them to spend it so generously only a short time. So, the hot supergiangants are young - they are 10,6 -10 7 years.
Young stars are in the spiral branches of the galaxy, as well as gas nebula, from the substance of which stars arise. Stars who did not have time to scatter from the branch, young people. Leaving the branch, they are aging.
Stars of ball clusters, according to modern theory inner structure And the evolution of the stars, the oldest. They can be more than 10 10 years old that star systems - galaxies should be older than the stars from which they consist. The age of most of them should be at least 10 10 years
In the star universe, not only slow changes occur, but also fast, even catastrophic. For example, during the order of the year, the usual star flashes, as "supernova" (§ 24.3), and about the same time, its brightness falls.
As a result, it probably turns into a tiny star consisting of neutrons and rotating with a period of course of a second and faster, (neutron star). Its density increases to the density of atomic cores (10 16 kg / m), and it becomes the most powerful radios and x-ray radios, which, like its light, pulsate with a period of rotation of the star. An example of this pulsaraAs they are called, serves a weak asterisk in the center of expanding crab radio liabilities ($ 24.3). Rests of outbreaks of supernovae in the form of pulsars and radio lines, similar to the crab, are already known to many.
The question of the origin of the solar system should be solved along with the problem of origin and development of stars. Perhaps it is difficult to solve it correctly without knowing how the galaxies are formed and develop.
Lesson 33.
Subject: The origin of the solar system
Purpose:The age of the earth and other bodies of the solar system. Radioisotope method of determination. The main laws in the solar system. The theory of the formation of the solar system (Kant, Laplas, Schmidt and others).
Tasks
:
1. Teaching:
Introduce concepts: radioisotope method, age of solar system objects.
2. Ripping: disseminate the idea of \u200b\u200bdevelopment (evolution) from specific celestial bodies (planets) to the solar system and the entire universe.
3. Developing:
The formation of skills to analyze information, explain the properties of systems and individual bodies based on the most important physical theories, use a generalized plan for studying the sequence of evolution and draw conclusions.
Know:
- Radioisotope method for determining age, age of the solar system (sun, earth and moon), some patterns in the solar system, modern theory of the formation of the solar system.
Be able to:
- Calculate age using a radioisotope method.
During the classes:
1. New material
The section of astronomy involved in the study of the origin and evolution of the heavenly bodies - stars (including the sun), planets (including land) and other planetary system bodies are called cosmogony.
1. The age of the solar system
Defining age is based on the use radioisotope method - Studies of the content of radioactive elements (isotopes of chemical elements) in rocks. The method is proposed in 1902 Pierre Curie and developed together with Ernest Rutherford().
Radioactive decay depends on external factors (T, p, chemical interactions) and the amount of atoms of atoms are determined by the formula N \u003d No.2-T / Twhere T is a half-life. So for example, the U235 has a half-life of 710 million years old, and u, 5 billion years. Age is evaluated by the ratio of PB206 / U238, as the lead finite is not a radioactive spree product.
The absolute geochronology method for the last 60 thousand years is a radiocarbon method based on the radiation of the radioactive 14C, open when studying the process of photosynthesis in 1941 in Berkeley M. Kamen. and S. Ruben.with a half-life of 5568 years developed Wylar Frank Libby (1946, USA). On Earth for 94 chemical elements there are 350 isotopes.
The age of 4.9 billion years, that is, it relates to the second-generation stars arising from gas-dust complexes.
Solar system is considered to have age about more than 4.6 billion years.
Recent studies at the end of 2005 have shown that the age of the moon is 4 billion 527 million years. According to scientists, measurement error can be a maximum of 20-30 million years.
The age of the most ancient breeds on Earth (bark) is 3960 million years.
Volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the Pilbar complex, which west of the large sandy desert in Australia is one of the oldest rocks on a 3maker, showing that life on the planet Earth appeared 3.416 billion years ago.
2. Patterns in the solar system
The cosmological hypothesis of the formation of the solar system should explain the patterns observed in it. Here is some of them:
1
. The orbits of all planets lie in almost one plane, which is called a plane Laplas.
2
. Eccentricity orbits planets are very small.
3
. The average distance of the planets from the Sun obeys a certain pattern called titsius Bode Rule
.
4
. The planets move around the Sun in the direction of its rotation, like most of their satellites.
5
. Asteroids (main belt) are located at such a distance from the Sun, where, according to the rule of Tizius-Bode, there must be a planet.
6
. All planets of the solar system, except for the planets closest to the Sun, Mercury and Venus, have natural satellites.
7
. There is a positive correlation of the angular speed of rotation of the planets with their mass: the greater the mass, the greater the speed of rotation. Exceptions - again Mercury and Venus.
8.
In the parameters of the movements of the planets and their satellites are withstanding the commensurability indicating the phenomena of the resonance.
9.
Most planets (excluding Venus and Uranium) rotate towards the appeal direction around the Sun.
10.
The planets account for 98% of the amount of movement in the solar system at a total of 0.1 mass of the Sun.
11.
According to its physical characteristics, the planet is sharply divided into the earth group and giants.
12.
Equality of the angular sizes of the Sun and the Moon when observed from the Earth, habitual since childhood and providing us with the opportunity to observe full (non-ring-shaped) solar eclipses.
13.
Equality of the ratio of the diameter of the Sun to the diameter of the earth and the distance from the Sun to the Earth to the diameter of the Sun with an accuracy of 1%: 1390000: 12751 \u003d 109 and: 1390000 \u003d 108
14.
Equality of the period of appeal of the moon around the Earth of the period of its rotation around the axis (Siderician lunar month, 27.32 days) and the Carrington Sun Rotation Period (27.28 days). Shugrin and vow indicate that 600-650 million years ago, the synodic lunar month was equal to 27 modern days, i.e. there was an exact resonance with the sun.
15.
"Sunny Square". Interesting property of the frequency of solar activity, dated 1943. The average value of the duration of the solar activity cycle for 17 cycles (128 years) is given, the average value for the posts (the period of maximum minimum of the solar cycle) p \u003d 6.52 years, as well as the average value for admocks (the period of minimum maximum of the solar cycle) n \u003d 4.61 . In this case, the following pattern is observed: (6.52) 2 / (4.61) 2 \u003d 42.51 / 21.25 \u003d 2 or p / n \u003d √2.
And other patterns. Creating a hypothesis of the formation of the solar system, it is necessary to consider all the laws and explain.
3. Solar System Education Hypotheses
Hypotheses on the formation of our solar system can be divided into two groups: catastrophic and evolutionary. Cosmogonic hypothesis
The first hypotheses appeared long before many important patterns of the solar system became known. By discarding the theory of creating a solar system as a simultaneous act of divine creation, we will focus on the most significant theories in which the origin of heavenly bodies is due to the result of the natural process and contained the right ideas.
1
. Hypothesis Kanta - The first universal natural-philosophical concept developed in GG. In his hypothesis, heavenly bodies occurred from a gigantic cold dust cloud under the action of gravity. In the center of the cloud, the sun was formed, and on the periphery - planets. Thus, the idea initially expressed that the sun and the planets arose at the same time.
2
. Hypothesis Laplas - in 1796 he put forward a hypothesis about the origin of the solar system from a single hot rotating gas nebula, not knowing the theory I. Kanta. The planets were born on the border of the nebula by condensation of cooled vapors in the equator plane and the cooling of the nebula gradually compressed, rotating everything faster and when the centrifugal force becomes equal to the strength of gravity, numerous rings are formed, which, sealing, sharing on new rings, created first gas planets, and Central clutch turned into the sun. Gas planets, cooled and shrinkable, form around the ring of which then arose satellite planets (Saturn's ring considered the faithfulness of his reasoning). In the theory at the same time, all bodies of the Solar System: Sun, Planets, Satellites. Provides 5 facts (obviously not enough) - the characteristics of the solar system, based on the law of gravity. This is the first, developed in mathematical form, theory and existed almost 150 years, up to the theory.
The hypothesis of Kanta Laplace could not explain why in the solar system more than 98% of the moment of movement belongs to the planets. English astrophysicist studied this problem in detail Hoil. He pointed out the possibility of transmitting the moment of the amount of movement from the "Protosprix" to environment With a magnetic field.
3.
One of the most common catastrophic hypotheses was a hypothesis Jeans. According to this hypothesis near the sun, a star took place, which his attraction broke out a stream of gas from the surface of the sun, from which planets were formed. The main disadvantage of this hypothesis is that the likelihood that the star will be very small at the next distance from the Sun. In addition, in the fortieth and fifties, when this hypothesis was discussed, the existence of a multiplicity of worlds was considered not requiring evidence, but, consequently, the likelihood of the planetary system should not be small. Soviet astronomer Nikolai Nikolayevich Parisian with his calculations convincingly showed a negligible probability of the formation of a planetary system, and therefore life on other planets, which was contrary to the prevailing views of philosophers in those days. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe exclusiveness of the solar planetary system led, allegedly, to the idealistic concept of anthropocentrism, with which the materialist scientist cannot agree.
4.
One moremodern catastrophic hypothesis. At the initial moment, the sun, protoplanetic nebula and the star, which at the time of passage near the sun exploded and turned into a supernova. In the formation of the planets from this protoplanetic cloud played a decisive role of shock waves. For strong support, this hypothesis received, as writes in the "Parade Planet" book, as a result of the analysis of the chemical composition of the Big Meteorite Allende. It turned out abnormally a lot of calcium, barium and neodymium.
5.
An even more interesting is the catostrophic hypothesis of the Russian astrophysics of Professor of St. Petersburg University of Kirill Pavlovich Butusov, the predicting early 70s, the presence of planets for Neptune. Americans, watching comets with long periods of appeal around the Sun, came to the conclusion about the presence at a high distance from our luminaries of a certain massive body, "brown dwarf" and called His Lucifer. This alleged second star of the solar system of Bucosov called Raja-Sun with a mass of about 2% solar. Information about it is stored by Tibetan legends. Lama is considered its metal planet, thereby emphasizing it with a huge mass with small relatively sizes. It moves along a very elongated orbit and appears in our territories every 36 thousand years. Butusov assumes that the king sun was once ahead of the sun in his development and was the main star of the double system. Then, following the natural processes, the phase of the red giant passed, exploded and turned into an end in white, and then brown dwarf. The planetary system included Jupiter, Neptune, Earth and Mercury. Perhaps they had a life that had a contemporary for a couple of hundred million years (otherwise how to explain the presence of traces of a person next to the traces of dinosaurs?). The rest of the planets belonged to the sun. Having lost a lot in the mass, Raja-Sun conveyed his "retinue" by the current sun. During all these cosmic perturbations, the Earth grabbed the moon from Mars. Many legends say that before our planet satellite was not. Perhaps, near the Raji Sun still survived several planets with incommensurately higher civilization than ours. And they inspected from there. But against the Raji Sun says the fact that Butuses expected his appearance by 2000, but it never appeared.
5
. The generally accepted current theory - the theory of Schmidt.
Cosmological models
1.
The globe in which the protocol arises (in particular our sun), compressing, increasing the speed of rotation. In the course of a faster compression of the protocol, it forms a disk from the substance surrounding the future star. The part first of all the nearby substance of the disk falls on the resulting star under the action of the force of gravity. Gas and dust remaining in the disk and having an overpressure of rotation is gradually cooled. A gas pepped protoplanetary disk is formed around the protosal.
2.
The cooled substance in the disk becoming more flat, sealing, begins to gather into small clots - the planezimali, forming the swarm of billions of clots of the size near a kilometer, which at their movement came across, destroying and uniting. The largest preserved - forming the planetary nuclei, and with their growth the increasing force of gravity contributed to the absorption of closely located planetes and the attraction of the surrounding gas and dust. Thus, in 50 million years, gigantic gas planets were formed. In the central part of the disk there was a further development of the protocol - shrinking and warmed.
3.
After 100 million years of the protocol turns into a star. The resulting radiation heats the cloud to 400K, the evaporation zone is formed and the poverty of hydrogen and helium begins at a more remote distance, leaving near heavier elements and the existing large planetes (future planets of the earth group). In the process of gravitational differentiation of the substance (separation into heavy and lungs), the core of the planet and its mantle.
4.
In the outer, more remote part of the solar system by 5 a. e. The zone of altitude is formed with a temperature of about 50k and large planetary kernels were formed here, which were able to keep a certain amount of gas in the form of a primary cloud. In it, a large number of satellites were formed in the future, and from the rings residues.
5.
Moon and satellites of Mars (like some satellites planets giants) Former planetsimali (later asteroids) withheld (captured) forces of gravity planets.
Here another of the theories of the solar system formation
:
At first, the sun was moving in orbit around the center of the Galaxy in full solitude.
Material bodies with signs of planets are currently part of our solar system also existed by themselves, without any connection with each other, although they were located in the relative proximity of the Sun and moved in one direction with it. Each of these objects, which was at a certain stage of development, was surrounded by a deep discharge, the level of which was directly dependent on the size of the celestial body. The greatest mass had the sun, which, of course, had caused the existence around him the strongest discharge. Therefore, it was there that the most powerful streams of the gravitational substance were directed there, which, having met the planet on their path, began to slowly shift them to the sun.
Mercury fell first in the zone of action of near-free gravity. With the approach to the luminar, he began to test the lack of gravitational masses from the sunny side, which was necessary for his own evolution, which forced it to shy away from the rectilinear direction and to ribrate the sun side. Moving the latter, Mercury was removed from him, but under the pressure of the oncoming flows of matter was forced to turn back, again and again repeating return-rotational movements around the center of the resulting body of the bodies along its elliptical orbit, while adding their own discharge to the near-bearer emptiness. This is expressed in the existence of emptiness not only around the planet itself, but also in its formation on the entire length of the orbit, according to which Mercury moves.
So our solar system began to create.
The second surrounded by Venus appeared, which almost exactly repeated the fate of Mercury, taking the following orbit. The rotation distinguished from other planets around his own axis Venus has acquired in the process of its formation, and it is not related to the formation of the solar system.
Earth and other material objects with satellites were involved in the orbital movement around the Sun, already having their own body tel.
The asteroid belt, located in orbit, previously, undoubtedly belonged to a small, practically not rotating around the axis, the planet Phaeton, collapsed about 65 million years ago. The rings around some planets have a similar nature. The bulk of the exploded space objects gathered and evenly distributed throughout the orbital discharge, formed during their rotation before the catastrophe.
The incessant movement of the gravitational masses to the center of the solar system is still not only changes the qualitative state of the latter, but also moves free material objects to it, which is to be in the remote future to become satellites of the Sun.
So our solar system was formed, but the process of its replenishment was not completed by new celestial bodies, it will continue many more millions of years.
But what is the age of the solar system? Scientists have established that about three hundred million years, the Earth was an ice ball. In this regard, it can be assumed that during this period the temperature of the Sun was relatively low and its energy was not enough to ensure that there is a thermal regime on our planet comparable to the current one. But such an assumption is completely unacceptable, as even Mars, which is at a much larger distance from the Sun than the Earth, and receiving much less thermal energy, it has not cooled to such a low temperature.
An explanation of the global icing of the Earth's global icing is the explanation of the phenomenon of the fact that it was then very far from the Sun, that is, outside the space of the modern solar system. From this it follows an important conclusion: three hundred million years ago the solar system, as such, did not exist, the sun was moving along the universes of the universe alone, at best, surrounded by Mercury and Venus.
Thus, it can be approved - the approximate age of the solar system is significantly less than three hundred million years!
One of the modern theories of Earth Education
4. Planets from other stars (exoplanets) in Wikipedia
Thoughts about the existence of other worlds were still expressed by the ancient Greek philosophers: Lovvipp, Democritus, epicuris. Also, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of the stars of other planets was expressed in 1584 Gordano Bruno (1548-17.02.1600, Italy). As of April 24, 2007, 219 extralar planets in 189 planetary systems are open, 21 numerous planetary system. The first exoplanet was opened in 1995 at the star 51 Pegasi, located at 14.7 PCs from us by Astronomers of the Geneva Observatory Michelle Major. (M. Mayor) and Didier Quales (D. Queloz).
Professor of Astronomy of the University of California in Berkeley Jeffrey Marci. (Geoffrey Marcy) and astronomer Paul Butler Paul Butler) from the University of Carnegie announced June 13, 2002 on the opening of the Jupiter class, which turns around his star at a distance of approximately equal to the one on which our Jupiter flies away the sun. Star 55 Cancri removed from Earth at a distance 41 light year And refers to the type of sun-like stars. Open planet removed from the star to. 5.5 astronomical units (Jupiter by 5.2 astronomical units). The period of its appeal is 13 years (for Jupiter - 11.86 years). Mass - from 3.5 to 5 masses of Jupiter. So for the first time in 15 years of observations of the international team "Hunters for Planets from other stars" managed to detect the planetary system, reminiscent of our. Now you know such systems seven.
Via orbital telescope Hubble Student University Pennsylvania John Debes. (John Debes), who worked on the search for stars in other systems, at the beginning of May 2004 for the first time in history, photographed the planet in another system, located at a distance of about 100 light years from the ground, confirming the observation in early 2004 by the VLT telescope (Chile) And first received a photo of the satellite at the star 2M 1207 (Red Dwarf). Its mass is estimated in 5 masses of Jupiter, and the radius of the orbit in 55 a. e.
At home:
The pattern in the distribution of distances of the planets from the Sun is expressed by empirical dependence 
but. e.called the rule of Tsyius-Bode. It does not explain none of the existing cosmogonical hypotheses, but it is interesting that the table illustrating it clearly does not fit Pluto. Perhaps this is also one of the reasons for the solution of MAC ( what are the definition of the planet?) on the exclusion of Pluto from among big planets? [The definition of the planet includes three positions: 1) turns around the sun, 2) a large (more than 800 km) and massive (above 5x1020 kg) is sufficient to take a spherical shape, 3) there are no comparable sizes next to its orbita. This reason is also suitable, as in the belief belt there are bodies in their size superior Pluto.]
Planet | observed semi-axes (a. e.) | calculated semi-axes (a. e.) |
|
Mercury | |||
asteroids | |||
Age of heavenly tel
Age of heavenly bodies. The age of the earth and meteorites, and from here is indirectly, etc. The bodies of the solar system are most reliably assessed by methods, for example. By the amount of lead isotopes 206 pb and 207 pbs formed in the studied rocks as a result of the radioactive decay of uranium isotopes 238 U and 235 U. Since the cessation of the contact of the studied sample of rocks with possible sources of 238 U and 235 U (eg, after separation of the breed of melt In the case of its volcoloch. Origin or mechanical. Isolation In the case, k-rye can be fragments of larger space. Tel) The formation of isotopes 206 RB and 207 PB goes through the sample of uranium isotopes. Since the speed of radioactive decay is constant, the number of accumulated lead isotopes characterizes the time that has passed since the sample insulation until the study. Practically, the age of rock is determined with the ratio of the content of isotopes 206 pb and 207 pb to the content of the natural isotope of 204 Pb, not generated by radioactivity. This method gives an estimate to 4.5 billion years old for the age of the oldest crust. Analysis of the content of lead isotopes in iron meteorites is usually estimated to 4.6 billion years. The age of stone meteorites, determined by the radioactive conversion of potassium isotop 40 k in the argon isotope 40 AG, ranges from 0.5 to 5 billion years. This indicates that part of meteorites arose relatively recently.
Analysis of the rocks delivered from the Moon to Earth showed that the number of inert gas contained in them - radioactive decay products - corresponds to the age of rocks from 2 to 4.5 billion years. T. about., The age of the lunar breeds and the oldest rocks of the earth's crust is about the same.
Planets of the Solar System, but Sovr. Representations, originated from the substance in the condensed phase (dusty or meteorites). Planets, therefore, younger than some meteorites. In this regard, the age of the solar system is usually estimated at 4.6 billion years.
(million years) (2)
The sum T C + T H gives max. Assessment of the age of a star staying on the main sequence.
The duration of the burning stage of helium (the stage of red giants) t HE is approximately 0.1 t h. The sum T C + T H + T HE is rated max. age. The subsequent stages of evolution associated with the "burnout" in the stars of carbon and silicon, are configured and are characteristic of massive supergigant stars (they finish their evolution by an explosion, see). It may be formed and (see). Stars with the masses in the process of evolution are becoming uo-visid. There are no estimates of the duration of existence of stars at these stages.
T., it is possible to establish the limits of the age of the star of this mass, which is in one or another stage of evolution, but whether it is in the beginning of this stage or almost passed it, it is much more difficult to find out. A direct assessment of the age of the star could be obtained by comparing the percentage of hydrogen and helium in its core (it is calculated internal. Star structures) and shell (located on the star spectrum). Under the condition of the nonsense external. and internal Layers, but changing the composition of the stars in the center, due to thermonuclear processes, one would determine its age. Unfortunately, the ratio of helium H hydrogen and stars is evaluated very roughly, and only the stars spectrum. Classes O and B, in the spectra of the switches there are strong lines of helium. For the Sun, this assessment is very approximate - 5 billion years since the beginning of the stage of hydrogen burning. This is consistent with the estimates of the age of the solar system, but it is also possible that the sun over it is 1-2 billion years old. If the age of the Sun is 5 billion years, then, according to formula (2), it will be on the main sequence. 5 billion years. Whether it will then pass the stage of the red giant or immediately it will be white dwarf, it is not clear, although the first is most likely. In the oldest known star clusters of the stars with a mass of the Sun or a slightly less, the main sequence is still occupied, and their further evolution is still unknown with sufficient completeness.
Judging by Chem. The composition, the sun is not yawl. The peer of the galaxy, it is younger, although it belongs to the oldest stars of Galaktich. disk.
The age of stars of clusses and associations, in which the stars arose almost simultaneously, is estimated much more reliable than the age of individual stars. The most massive stars of scattered clusters are quickly moving in their evolution, leaving the main sequence and become red giants or (the most massive) - supergiants. On the Herzshprung chart - Resellla of such a cluster (Fig. 1) it is easy to distinguish those stars, which finish their stay on the main sequence and are preparing to leave it. F-la (2) gives an assessment of the age of these stars and, consequently, the entire cluster. In the youngest scattered clusters, age is estimated at 1 million years old, the oldest people have 4.5-8 billion years (with various assumptions about the amount of hydrogen, which turned into helium).
Age is estimated in a similar way, although the Herzshprung chart - Resell for ball clusters have their differences. Star shells in these clusters contain significantly less chemical elements heavier than helium, since the clusters consist of the oldest galaxy stars (they almost did not include heavy elements synthesized in other stars, all the heavy elements there are synthesized in them). Estimates of the age of ball clusters - from 9 to 15 billion years (with an error of 2-3 billion years).
The age of galaxy is estimated in accordance with the theory of its evolution. The primary gas cloud (protoglactic) for the first billion years broke up, obviously, on separate clots, which posted the beginning of the ball clusters and the stars of Spherich. Galaxy subsystems. During the evolution, the exploding stars of the first generation were thrown into the gas with an admixture of heavy chemical. Elements. Gas was concentrated to the galaxy. The plane, and the following generation stars were formed from it, which constitute the system (population) more compressed to the plane. Usually allocate several. Populations characterized by the difference in the stars included in them, the content of heavy elements in their atmospheres in their atmospheres (i.e. all elements, except n and not), the form of volume occupied in the galaxy and different ages (Table).
Composition and age of some types of galaxy population
| Galaxy population | The content of heavy chemical. Elements,% | Recent age, billion years |
| Ball clusters, subcarliki stars, short-periodic cefete | 0,1 - 0,5 | 12 - 15 |
| Long priorite variables, stars with high speeds | 1 | 10 - 12 |
| Stars of the main sequence of solar type, red giants, planetary nebula, new stars | 2 | 5 - 7 |
| Stars of spectral class A | 3 - 4 | 0,1-5 |
| Stars classes about and in, supergiant | 3 - 4 | 0,1 |
The age of galaxies can also be assessed over the time necessary to form the number of heavy elements observed in it. Their synthesis ceased, obviously, in our area of \u200b\u200bthe Galaxy with the formation of the solar system (i.e., 4.6 billion years ago). If the synthesis occurred suddenly, for a relatively short time, then for the formation of the model. The ratio of the isotopes of heavy elements, he had to occur for 4-6 billion years before the solar system occurs, i.e. 9 - 11 billion years ago. Relates. The short-term period of intensive synthesis is confirmed as an analysis of the following. The composition of these elements and astronomy. Data - star formation in the galaxy was particularly intense in the initial period. T. about., The age of the galaxy, determined by the synthesis of elements, is from 9 to 11 billion years.
In most modern textbooks, encyclopedias and reference books The age of the Sun is estimated at 4.5-5 billion years. As much as much as he is given to "exorbit".
In the first half of the 20th century, the development of nuclear physics has reached such a level that it became possible to calculate the effectiveness of various thermonuclear reactions. As was found at the end of the 30s, with physical conditionsThe reactions that exist in the central region of the Sun and stars may occur, leading to the combination of four protons (nuclei of the hydrogen atom) in the kernel of the helium atom. As a result of such an association, energy is exempt and, as follows from the calculations, this way provides a glow of the Sun for billions of years. In the giant stars, spending their nuclear fuel (protons) more wastefully, the lifetime should be much shorter than that of the Sun - only tens of millions of years. From this was the conclusion about the birth of such stars and in our time. Regarding the stars of the smaller mass, similar to the Sun, many astronomers continued to adhere to the opinion that they all, like the sun, were formed billions of years ago.
In the late 40s V.A. Ambarcumian used a completely different approach to the problem of determining the age of stars. It was based on extensive observational data on the distribution of stars of various types in space, as well as on the results of their own studies of stars dynamics, that is, their movements in the gravitational field created by all the galaxy stars.
V.A. Ambartsumian was made on the basis of the two most important not only for astrophysics, but also for all natural science output:
1. Star formation in the galaxy continues at present.
2. The birth of stars occurs by groups.
These conclusions do not depend on the assumptions about the mechanism of the formation of stars, which in those years has not been established with confidence, nor the nature of the sources of stellar energy. They are based on the made V.A. Ambartsumian opening a new type of star clusters, named by the star associations.
Before the discovery of star associations, astronomers were known in the galaxy of the star groupings of two types - open (or scattered) clusters and ball accumulations. In open clusters, the concentration of stars is not very significant, but still they stand out against the background of the star field of the Galaxy. Cluster of another type - ball - different high degree The concentrations of stars and with insufficiently good resolution seems to be a single body. Such a cluster consists of hundreds of thousands of stars creating a fairly strong gravitational field, which holds it from rapid decay. It can exist for a long time - about 10 billion years. In the open accumulation there are several hundred stars and, although it is a gravitational system, this connection is not very durable. Calculation can be filled out, as showed by V.A. Ambartsumian calculations for several hundred million years.
NASA scientists with unprecedented accuracy determined the age of our universe. By assessing astronomers, it is 13.7 billion years, and the first stars lit up 6 years after Big bang. From this point on, the universe is continuously expanding, sprayed and cooled ... right up to complete non-existence.
Previously, astrophysics believed that our world was from 8 to 20 billion years, then stopped at a range of 12-15 billion, leaving the right to a 30% mistake. The current estimate has an error in 1%. As for the "pregnancy period" at the first star, he was previously assumed to lie in the borders from 500 million to a billion years.
An even more interesting is the quality composition of the substance of the universe. It turns out that only 4% of matter make up atoms on which the well-known laws of electromagnetism and gravity are applied. Another 23 percent consists of the so-called "dark matter" (scholars do not know about its properties). Well, as much as 73% of the total of everything is a mysterious "dark energy" or "anti-gravity", which encourages the universe to expand. It turns out that we know that we do not know anything by 96%.
The day was the first natural unit of the time measures that regulate work and rest. At first, the day was divided on day and night, and just a lot later for 24 hours.
Star days are determined by the period of rotation of the Earth around its axis relative to any star.
True afternoon comes on different Meridians of the Earth in different time, and for convenience, a division agreement was taken globe On time zones that pass through 15 degrees in longitude, starting with Meridian Greenwich. This is London Meridian 0 degrees of longitude, and the belt is called zero (Western European).
Second - a generally accepted unit of time, about 1 with a person's heart beats. Historically, this unit is associated with the division of the day by 24 hours, 1 hour - for 60 minutes, 1 min - by 60 s.
Atomic second - the time interval during which almost 10 billion oscillations of the CS atom - (9 192 631 830) is performed.
The calendar is called the report system of long periods of time, in which a certain account of the account of days per year is installed and the beginning of the report is indicated.
Definition of age on the spectrum
At first glance it may seem that in order to determine the composition of the Sun or Star, it is necessary to extract at least a few of their substances. However, it is not. The composition of one or another celestial body can be determined by watching the light with special devices with special devices. This method is called spectral analysis and has great importance In astronomy.
The essence of this method can be understood as follows. We put an opaque block with a narrow slit in front of the electric lamp, the slit is a glass prism, and a multiple-white screen. In the electric lamp, the rolled solid metallic thread is lit. The carved slit bundle of white light, passing through the prism, decomposes into composite colors and gives a beautiful color image on the screen, consisting of sections of various colors, continuously passing into each other, is the so-called continuous luminous spectrum similar to a rainbow. The type of spectrum of the rolled solid depends not on its composition, but only on the body temperature.
The situation occurs when the gauge of the substances in the gaseous state. With gases, each of them glows special, only to him one characteristic light. When decomposing this light, using the prism, a set of colored lines is obtained, or a strollery spectrum characteristic of each given gas (Fig. 1). Such, for example, the glow of neon, argon and other substances in gas-discharge tubes, or so-called cold light lamps.
Range spectrum. Photo: NASA.
The spectral analysis is based on the fact that each given substance can be distinguished from all other on the spectrum of its radiation. In the spectral analysis of a mixture of several substances on the relative brightness of the individual lines for each substance, the relative content of one or another impurity can be determined. At the same time, the accuracy of measurements is as follows, which makes it possible to determine the presence of a small impurity, even if it is only one hundredsmatic share of the total amount of substance. Thus, spectral analysis is not only high-quality, but also accurate quantitative method of studying the composition of the mixture.
Direction to the sky telescopes, astronomers explore the nature of the movement of the stars and the composition of the light emitted by them. According to the nature of the movement of celestial bodies, the size of stars, their mass, etc., are determined by the composition of the light emitted by the celestial bodies, the chemical composition of stars is determined using spectral analysis. The relative content of hydrogen and helium in the stars under study is determined by comparing the brightness of the spectra of these substances.
Since the development of the star is accompanied by a continuous conversion of hydrogen inside it in helium, then the older star, the less in its composition of hydrogen and more helium. Knowledge of their relative content allows you to calculate the age of the star. However, this calculation is not completely simple, because in the process of the evolution of stars, their composition changes, and the mass decreases. Meanwhile, the speed with which in the star is converting hydrogen in helium depends on its mass and composition. Moreover, depending on the initial mass and the initial composition, these changes proceed at different speeds and several different ways. Thus, in order to correctly determine the age of the stars on the observed values \u200b\u200b- luminosity, mass and composition, you need to some extent to restore the story history. This is what makes all the calculations quite complicated, and their result is not very accurate.
Nevertheless, for many stars, the corresponding measurements and calculations were produced. According to A. B. Northern in the Sun, hydrogen 38%, helium is 59%, the remaining elements of 3%, including carbon and nitrogen about 1%. In 1960, D. Lamber on the basis of data on the mass, luminosity and composition of the Sun, as well as detailed calculations of the alleged evolution obtained the value of the age of the Sun, equal to 12 * 109 years.
When studying the history of the development of heavenly bodies, there is no need for any opportunity to monitor some one star from her birth to her old age. Instead, you can explore many stars located at various stages of your development. As a result of such research, it was possible to find out not only the present, but also the past and future of stars and, in particular, our Sun.
Initially, the sun was very wastefully spent a mass and energy and relatively quickly passed to his modern statecharacterized by a calmer and even existence in which only extremely slow changes in its luminosity, temperature and mass occur. In this already "mature" age, the sun exists many more billion years.
Then, due to the accumulation of a large amount of helium, the transparency of the Sun will decrease and its heat transfer will decrease accordingly. This will lead to even greater heating of the sun. By this time, the reserves of hydrogen "fuel" in the sun almost run out, therefore, after a relatively short fracturing of the Sun, its relatively fast fading will begin. However, all this will happen to our sun soon, not less than a tet of billion years.
There are such stars in which the hydrogen content is much more than in our sun, as well as those in which hydrogen is very small. V. A. Ambartsumyan, B. A. Vorontsov-Veljaminov and B. V. Kuccakin showed that there are young stars in the galaxy, for example, a number of supergigant, whose age does not exceed only one or ten million years, as well as old stars, age which are much more than the age of our sun.
Our galaxy is a giant accumulation of stars related to among themselves the forces of attraction and thus combined into a common system. Distances separating us from the Sun and other stars are huge. Therefore, for their measurement, astronomers introduced specific units of length. The distance from the ground to the Sun was named: Astronomical unit of length. As you know, 1 a. e. \u003d 149.6 million km. The distance that light passes in one year is called the Light Year: 1 sv. Year \u003d 9,46x10 12 km \u003d 10 13 km. The distance at which the radius of the earth orbit is visible at an angle of 1 second is called the second pararallax or abbreviated parties (PC). Thus, 1 pc \u003d 3.26 sv. years \u003d 3,085x10 13 km.
Our galaxy has the shape of a very flat disk. It contains about 1013 stars. The sun is one of them. The whole system slowly rotates, but not as a solid, but rather as the body is a semi-liquid, viscous. The angular speed of rotation of the galaxy decreases from its center to the periphery so that in 8 kiloparski from the center, the period of circulation is about 212 million years, and in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Sun, i.e., at a distance of 10 kiloparski from the center, - 275 million years. This period is usually called the Galactic Year.
Obviously, the age of galaxies should be determined by the oldest of the stars included in it. In 1961, Arp explored a number of the oldest stars. For the oldest scattered cluster of the NGC 188, it received the value of the age equal to 16x10 9 years, and one of the oldest ball clusters of the M5 has become equal to 20x10 9 years. According to F. Hoyle, etc. The age of some of the stars close to the Sun: 8 Eridan and U Hercules A, amounts to (10-15) x10 9 years.
Currently, the age of galaxies managed to determine other methods, and there are several other results. Consideration of these methods and the comparison of the results obtained with their help is great interest and is given later.
