The development of organizations occurs through the development of a variety of innovations. These innovations can affect all areas of the organization. It should be noted that any sufficiently serious innovation in one area of ​​the organization's activity, as a rule, requires immediate changes in related areas, and sometimes a general restructuring of organizational management structures.

Innovation is any technical, organizational, economic and managerial change that differs from the existing practice in a given organization. They may be known and used in other organizations, but for those organizations in which they have not yet been mastered, their implementation is new and can lead to considerable difficulties. Organizations have varying susceptibility to innovation. Their innovative potential significantly depends on the parameters of the organizational structures of management, professional qualifications, industrial and production personnel, external conditions economic activity and other factors.

Innovations are, on the one hand, in contradiction with everything conservative, aimed at preserving the existing situation, on the other hand, they are aimed, within the framework of the change strategy, at a significant increase in the technical and economic efficiency of the organization's activities.

Innovation is an elementary component of entrepreneurship, always inherent in a market economy. But it is equally a combination of rationality and irrationality. Creativity is the engine of innovation, it is the "primary resource" of entrepreneurship in a market economy.

The objects of innovation include:

1) products (types, quality);

2) materials;

3) means of production;

4) technological processes;

5) the human factor (personality development);

6) social sphere (change in the behavior of employees of the organization);

7) organizational development of the organization.

Innovative activity is of a creative nature, it does not fit well with the strict regulation of work and the centralization of decision-making, it is difficult to fit into the formalized organizational structures of management. The latter are characterized by tendencies to maintain stable relations and management procedures, counteraction to innovation, active resistance to any new forms and methods of management.

The innovative potential of organizations is largely predetermined by the diversity and degree of industrial and technological unity of their constituent production units. The more active role organizations play in the reproduction process and the greater the degree of integration of their main industries, the higher the innovative potential.

The purpose of the course work is to identify the essence of planning innovative activities in an enterprise. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1) determine the role of innovation in the activities of the organization;

2) to form a system of planning innovations at the enterprise;

3) substantiate the effectiveness of the innovation program.

Research methods include the collection of information related to the innovative activities of the enterprise; data processing and formulation of recommendations on the issue under consideration.

This course work contains a description of the process of planning the innovative activities of an enterprise, examines the role of innovation in modern market conditions and in a competitive environment.

1. Planning innovative activities at the enterprise

1.1 Forecasting innovation and its role in the organization

In modern conditions, when the external environment of the organization changes dynamically and unpredictably, forecasting innovations becomes vital. It is she who allows the organization not only to see its future and outline goals, but also to develop a program of actions to achieve them. The presence of such a program facilitates the use of the organization's resources and the choice of the best means to achieve the goal, significantly reduces the danger posed by it. external environment... This has a positive effect on the results of the organization's activities and contributes to the creation of a healthy moral and psychological climate in the organization, which also has a positive effect on efficiency. And on the contrary, the absence of such a program is accompanied by fluctuations and deviations in the development of the organization in the right direction. Lack of thought and inconsistency of actions are fraught with difficult negative consequences... First of all, the resources of the organization are used ineffectively. Organizational resources (and they are always limited) are often directed to the wrong places and to the wrong ones. As a result, measures to address pressing problems are not being implemented and the needs of consumers are not being met. All this negatively affects the state of affairs, reduces efficiency, creates social tension in the organization. The possibility of all kinds of conflicts is increasing, staff turnover is increasing, etc. These processes also negatively affect the activities of the entire organization.

A forecast is understood as a scientifically grounded judgment about the possible states of the organization and its environment in the future, about alternative ways and timing of its implementation. The process of developing forecasts is called forecasting.

Forecasting is an important link between theory and practice in the life of every organization. It has two different planes of concretization: the predictive ( descriptive, descriptive) and another, associated with it, related to the category of management - predictive (promising, prescriptive). Prediction implies a description of possible or desirable prospects, states, and solutions to problems of the future. In addition to formal forecasting based on scientific methods, premonition and prediction are related to prediction. Premonition - it is a description of the future based on erudition, the work of the subconscious and intuition. Anticipation uses life experience and knowledge of circumstances.

Prediction is actually the solution to these problems, the use of these problems, the use of information about the future in purposeful activity. Thus, in the problem of forecasting, two aspects are distinguished: theoretical and cognitive and managerial, associated with the possibility of making managerial decisions based on the knowledge gained.

Depending on the degree of concreteness and the nature of the impact on the course of the processes under study, three forms of foresight are distinguished: hypothesis (general scientific foresight), forecast, plan.

The hypothesis characterizes scientific foresight at the level of general theory. The forecast, in comparison with the hypothesis, has great certainty, since it is based not only on qualitative, but also on quantitative parameters and therefore allows us to characterize the future state of the organization and its environment also quantitatively.

The plan is the setting of a well-defined goal and the anticipation of specific, detailed events in the studied organization and its external environment. It fixes the ways and means of development in accordance with the tasks set, justifies the adopted management decisions. Its main distinctive feature- certainty and directiveness of tasks. Thus, in terms of foresight, it receives the greatest concreteness and certainty.

The susceptibility of organizations to innovation decreases with the growth of production and the development of organizational structures, the predominance of large-scale and mass production types. The larger the volume of production, the higher the level of output, the more difficult it is to restructure production.

Scientific and technical progress, as a rule, is constrained within the framework of mass, highly specialized production and gains great prospects in the production of small-scale highly specialized quick-change products.

Small, highly specialized organizations are most susceptible to innovation. They are specialized in meeting the specific needs of consumers and have the ability to flexibly rebuild depending on the nature and pace of development of industrial production. Their organizational management structures are the most mobile and sensitive to modern scientific and technological trends and organizational and economic innovations.

The introduction of technical, organizational and economic innovations requires adequate changes in the existing forms and methods of organizing management. Implementation necessitates the continuity of managerial innovation. The latter is becoming an increasingly important condition for improving the efficiency of organizations.

1.2 The essence of planning innovation

Planning is one of the main elements of the system of internal management of the organization's innovative activities. As an element of the management system, planning is a relatively independent subsystem that includes a set of specific tools, rules, structural bodies, information and processes aimed at preparing and ensuring the implementation of plans. Innovation planning is a system of calculations aimed at choosing and justifying the goals of innovative development of an organization and preparing solutions necessary for their unconditional achievement. Within the framework of the integrated management system, the planning subsystem performs the following seven particular functions:

Target orientation of all participants. Thanks to agreed plans, the private goals of individual participants and performers are focused on achieving the general goals of an innovation program or organization as a whole.

Perspective orientation and early recognition of developmental problems. Plans are always oriented towards the future and should be based on well-grounded forecasts of the development of the situation.

The plan outlines what is desired in the future state of the object and provides for specific measures aimed at supporting favorable trends or containing negative ones.

Coordination of the activities of all participants in innovation.

Coordination is carried out as a preliminary coordination of actions in the preparation of plans and as an agreed response to the arising obstacles and problems in the implementation of plans. In the process of planning innovations, four main forms of coordination are used: administrative, proactive,

program and budget. The administrative form of coordination is expressed in the directive approval of planning documents that are binding on all participants in innovation processes.

The proactive form of coordination is expressed in the voluntary and deliberate coordination of the actions of managers and all participants within the delegated authority and general planning constraints. Program coordination is carried out in the form of private planning targets established for each participant in accordance with the general work plan for the innovation program. The budgetary form of coordination is carried out during the development of the planned budget in the form of restrictions on material, labor and financial resources allocated to each participant.

Preparation of management decisions. Plans are the most common management decisions in innovation management. In their preparation, a deep analysis of the problems is carried out, forecasts are carried out, all alternatives are investigated and an economic justification of the most rational solution is made. Planning brings high level economic feasibility and rationality in the management system in the organization.

Creation of an objective basis for effective control.

Plans set the desired or required state of the system to certain period time. Their presence allows an objective assessment of the organization's activities by comparing the actual values ​​of the parameters with the planned ones according to the "fact - plan" principle. At the same time, control becomes substantive, aimed at ensuring the target state of the system.

6. Information support for participants in the innovation process. The plans contain important information for each participant about the goals, forecasts, alternatives, timing, resource and administrative conditions of the innovation.

The stability of the planning system makes it possible to ensure effective updating of information due to timely control and adjustments of planned targets.

7. Motivation of the participants. The successful implementation of planned targets, as a rule, is an object of special incentives and the basis for mutual settlements, which creates effective motives for the productive and coordinated activities of all participants. The significance of the noted private functions of the planning subsystem makes it the most important component of the management system in the organization.

In the planning process, a reasonable choice of the main areas of innovation is carried out for organizations as a whole and for each structural unit; formation of programs for research, development and production of innovative products; distribution of programs of individual tasks for separate periods of time and assignment to performers; establishment of calendar terms for carrying out work on programs; calculation of the need for resources and their distribution among performers on the basis of budgetary calculations.

1.3 In-house innovation planning system

The system of planning innovation in organizations includes a set of different plans aimed at the implementation of the main functions and planning tasks that interact with each other. The most significant factors determining the composition and content

of this complex, the organizational structure and the profile of the organization's innovation activity, the composition of the ongoing innovation processes, the level of cooperation during their implementation, the scale and constancy of innovation are represented.

The types of plans differ in purpose, subject matter, levels, content and planning periods. A schematic diagram of the classification of types of innovation planning is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Types of intrafirm innovation planning

By target orientation, strategic and operational planning of innovations are distinguished.

Strategic planning as an element of strategic innovation management consists in defining the organization's mission at each stage of its life cycle, the formation of a system of goals of activity and

strategies of behavior in the innovation markets. At the same time, in-depth marketing research, large-scale forecasting developments, assessments of the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, risks and factors of success are carried out. Strategic planning, as a rule, is focused on a period of five or more years. It aims to create new potential for organizational success.

Operational planning of innovations is aimed at finding and agreeing on the most effective ways and means of implementing the adopted strategy for the development of the organization. It provides for the formation of a product-thematic portfolio of the organization, the development of calendar plans, the preparation of business plans for individual programs, the calculation of the need for resources, funds and sources of their coverage, etc. sales volumes, etc. Strategic and operational planning are in dialectical interaction and substantively complement each other in a single process of innovation management.

Product-thematic planning of innovations consists in the formation promising directions and topics scientific research and development, preparation of programs and measures to update products, improve technology and organization of production in organizations. At the production stage of innovative processes, this type of planning involves the development and optimization of production programs of organizations and departments.

Technical and economic planning includes calculations of material, labor and financial resources required to complete nomenclature and thematic tasks, as well as an assessment of economic results and the effectiveness of the organization's innovative activities. This type of calculation includes financial planning, business planning, budget planning, etc.

Volumetric scheduling of innovations consists in planning the scope of work, loading of departments and performers, building timetables for carrying out work for individual programs and for the entire set of planned work, schedules for loading equipment and performers, distributing work for individual calendar periods.

1.4 Rationale for investment in innovative programs

Some of critical issues for the investor, when determining the direction of investment, the following are:

1) which program is worth investing in ?;

2) what volume of these investments will be needed ?;

3) when will the invested investments start to generate income ?;

4) how much return on investment can you expect ?;

5) what are (at least in general terms) the characteristics of the program ?;

6) from what sources to get money for the program?

These are the questions that make up the essence of the concept creation.

programs. The development of the concept of the program consists of the following stages: the formation of an innovative concept of the program and the study of innovative possibilities.

Each of these stages includes a number of stages, the content of which is described below.

So, as soon as there are ideas that meet the goals of the program, the innovation manager must conduct a preliminary examination and exclude from further consideration those that are obviously unacceptable. It is clear that at this stage the reasons why the idea will be rejected are very general.

Purpose of organizational analysis - assess the organizational, legal and administrative environment within which the program should be implemented and operated, as well as develop the necessary recommendations in terms of: management; organizational structure; planning; staff recruitment and training; financial activities; coordination of activities; general policy.

Currently, several computer simulating systems have become widespread, used to assess the effectiveness of investment programs. These include: COMFAR (Computer Model for Feasibility Analysis and Reporting), Alt-Invest package (created using MS Works or Excel spreadsheets and can work in the environment of other common spreadsheet processors (Super Calc 4, fcotus 1-2- 3, Quattro Pro)), "Project Expert" package. Like COMFAR, the system is a "closed" package.

Justification of investments is the main document justifying the feasibility and effectiveness of investments in the program under consideration. In the justification, the decisions made at the stage of pre-project feasibility studies of investments are detailed and specified - technological, constructive, environmental; the environmental and operational safety of the program, as well as its economic efficiency and social consequences, are reliably assessed.

2. Calculation of the technical and economic indicators of the enterprise

2.1 Justification of the production plan

2.1.1 Based on the initial data on the market demand for products, we draw up table 2.1 of the calculated part according to the option

Table 2.1 - Market demand for products

product name	Product brand	Market demand, pieces

The total market demand is determined by summing up the market demand values ​​for all types of products.

2.1.2 We fill in table 2.2 based on the initial data on the technical and economic indicators of products

Table 2.2 - Technical and economic indicators of products

product innovation	Product brand	Wholesale price of products, p.	Labor intensity of products, n-h	product capacity,	Full cost of the product, p.
						Including material linen costs

Columns 3-5 are filled in on the basis of the initial data (Appendices 1, 2,3). The total cost (column 6) is determined based on the cost of one ruble of the wholesale price (Appendix 4) by multiplying the wholesale price by the cost of one ruble of the wholesale price. The values ​​of column 7 are obtained on the basis of data on the share of direct costs in the cost of production (Appendix 5).

2.1.3 We calculate the specific indicators, the values ​​of which are summarized in table 2.3

Table 2.3 - Specific indicators

products	Product brand	Specific labor	Specific material		Cost-effective	Specific processing cost

Specific labor intensity (t beats) is determined by the formula

t beats = T / C, (1)

where T is the complexity of manufacturing, n-h;

Specific material consumption (M beats) is determined by the formula

M beats = M pr. Ed. / C, (2)

where M pr. ed - direct material costs for one product, p;

C is the wholesale price of a product unit, p.

The profitability of the product (P ed) is calculated by the formula

R ed = C / S, (3)

where C is the total cost of the product, p.

Specific processing cost (C sample beats) is determined by the formula

From arr. beats = (S - M pr. ed) / Ts, (4)

2.1.4 Determine the amount of installed equipment

Table 2.4 - Number of installed equipment

This table is completed on the basis of the initial data (Appendix 6).

2.1.5 Calculate the amount of equipment (N) corresponding to the market demand

where C m is the machine capacity for the manufacture of one product, chstanko-h;

Q p - market demand for products, units;

Ф eff - an effective fund of equipment operating time.

The effective fund of equipment operation time is calculated by the formula

Ф eff = Ф dir * (1 - P / 100), (6)

where F dir is the operating time fund of the equipment;

P is the planned percentage of equipment downtime.

The operating time fund of the equipment is determined by the formula

F dir = (D cal. - D non-working) * t cm * K cm - r presection, (7)

where D cal is the number of calendar days in a year;

D non-working - the number of non-working days in a year;

t cm - shift duration (8 hours);

K cm - the number of shifts (2 shifts);

r pre-section - the number of non-working hours on pre-holiday days.

F dir = (365-116) * 8 * 2-8 * 2 = 3968 hours.

Ф eff = Ф dir * (1 - P / 100) = 3968 * (1-6 / 100) = 3729.92 h.

The data obtained is summarized in table 2.5.

Table 2.5 - Calculation of the effective fund of equipment operation time

We determine the amount of equipment of each group, corresponding to the market needs

N c1 ==

N c2 == ,

N c3 == ,

N к1 ==

N k2 == ,

N k3 == ,

N l1 == ,

N l2 == ,

N l3 == ,

N d3 ==

The results obtained are entered in table 2.6.

Table 2.6 - Quantity of equipment corresponding to market demand

	Product brand	Market demand ness, pcs.	Stankoem- product bone, c-h.	Total machine tool- product bone, c-h.	working time dation, h	number of machines, pcs.

Column 3 is filled in on the basis of the data in Table 2.1., Column 4 - on the basis of Appendix 3. The total machine capacity of the product (column 5) is determined by multiplying the values ​​of column 3 by the values ​​of column 4. effective fund of equipment operation time (column 6) - table 2.5, p. .4.

Thus, in order to meet the market demand, the enterprise needs to have 3844 machines at its disposal.

2.1.6 In order to make the most informed decision on the volume and range of products, we will calculate the average load factor of equipment in the machine shop of the enterprise

2.1.6.1 Calculate the program of the machine shop in the reduced units

Table 2.7 - Shop program in reduced units

parts for release	Quantity according to the program, pcs.	Total labor-intensive bone, n-ch.	Product-presentation	Coeff-t	Number of products in the given units	Calculation program, pcs.
Total for year 1
Total for year 2
Total for year 3
Total for year 4
Total for the program

Column 2 and column 3 are filled in on the basis of the data in Appendix 7, Column 4 of Appendix 8.

The reduction coefficient was determined by the formula

K pr = ΣT i / ΣT pr, (8)

where ΣТ i is the total labor intensity of the i-th product;

ΣТ pr is the total labor intensity of the representative product.

The number of products in reduced units (column 6) is determined by multiplying the reduction factor (column 5) by the number according to the program (column 2).

2.1.6.2 Determine the average load factor of equipment in a mechanical shop

Table 2.8 - Calculation of the average equipment utilization factor

equipment identification	Number of equipment, pcs.	Effective fund of equipment working time, h.	Total annual fund of time, h.

The number of equipment (column 2) - initial data of Appendix 9. Effective fund of working hours of equipment (column 3) - table 2.5 point 4 according to the calculations. The total annual fund of equipment operating time (column 4) was determined by multiplying the amount of equipment by the effective fund of time.

The average equipment utilization factor is the ratio of the total labor intensity of the program to the total annual fund of the equipment working time.

K load = ΣT prog / EF rv, (9)

K load = ΣT prog / EF pw = 432969 / 548298.2 = 0.79 or 79%.

2.1.7 Justification of the planned volume of production in physical terms

The company needs 3833 machines to meet the market demand. In fact, the enterprise has 3,100 machines installed. However, it would be wrong to take 3,100 machines to the production volume, since it is necessary to take into account the possible load factor of equipment in the leading machine shop of the enterprise. According to the calculation, the average equipment utilization factor is 0.79. Taking into account the value of this indicator in production program 3100 * 0.79 = 2449 machines are accepted.

Coefficient of the ratio of the amount of equipment accepted according to the plan and according to the market demand

K arr = (3100 * 0.79) / 3844 = 0.64,

Average market profitability of the product

R = ΣR ren / 12, (10)

R = ΣR ren / 12 = 15.653 / 12 = 1.304

Table 2.9 - Justification of the planned volume of production in physical terms

Naimenova product development	Brand of product	Market. demand ness, pcs	Number of revolutions on the market consumed	Coef. Soot. Number of revolutions according to plan and according to the market. consumption, in shares	Coef. acc. fact. and average ren-ti ed., in shares	Number of equipment accepted that in the plan	Volume plan	Production volume in% of the market consumed

Market demand (column 3) - initial data of table 2.1 Amount of equipment according to market demand (column 4) - table 2.6 column 7 by calculation. The amount of equipment accepted in the plan

determined taking into account the ratio of the number of equipment

according to plan and according to market needs and taking into account the ratio of the ratio of actual and average market profitability of products

Q p1 = 1367 * 0.64 * 1 = 869, Q p2 = 236 * 0.64 * 0.92 = 138, Q p3 = 128 * 0.64 * 1.02 = 83, Q p4 = 620 * 0, 64 * 0.95 = 375, Q p5 = 163 * 0.64 * 0.92 = 95, Q p6 = 25 * 0.64 * 1.08 = 17, Q p7 = 692 * 0.64 * 0.94 = 414, Q p8 = 288 * 0.64 * 1.14 = 209, Q p9 = 251 * 0.64 * 0.94 = 150, Q p10 = 7 * 0.64 * 1.13 = 5, Q p11 = 10 * 0.64 * 0.94 = 6, Q p12 = 57 * 0.64 * 1.02 = 37.

We will carry out corrective actions by adding the amount of equipment in order to take the number of machines into the production program

taking into account the load factor. The adjusted number of machines is entered in table 2.9

The plan for the volume of production of products (column 8) is determined by the formula

Column 3 is filled in on the basis of the data in column 3 of Table 2.10 Columns 4 and 6 - Appendices 1 and 4, respectively.

2.3.2 Calculate direct material costs and processing costs

Table 2.15 - Calculation of direct material costs and processing costs

products	Product brand	Prospecting volume according to plan, pcs gr. 3 tab. 2.14	Direct mate. unit cost, p tab.2.2 gr. 7	The total number of direct mat. costs, p	Cost of processing pr-ii, r.

The cost of processing products (column 6) is the difference between the cost of marketable products and direct material costs in the cost of marketable products.

2.3.3 Determine the structure of the cost of marketable products

Table 2.16 - Structure of the cost of marketable products

The values ​​of the cost elements, direct material costs and processing costs are presented in table 2.15.

2.4 Calculation of technical and economic indicators of the enterprise

2.4.1 We calculate the technical and economic indicators of the enterprise according to the draft plan for the year

Table 2.17 - Technical and economic indicators

Profit from product sales is calculated as the difference between the volume of marketable products (in rubles) and the cost of marketable products.

The capital productivity is equal to the quotient of dividing the volume of marketable output (in rubles) by the cost of fixed assets.

The capital-labor ratio of labor is the quotient of dividing the cost of fixed assets by the cost of marketable products.

Return on assets is the quotient of dividing the profit from sales by the cost of fixed assets.

Production per worker is the quotient of dividing the volume of marketable products (in rubles) by the number of industrial and production personnel.

The cost of one ruble of marketable output is the quotient of dividing the cost of marketable output by the volume of marketable output (in rubles).

Return on sales is the quotient of dividing the profit from sales by the volume of commercial products (in rubles).

3. Improving the methodology of innovative development of the enterprise

The practical significance of any methodological developments consists in the fact that they can be widely used by enterprises in the management of economic activities and must have a specific economic effect. Adhering to this well-established principle, we will give recommendations and reveal the possibilities of practical application, as well as show the economic efficiency of the described developments.

It is advisable to reveal the possibilities of using the method of applying new technologies using the example of forming an innovative development strategy for a conditional enterprise, the choice of which as an object of practical application of the research results is due to the desire, regardless of specific economic factors, to show the universality of the method of innovative development. The economic efficiency of developments can be assessed based on the analysis of the expected economic results after their application.

The starting point for developing a strategy for involving new technologies in the economic turnover can be an assessment of the innovative behavior of an enterprise. For this, at the stage of forming strategic behavior, in particular, when analyzing the external environment based on the calculation of a group of indicators, it is possible to determine how the position of the enterprise in the external environment will change if it chooses an innovative way of developing economic activity.

The assessment of innovative activity is carried out along with the analysis of the internal environment of the enterprise in the formation of its strategic behavior in the market. This method allows you to analyze the state of the enterprise in the field of R&D using economic indicators and compare them with reference values. Conducting such an analysis

allows you to evaluate the accumulated experience and capabilities of the enterprise in the innovation field and make a preliminary choice of its further technological development. In this case, the main attention should be paid to assessing the capabilities of a given enterprise to master certain types of innovations - new or improving. To do this, from the data of financial accounting and reporting of the enterprise, it is necessary to isolate and group the costs that are sent to them for the implementation of innovative development of production.

Evaluation and selection of innovative projects are not only the most important stages in the process of forming strategies for the innovative development of an enterprise, but are also the most labor-intensive of them. Presenting innovative projects in the form of business plans also requires the most thorough preparation and professional execution. To solve problems related to economic assessment and selection for the introduction of new or improving technologies, those divisions in the enterprise are singled out that should participate in innovative design. This will make it possible to rationally distribute the collection and analysis of analytical information among the project participants, and the involvement of highly specialized experts will increase the quality level of decisions made.

Before starting to consider the issues of innovative design, it is important to study the requirements for the organization of investment control. We are talking about methodological approaches in business planning, according to which all information related to the proposed projects must be subject to control both by the developers themselves and by the users.

Large diversified companies can simultaneously implement not one, but several parallel growth and development strategies focused on solving various problems of increasing

the effectiveness of their own economic activities. In practice, the situation sometimes develops in such a way that some strategies are preferred over others. For the continuous and full-fledged development of new technologies, it is necessary to form a set of methodological recommendations aimed at the effective integration of innovative development strategies and other corporate plans of the enterprise. Here it is necessary to develop ways of establishing interaction between various structural units for the operational management of innovative development. Technological control, strategic monitoring and innovation policy can become mechanisms capable of solving the assigned tasks. Management of the innovative development of an enterprise is a topic that is only acquiring its relevance for economic science. The urgency of the problem of effective involvement of new technologies in the economic turnover is due to the category of economic development and the irreversibility of scientific and technological progress. The continuous emergence of more and more new technologies causes a constant transformation of the economic system. At some point, it is no longer possible to manage the new economic reality with the old methods. At the present stage of transformation of the economic environment, one of the possible ways to increase the activity of enterprises to involve new technologies in the economic turnover can be a mechanism for integrating strategic and innovative management, based on taking into account the type and scale of new technologies.

Analysis of the theory and practice of introducing innovations in the context of the transformation of the economic environment allows us to assert that today the management of these processes needs to create a new methodological base.

Conclusion

At the end of the work, it should be noted that innovation planning is a process of selecting goals focused on the final results (profit growth, expanding the range of products, entering new markets), allocating resources and determining the timing of solving innovative problems up to the development and dissemination of innovations. When planning innovations, scientific and technical areas, scientific and technical problems, topics and subtopics are distinguished.

The scientific and technical direction covers all stages and stages from fundamental research to the development and dissemination of innovations. It is being developed through the efforts of related branches of science and industry. Scientific and technical problem - part of the scientific and technical direction, which includes the tasks solved by scientific and technical organizations and production enterprises (firms, companies) of one industry. The topic is part of a scientific and technical problem and is being developed on the scale of one organization (within one year or several years). Subtopic - it is a part of a scientific and technical topic, developed on the scale of one or several divisions of the organization (in most cases, during one annual plan).

Innovation planning is carried out on the basis of a number of principles. An important principle is to ensure the forward-looking nature of the planning of innovations. This principle is respected provided that the planning system is based on forecasts and includes long-term, medium-term and annual plans. The most important principles include the target-oriented planning principle. Compliance with this principle is especially important in the development of major scientific and technical problems and innovative projects, when the final results largely depend on the complexity and interdependence of intra-industry ties.

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Annex 1

Wholesale price of products, p

product name	Product brand

Appendix 2

Labor intensity of products, standard hours

product name	Product brand

Appendix 3

Machine consumption of products, standard-h

product name	Product brand

Appendix 4

Costs per 1 ruble of the wholesale price, kopecks

product name	Product brand

Appendix 5

The share of direct material costs in the cost of production,%

product name	Product brand

Appendix 6

The amount of equipment and its use

Appendix 7

The number of products according to the program of the machine shop

Product model	Quantity according to the program, pcs	Total labor intensity, standard hours
Total for group 1
Total for group 2
Total for group 3
Total for group 4
Total for the program

Appendix 8

Representative products by group

Equipment groups

The implementation of the plan for strategic and current activities requires the development of a set of measures to ensure innovative development. For this, an innovation plan is left. Innovative ideas at the stage of strategic planning are the main justification for the reality of the outlined directions of development.

Planning for innovations and investments is aimed at choosing and justifying goals for the effective development of an enterprise and preparing solutions necessary for their unconditional achievement. The plan should take into account the likelihood of expected results, the scale of implementation and the long-term nature of the consequences.

The process of innovative and investment renewal of production includes a number of stages - from identifying the possibility of innovation to entering a wide market with it. The assessment of the feasibility of innovations and investments is made on the basis of a special document - a business plan for a new project.

V business plan for a new project the capabilities of enterprises to increase the volume of products and improve their quality, technical and organizational improvement of production are determined, the achievements of scientific and technological progress, advanced domestic and foreign experience are reflected, internal production reserves are analyzed. If we are talking about a potential investor, then, at least in the business plan, he must be shown:

• - the commercial efficiency of the project;
• - possible risks and guarantees provided;
• - marketing prospects;
• - property and legal form of business organization;
• - issues of personnel management;
• - organization of production, supply of raw materials and materials;
• - the schedule of project financing and return of funds.

In a modern enterprise, the structure of costs for innovation should include research and marketing research, experimental design work, the acquisition of machinery and equipment, technologies, software, production preparation, and personnel training.

Enlarged innovative activities can be grouped into the following main sections:

• 1) development of new, competitive products and progressive technology of its production;
• 2) renewal and modernization of fixed assets, introduction of mechanization and automation of production processes;
• 3) improvement of management, organization of production, labor.

On the effectiveness of innovation in mastering new, competitive products and progressive technology of its production A combination of economic, legal, technical, market factors affects: the relevance of products, market needs, the degree of renewal of the basic assortment, the competitiveness of a new product, the conformity of the product line and the profile of the enterprise, the level of risk of acceptance of a new one by consumers.

Inventions (ideas, intentions) underlying market innovation offer a solution practical problem: social, environmental, technological. Market principles stimulate innovation under certain conditions. A new product and technology can count on positive acceptance by the market if it is assumed that a more effective solution of a problem is expected in comparison with the methods used, this innovation is necessary for the consumer and there is a potential opportunity for them to receive real benefits, and the initiator of implementation - high profits. Otherwise, the implemented ideas will not be in demand.

It is difficult to motivate a consumer to purchase a new product if its real consumer properties are inferior or at least not equivalent to those already existing on the market. An example is the attempts to market the development of numerous whey products. Meanwhile, under certain conditions, products from by-products (accompanying) raw materials can become so-called products lifestyle, more valuable to the consumer than ordinary ones due to dietary properties, environmental friendliness, etc.

In the presence of several interchangeable options, preference is given to those that will cause an increase in demand and fit more easily into the existing technological process. Technological innovations are designed to ensure the development of the market, products of improved quality and the elimination of defects, higher technical and economic indicators, especially an increase in the amount of profit.

The sources of new innovative ideas are marketing research and the initiative of the company's personnel. Already at this stage of renewal, it is important to clearly articulate the goal of innovation. An objective assessment of the demand and opportunities for innovation is required, taking into account financial, human and technical resources, and the formation of a system of goals for innovation. Innovation goals should be measurable, focused and achievable over time.

When planning the creation of a new product or improving the output within the framework of a holistic structure of innovation management, a reasonable forecast of the costs of production and sale, the amount of required investments, the timing of obtaining the first profit and the recoupment of costs is required. The competitiveness of a new product on the market, strengths and weaknesses of competitors and their probable behavior when introducing a new product are analyzed.

It is advisable to understand in advance what is the content of the product from the point of view of the consumer, which reflects those features that are essential for this product. Is it an item or phenomenon that represents another item? Therefore, Danissimo yoghurt appears to be a symbol of status and desire at the same time, and coffee in the Coffeehouse on Share is “not just coffee”.

The success of a new product is largely determined by its physical characteristics, which represent the transformation of physiological and emotional consumer preferences into textured product parameters. The texture of a product is everything that can be perceived by the senses: appearance, design and color, design features, packaging, size, quantity, weight, taste, smell.

For the material embodiment of a new product, the quantity and type of materials, the time for mastering production, the size, shape and other characteristic features of the goods are determined. In the process of creating a product, it should be borne in mind that, for example, food products require inspection and the conclusion of the relevant competent authorities (health, sanitary-epidemiological and other organizations).

First of all, the functions and purpose of the goods are investigated. Then functional quality is considered, that is, the ability of the product to fulfill its purpose. Next, it is necessary to formulate and provide the consumer with evidence and evidence of the quality, benefits and benefits of using the product. For commercial success in the market, precision in detail is important even for auxiliary parameters. It is necessary to compare the offered advantages with similar products and assess the buyer's expectations regarding the purpose, quality and consumption of the product.

According to the characteristic advantageous features incorporated into the product in the process of its improvement, it is possible to program quite accurately the degree of satisfaction from the use of the product.

Effective design development is as important as the product itself. Packaging should literally scream about the product, be closely associated with the requirements of buyers and their ideas about the product. If this does not happen, then the product will fail. Company Philips released in the mid-1980s. a microwave oven with an unusual design that was supposed to attract the attention of the consumer. However, the unexpected happened: the consumer associated the appearance of the goods with a nuclear power plant, the likeness of which, remembering the sad consequences of Chernobyl, few people wanted to have in their kitchen.

To program the quality of products, a system of general indicators is used, which includes:

• - the share of fundamentally new (obtained as a result of innovation) products in the volume of manufactured products;
• - the coefficient of renewal of the range of products (associated with the effectiveness of innovative activities at the enterprise);
• - the proportion of complaints or manufacturing defects.

When creating a new product, improving its quality is the basis for the formation of competitive advantages. When evaluating each product, specialists must establish how important the product is to the customers who bought it, and why they did it, how the product is perceived by those who have not yet bought it. It is necessary to understand what caused the preference given to other products, whether all the capabilities of the enterprise were applied from the standpoint of the technology and equipment used.

For innovative technological improvement, methods of fractionation and modification of food raw materials, combined food products using animal and protein plant materials, and the use of other modern processing methods play an important role.

Innovations in production technology are: innovations replacing batch processes with continuous ones, multi-stage - single-stage; intensification of processing modes; organization of waste-free production; ensuring compliance with modern rules and standards. Thus, new generation of environmentally friendly protective coatings based on polymers are effective; application of the achievements of biotechnology, enzyme preparations with high activity, with desired properties, which opens up new possibilities for intensifying technological processes.

Significant reserves for the effective development of enterprises are the introduction of technologies for complex and waste-free processing of raw materials, the industrial use of secondary food raw materials containing proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, and vitamins. For example, the complete processing of secondary resources of the country's dairy industry makes it possible to send an additional 120 thousand tons of milk protein for food purposes, which is equivalent in nutritional value to 1 million tons of meat.

Of the secondary raw materials generated in the agro-industrial complex, 92-93% are involved in the economic turnover. However, much less is processed: in meat production - 60-61%, in dairy - 7 2- 7 3, in alcohol - 10 -11, in sugar production -16-17%, which is unacceptable for a modern enterprise.

It is necessary to master the production of combined meat products with various protein components of animal and vegetable origin that meet the modern requirements of dietetics. It is economical to use domestic food additives to increase the water-binding capacity of minced meat. Effectively introducing innovative technologies for the production of cooked sausages with an extended shelf life (up to 45 days).

Promising methods of processing secondary raw materials are the use of biotechnological methods (enzymatic hydrolysis, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis), which make it possible to increase the extraction of valuable components from raw materials. Products containing probiotic microorganisms (bifidobacteria, acidophilus milk bacillus, etc.) are effective, and the production of herbal products can become an alternative to drug treatment.

It is necessary to reduce losses, which, for example, during storage of meat are more than 100 thousand tons, and during cooling and freezing - up to 15 thousand tons per year. Considering that nutrition experts recommend that adults consume 70 kg of meat per year, it is not difficult to calculate how many people could be provided with reduced losses.

At renovation and modernization of fixed assets, implementation, mechanization and automation of production processes it is necessary to take into account the strategic task of each modern production - to become an enterprise of the modern industry.

The mechanization of labor in many enterprises often does not exceed 40-60%, more than 50% of labor-intensive operations are performed manually. The situation is aggravated by the fact that over a third of the machinery and equipment park has worked for two or more depreciation periods. Equipment fleet renewal often does not exceed 3 ~ 4% instead of the required 8-10% per year.

Lack of technical equipment is the main reason for the lag in labor productivity (4-5 times) and the unsatisfactory level of output from 1 ton of raw materials in comparison with similar enterprises in developed countries.

Taking this into account, innovative measures should include the replacement of physically worn out and obsolete equipment, its modernization, elimination of bottlenecks, increasing production flexibility, increasing production capacity, increasing mechanization and automation of production processes, reducing labor intensity, material and energy costs, reducing environmental pollution ...

In order to ensure trouble-free operation, they plan the frequency of equipment repair and the corresponding cost estimates, calculated according to existing sources of funding and standards.

Improving management, organization of production and labor includes measures for the use of economical forms and methods of management, allowing to reduce the number of personnel and the cost of its maintenance. To this end, it is envisaged to improve the structure of enterprises, introduce internal commercial accounting, eliminate unnecessary links and redistribute the functions of the management apparatus, simplify accounting and reporting, and improve working conditions.

Measures are being developed to improve cooperation and concentration of production in the organization of energy, transport and repair services, material support... Measures are planned to improve the use of labor resources, to create more favorable sanitary-hygienic and psychophysiological working conditions.

When developing plans for an enterprise, planning measures to improve the quality of products and work performed are of particular importance.

In the plans of enterprises, it is important to lay down measures for the implementation of a quality management system in accordance with the requirements of ISO international standards, including:

• - use by partners of a certified quality system according to ISO standards;
• - maximum openness of all economic activities for interested parties;
• - application of the quality certificate for advertising purposes;
• - product quality insurance.

The main purpose of creating ISO series standards is to develop requirements in the form of standards, the implementation of which allows the production of products in strict accordance with the requirements of customers. The standards contain the most acceptable requirements for each enterprise. The quality management system is built by him in accordance with the goals and objectives, the specifics of the external environment and the characteristics of the activity.

The set of documents regulating the main aspects of the enterprise's activities should describe, first of all, those processes that significantly affect the quality of the products. A documented description of key business processes ensures their control, clear understanding, management and continual improvement.

The basis of the quality management system is the development at the enterprise of a special document "Quality Policy" containing the goals and obligations that the enterprise has set for itself. The quality policy assumes that the company is ready to fulfill obligations and follow them in full, regardless of any circumstances.

For goods and services, the requirements of ISO standards should include:

• - the possibility of any control and testing;
• - the procedure for checking the reliability of the supplier's quality;
• - points of control and testing during the production process;
• - list of controlled characteristics, tested equipment and personnel qualifications;
• - the procedure for testing the quality by the consumer of the products (services) of the enterprise;
• - test procedure to confirm the quality of work;
• - the procedure for external audit;
• - the order of certification of resources, production and management;
• - the procedure for monitoring the confirmation of the system operability;
• - output.

The concept of internal standards of the enterprise is described in the form of a number of interrelated processes, controlling which, it improves its activities. Each process must have an executor who is responsible, monitors efficiency, and is responsible for adjusting it.

Building the system allows you to reduce enterprise costs for detecting and correcting defects, as well as external and internal losses, and reduce management costs: documentation of key processes ensures their better controllability; control, analysis and revision ensure continuous improvement of processes; distribution of powers and responsibilities provides mechanisms for monitoring performance and measures to prevent negative results.

The quality management system involves the involvement of personnel in quality improvement activities, which makes it possible to more fully and effectively use the abilities, knowledge and skills of employees. The incentive system should increase employee satisfaction and positively influence performance.

As practice shows, the key component of the success of a project for the implementation of a quality management system is the personal desire of everyone and the desire of the administration, management control, the allocation of the required resources, monitoring the system in order to analyze the effectiveness of its functioning and develop improvement measures.

In order to reduce the resistance of staff to changes, which often accompanies the process of developing a system, it is necessary to train and stimulate employees to act in accordance with the regulations of the quality management system and ensure employee motivation while saving resources and strengthening internal corporate relations (for example, in working groups combining formal and informal leaders).

Planning an effective quality management system is impossible without changing the ideology of the enterprise. It is important to build employee confidence in the effectiveness of the system based on real, even minor, positive facts presented in the light of quality management.

An informal approach to the implementation of quality management systems, leadership of top management, staff involvement and the involvement of qualified specialists in the field of quality allow enterprises to make the most of the opportunities that are laid down in the requirements of international ISO standards.

For effective quality management, the principles of HACCP (Russian abbreviation for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) are also applied. The HACCP system is a set of organizational structure, documents, production processes and resources required to implement the HACCP principles. It provides:

• - identification of conditions for the occurrence of potential risks (hazardous factors) in the production and sales of products;
• - their identification at all stages - from the receipt of raw materials to the final consumption of the goods in order to establish the necessary measures to control them;
• - identification of risks in the form of critical control points in the production process to eliminate or minimize the possibility of disruptions in production;
• - setting limit values ​​of parameters for critical control points;
• - development of a monitoring system for critical control points and a system of preventive corrective actions;
• - assessment of the efficiency of the system;
• - documentation of procedures and methods of data recording.

To develop a HACCP system, initial information about the product itself, its production and sales methods is required.

Information on products should contain:

• - a list of normative and technical documentation (NTD), according to which it is produced;
• - the composition of the main raw materials, additives, packaging, their origin and the list of scientific and technical documentation for which the products are manufactured;
• - the requirements for product safety specified in the NTD;
• - identification signs of products;
• - storage conditions and shelf life of products;
• - possible options use of products for other purposes, recommendations and indications in its use by various groups of consumers and the associated hazards.

Information on production and sales should contain diagrams of the relevant production processes and plans of the premises where they occur. At the same time, it is necessary to identify and assess all types of hazards (biological, microbiological, chemical, physical) that can manifest themselves in the production and sales process.

Under danger in the HACCP system, a potential source of harm to human health or negative phenomena is understood. Dangerous factor- type of hazard with specific signs. For each potentially dangerous factor analyze the risk taking into account the likelihood of its manifestation and the severity of the consequences and draw up a list (operations, products) according to which the risk exceeds the permissible level.

For each hazardous factor, critical, control points, a system of observation, measurement and analysis are determined.

After the introduction of the HACCP system, internal audits should be carried out at least once a year and on an unscheduled basis. The verification program includes:

• - analysis of claims, complaints, complaints if product safety is violated;
• - assessment of the compliance of actually performed procedures with the approved regulations;
• - analysis of the results of monitoring critical points;
• - the order of implementation and verification of the results of preventive, corrective actions;
• - assessment of the effectiveness of the HACCP system and drawing up recommendations for its improvement.

The confirmation that the company has implemented the HACCP system, created the necessary conditions for the release and sale of safe products, is its certification. Certification of the HACCP system ensures that all types of enterprise activities that can affect the quality and safety of products are identified, documented and effective.

For each of the planned activities, the timing, volume of implementation, the release of staff and the expected growth in profits from the moment of implementation to the end of the year are determined (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1

Plan of measures for innovative development of production

Chemical kinetics

Chemical equilibrium

Chemical kinetics is a branch of chemistry that studies the rate of a chemical reaction and the factors affecting it.

The fundamental feasibility of the process is judged by the value of the change in the Gibbs energy of the system. However, it does not say anything about the real possibility of the reaction under the given conditions, does not give an idea of ​​the speed and mechanism of the process.

Studying the rates of reactions makes it possible to elucidate the mechanism of complex chemical transformations. This creates a prospect for the management of a chemical process, allows for mathematical modeling of processes.

Reactions can be:

1. homogeneous- proceed in the same medium (in the gas phase); pass in full volume;

2. heterogeneous- do not take place in the same medium (between substances in different phases); pass at the interface.

Under chemical reaction rate understand the number of elementary reaction events occurring per unit time per unit volume (for homogeneous reactions) and per unit surface (for heterogeneous reactions).

Since the concentration of the reactants changes during the reaction, the rate is usually defined as the change in the concentration of the reactants per unit time and is expressed in. In this case, there is no need to monitor the change in the concentration of all substances included in the reaction, since the stoichiometric coefficient in the reaction equation establishes the relationship between the concentrations, i.e. at the rate of accumulation of ammonia is twice the rate of consumption of hydrogen.

, since cannot be negative, so put "-".

Time interval speed – true instant speed - 1st derivative of concentration with respect to time.

The rate of chemical reactions depends:

1.the nature of the reacting substances;

2. on the concentration of reagents;

3. from the catalyst;

4. from temperature;

5. on the degree of grinding of the solid (heterogeneous reactions);

6. from the medium (solutions);

7. from the shape of the reactor (chain reactions);

8. from lighting (photochemical reactions).

The basic law of chemical kinetics - law of mass action: the rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants in the reaction

where is the rate constant of the chemical reaction

Physical sense at .

If the reaction involves not 2 particles, but more, then: ~ in powers equal to stoichiometric coefficients, i.e.: , where

- an indicator of the order of the reaction as a whole (reactions of the first, second, third ... orders).

The number of particles participating in this act of reaction determines reaction molecularity:

Monomolecular ()

Bimolecular ( )

Trimolecular.

More than 3 does not exist, because collision of more than 3 particles at once is unlikely.

When the reaction proceeds in several stages, then the total reaction = the slowest stage (limiting stage).

The dependence of the reaction rate on temperature is determined by the empirical van't Hoff rule: with increasing temperature by, the rate of the chemical reaction increases by 2 - 4 times:.

where is the temperature coefficient of the rate of a chemical reaction.

Not every collision of molecules is accompanied by their interaction. Most of the molecules bounce off like elastic balls. And only those who are active in a collision interact with each other. Active molecules have some excess, but compared with inactive molecules, therefore, in active molecules, the bonds between them are weakened.

The energy for transferring the molecule to the active state is the activation energy. The smaller it is, the more particles react, the greater the rate of the chemical reaction.

The value depends on the nature of the reactants. It is less than dissociation - the least strong bond in reagents.

Change in the course of the reaction:

Excreted (exothermic)

With an increase in temperature, the number of active molecules increases, therefore, it increases.

The chemical reaction constant is related to

where is the preexponential factor (related to the probability and number of collisions).

Depending on the nature of the reacting substances and the conditions of their interaction, atoms, molecules, radicals or ions can take part in the elementary acts of reactions.

Free radicals are extremely reactive, active radical reactions are very small ().

The formation of free radicals can occur during the decomposition of substances at temperature, lighting, under the influence nuclear radiation, with an electric discharge, strong mechanical stress.

Many reactions proceed along chain mechanism... Peculiarity chain reactions consists in the fact that one primary act of activation leads to the transformation of a huge number of molecules of the initial substances.

For example: .

At normal temperature and diffused lighting, the reaction is extremely slow. When heating a mixture of gases or exposure to UV-rich light (direct sunlight, light from burning) the mixture explodes.

This reaction proceeds through separate elementary processes. First of all, due to the absorption of a quantum of energy of UV rays (or temperature), the molecule dissociates into free radicals - atoms: , then, then, etc.

Naturally, a collision of free radicals with each other is possible, which leads to chain breakage: .

In addition to temperature, light has a significant effect on the reactivity of substances. The effect of light (visible, UV) on reactions is studied by the section of chemistry - photochemistry.

Photochemical processes are very diverse. Under the photochemical action, the molecules of the reacting substances, absorbing quanta of light, are excited, i.e. become reactive or decompose into ions and free radicals. Photography is based on photochemical processes - the effect of light on light-sensitive materials (photosynthesis).

One of the most common methods of accelerating chemical reactions in chemical practice is catalysis. Catalysts- substances that change a chemical reaction due to participation in an intermediate chemical interaction with the reaction components, but restore their own after each cycle of intermediate interaction chemical composition.

An increase in catalytic reaction is associated with a lesser new reaction pathway. Because in the expression for is included in the negative exponent, then even a small decrease causes a very large increase in the chemical reaction.

Chemical kinetics and equilibrium

purpose of work: study of the effect of temperature on the reaction rate, concentration on the shift in chemical equilibrium.

Theoretical justification:

The rate of chemical reaction is the amount of a substance entering into a reaction or formed as a result of a reaction per unit of time in a unit of volume (for homogeneous reactions) or per unit of interface (for heterogeneous reactions).

If, over a period of time? F = f 2 f 1, the concentration of one of the substances participating in the reaction decreases by? C = C 2 C 1, then the average rate of the chemical reaction over the specified time interval is

The V value expresses the rate of a chemical process over a certain period of time. Therefore, the smaller? F, the closer the average speed to the true one.

The rate of a chemical reaction depends on the following factors:

1) the nature and concentration of reactants;

2) the temperature of the reaction system;

3) the presence of a catalyst;

4) pressure,

5) the size of the interface and the mixing rate of the system (for heterogeneous reactions);

6) the type of solvent.

Influence of the concentration of reagents. The reaction rate is proportional to the number of collisions of the molecules of the reacting substances. The number of collisions, in turn, is the greater, the higher the concentration of each of the initial substances.

The general formulation of the effect of concentration on the rate of a chemical reaction is given by law of mass action(1867, Guldberg, Vaage, Beketov).

At a constant temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reacting substances, taken in powers of their equalizing (stoichiometric) coefficients.

For the reaction aA + bB = cC V = K [A] ​​a [B] c,

where K is the proportionality factor or rate constant;

If [A] = 1 mol / L, [B] = 1 mol / L, then V = K, hence the physical meaning

rate constants K: the rate constant is equal to the reaction rate at the concentration of reactants equal to unity.

Influence of temperature on the reaction rate. As the temperature rises, the collision frequency of the reacting molecules increases, and, consequently, the reaction rate increases.

The effect of temperature on the rate of homogeneous reactions can be quantitatively expressed by the Van't Hoff rule.

In accordance with the Van't Hoff rule, when the temperature rises (falls) by 10 degrees, the rate of the chemical reaction increases (decreases) by 2-4 times:

where V (t 2 ) and V (t 1 ) - the rate of chemical reaction at appropriate temperatures; φ (t 2 ) and φ (t 1 ) - the duration of the chemical reaction at appropriate temperatures; G - temperature coefficient of Van't Hoff, which can take a numerical value in the range of 2-4.

Activation energy. The excess energy that molecules must have in order for their collision to lead to the formation of a new substance is called the activation energy of this reaction (expressed in kJ / mol). One of the activation methods is to increase the temperature: as the temperature rises, the number of active particles increases greatly, due to which the reaction rate sharply increases.

The dependence of the reaction rate on temperature is expressed by the Arrhenius equation:

where K is the rate constant of a chemical reaction; E a - activation energy;

R is the universal gas constant; A - constant; exp is the base of natural logarithms.

The magnitude of the activation energy can be determined if two values ​​of the rate constant K 1 and K 2 are known at a temperature T 1 and T 2, respectively, according to the following formula:

Chemical equilibrium.

All chemical reactions can be divided into two groups: irreversible and reversible. Irreversible reactions proceed to the end - until the complete consumption of one of the reacting substances, i.e. flow in only one direction. Reversible reactions do not proceed completely. At reversible reaction none of the reactants is consumed to the end. The reversible reaction can proceed both in the forward and in the opposite direction.

Chemical equilibrium is a state of a system in which the rates of forward and reverse reactions are equal.

For a reversible reaction

m A + n B? p C + q D

chemical equilibrium constant is

In reversible chemical reactions, equilibrium is established at the moment when the ratio of the product of the concentrations of products, raised to powers equal to stoichiometric coefficients, to the product of the concentrations of the starting substances, also raised to the appropriate powers, is equal to some constant value, called the constant of chemical equilibrium.

The chemical equilibrium constant depends on the nature of the reacting substances and on temperature. The concentrations at which equilibrium is established are called equilibrium. A change in external conditions (concentration, temperature, pressure) causes a shift in the chemical equilibrium in the system and its transition to a new equilibrium state.

Such a transition of a reaction system from one state to another is called a shift (or shift) of chemical equilibrium.

The direction of the shift in chemical equilibrium is determined by Le Chatelier's principle: if an external effect is made on a system in a state of chemical equilibrium (change concentration, temperature, pressure), then processes spontaneously arise in this system that tend to weaken the effect produced.

An increase in the concentration of one of the starting reagents shifts the equilibrium to the right (the direct reaction is enhanced); an increase in the concentration of the reaction products shifts the equilibrium to the left (the reverse reaction is intensified).

If the reaction proceeds with an increase in the number of gas molecules (i.e., on the right side of the reaction equation, the total number of gas molecules is greater than the number of molecules of gaseous substances on the left side), then an increase in pressure prevents the reaction, and a decrease in pressure favors the reaction.

As the temperature rises, the equilibrium shifts towards the endothermic reaction, and as the temperature decreases, towards the exothermic reaction.

The catalyst changes both the forward and reverse reaction rates by the same number of times. Therefore, the catalyst does not shift the equilibrium, but only shortens or lengthens the time required to reach equilibrium.

Experiment No. 1 Dependence of the rate of a homogeneous reaction on the concentration of the starting reagents.

b Devices, equipment: test tubes, stopwatch, sodium thiosulfate solutions (III), dil. sulfuric acid (1M), water.

b Method of carrying out: This dependence can be studied at classic example homogeneous reaction of interaction of sodium thiosulfate with sulfuric acid, proceeding according to the equation

Na 2 S 2 O 3 + H 2 SO 4 = Na 2 SO 4 + Sv + SO 2 ^ + H 2 O.

Sulfur at the first moment forms a colloidal solution with water (subtle turbidity). It is necessary to measure the time from the moment of draining to the appearance of a barely noticeable turbidity using a stopwatch. Knowing the reaction time (in seconds), it is possible to determine the relative reaction rate, i.e. the reciprocal of time:

chemical homogeneous kinetics

For the experiment, prepare three dry, clean test tubes, numbered them. Into the first add 4 drops of sodium thiosulfate solution and 8 drops of water; in the second - 8 drops of sodium thiosulfate and 4 drops of water; in the third - 12 drops of sodium thiosulfate. Shake the tubes.

If we conventionally designate the molar concentration of sodium thiosulfate in test tube 1 through "s", then accordingly in test tube 2 there will be 2 s mol, in test tube 3 - 3 s mol.

Add one drop of sulfuric acid to test tube 1, at the same time turn on the stopwatch: while shaking the test tube, watch the appearance of turbidity in the test tube, keeping it at eye level. When the slightest turbidity appears, stop the stopwatch, note the reaction time and write it down in the table.

Carry out similar experiments with the second and third test tubes. Enter the experimental data in the laboratory journal in the form of a table.

b Conclusion: with an increase in the concentration of sodium thiosulfate, the rate of this reaction increases. The dependency plot is a straight line through the origin.

Experience number 2. Study of the dependence of the rate of homogeneous reaction on temperature.

b Instruments and equipment: test tubes, stopwatch, thermometer, solutions of sodium thiosulfate (III), sulfuric acid (1M)

b Method of carrying out:

Prepare three clean dry test tubes, number them. Add 10 drops of sodium thiosulfate solution to each of them. Place test tube No. 1 in a glass of water at room temperature and note the temperature after 1 ... 2 minutes. Then add one drop of sulfuric acid to the test tube, simultaneously turn on the stopwatch and stop it when a faint, barely noticeable turbidity appears. Note the time in seconds from the moment the acid is added to the tube until turbidity appears. Write the result to the table.

Then increase the temperature of the water in the glass by exactly 10 0 either by heating on a hotplate or by mixing with hot water... Place test tube No. 2 in this water, stand for several minutes and add one drop of sulfuric acid, simultaneously turning on the stopwatch, shake the test tube with the contents in a glass of water until turbidity appears. When a barely noticeable turbidity appears, turn off the stopwatch and enter the stopwatch readings in the table. Carry out a similar experiment with the third test tube. Preliminarily increase the temperature in the glass by another 10 0, place a test tube No. 3 in it, stand for several minutes and add one drop of sulfuric acid, while simultaneously turning on the stopwatch and shaking the test tube.

Express the experimental results in a graph, plotting the speed along the ordinate and the temperature along the abscissa.

Determine the temperature coefficient of the reaction r

b Conclusion: during the experiment, the average temperature coefficient was calculated, which turned out to be equal to 1.55. Ideally, it is

2-4. The deviation from the ideal can be explained by the error in measuring the turbidity time of the solution. The graph of the dependence of the reaction rate on temperature has the form of a branch of a parabola, which does not pass through 0. As the temperature rises, the reaction rate increases.

Experience No. 3 Influence of the concentration of reactants on chemical equilibrium.

b Instruments and equipment: test tubes, potassium chloride (crystal), solutions of iron (III) chloride, potassium thiocyanate (sat.), distilled water, cylinder

b Method of carrying out:

A classic example of a reversible reaction is the interaction between ferric chloride and potassium thiocyanate:

FeCl 3 + 3 KCNS D Fe (CNS) 3 + 3 KCl.

Red

The resulting iron thiocyanate has a red color, the intensity of which depends on the concentration. By changing the color of the solution, one can judge about the shift in chemical equilibrium depending on the increase or decrease in the content of iron thiocyanate in the reaction mixture. Make an equation for the equilibrium constant of this process.

Pour 20 ml of distilled water into a measuring cup or cylinder and add one drop of a saturated solution of iron (III) chloride and one drop of a saturated solution of potassium thiocyanate . Pour the resulting colored solution into four test tubes equally. Number the tubes.

Add one drop of a saturated solution of iron (III) chloride to the first tube. Add one drop of a saturated solution of potassium thiocyanate to the second tube. Add crystalline potassium chloride to the third tube and shake well. Fourth test tube for comparison.

Based on Le Chatelier's principle, explain what caused the color change in each individual case.

Record the results of the experiment in the table in the form

In the first case, in the second case, we increased the concentration of the starting substances, so a more intense color is obtained. Moreover, in the second case, the color is darker, because the KSCN concentration changes with a cubic rate. In the third experiment, we increased the concentration of the final substance, so the color of the solution is lighter.

Conclusion: with an increase in the concentration of the initial substances, the equilibrium shifts towards the formation of reaction products. With an increase in the concentration of products, the equilibrium shifts towards the formation of the initial substances.

General conclusions: in the course of the experiments, we experimentally established the dependence of the reaction rate on the concentration of the starting substances (the higher the concentration, the higher the reaction rate); dependence of the reaction rate on temperature (the higher the temperature, the greater the reaction rate); how the concentration of reactants affects chemical equilibrium (with an increase in the concentration of starting substances, chemical equilibrium shifts towards the formation of products; with an increase in the concentration of products, chemical equilibrium shifts towards the formation of starting substances)

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION Federal State Budgetary educational institution higher professional education

"ROSTOV STATE CONSTRUCTION UNIVERSITY"

Approved at a meeting of the Department of Chemistry on June 10, 2011.

Chemical kinetics and equilibrium

INSTRUCTIONS

in the discipline "Chemistry"

for 1st year bachelors in the following directions: "Construction", "Standardization and Metrology", "Commodity Science", "Technology of Artistic Processing of Materials", "Technosphere Safety", "Operation of Transport and Technical Machines and Complexes", "Technology of Transport Processes" all profiles

Rostov-on-Don

Chemical kinetics and equilibrium: - guidelines in the discipline "Chemistry" for 1st year bachelors. - Rostov n / a: Growth. state builds. un-t,

2011 .-- 12 p.

The definition of the rate of a chemical reaction is given and the factors influencing it are indicated (concentration, temperature, nature of the substance and the catalyst. The formulation of the Le Chatelier principle is given and its practical application to reversible reactions is considered.

Designed for full-time and part-time 1st year bachelors studying in the areas of "Construction", "Standardization and Metrology", "Commodity Science", "Technology of Artistic Processing of Materials", "Technosphere Safety", "Operation of Transport and Technical Machines and Complexes" , "Technology of transport processes" of all profiles of full-time and part-time departments.

The electronic version is in the library, room. 224.

Compiled by: Cand. chem. Sciences, Assoc. M.N. Mitskaya

Cand. chem. Sciences, Assoc. E.A. Levinskaya

Editor T.M. Klimchuk Add. plan 2011, item 107

Signed for printing 14.07.11. Format 60x84 / 16. Writing paper. Risograph. Academic and Publishing House 0.6. Circulation 100 copies. Order 311

____________________________________________________________________

Editorial and Publishing Center of Rostov State University of Civil Engineering

344022, Rostov-on-Don, st. Socialist, 162

© Rostov State

University of Civil Engineering, 2011

THEORETICAL PART I

Chemical kinetics - this is a branch of chemistry that studies the rate of flow

chemical reactions and factors affecting it. Chemical reactions are homogeneous and heterogeneous. If the reactants are in the same phase, it is homogeneous reaction, and if in different - heterogeneous.

A phase is a part of the system, separated from other parts by the surface of the

affairs, upon passing through which the properties of the system change abruptly

An example of a homogeneous reaction is the interaction of solutions of AqNO3 and

NaCl. This reaction proceeds quickly and throughout the volume: AqNO3 + NaCl = AqCl + NaNO3.

An example of a heterogeneous reaction is the process of dissolving zinc in a sulfuric acid solution:

Zn + H2 SO4 = ZnSO4 + H2

Homogeneous reaction rate is called the change in the concentration of a substance entering into a reaction or formed during a reaction ∆С in

unit of time ∆t V hom C,

(+) - is set if the change in the concentration of the product is monitored

Tov reaction, which increases in the course of the reaction; (-) - when monitoring the change in the concentration of the starting substances, which decreases during the reaction.

The rate of the heterogeneous reaction called a change in the number of ve-

a substance entering into a reaction or formed in the course of the reaction ∆n in a single

time ∆t per unit area ∆S:

V get n.

Factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions

1. Influence of the concentration of substances.

For a chemical reaction to occur, a collision of the reacting

particles between themselves. Therefore, with an increase in the concentration of substances,

the probability of their collision increases, and, consequently, the speed of the chemical reaction increases.

The quantitative dependence of the reaction rate on the concentration is described

is the law of action of the masses: " The direct reaction rate is directly proportional

is equal to the product of the concentrations of the reacting substances in the degree of their

chiometric coefficients in the reaction equation ”.

So, for the conditioned reaction aA + bB = cC + dD, the rate of the forward reaction is V direct k 1 A a B b, and the rate of the reverse reaction is V reverse. k 2 С с D d, where [A], [B], [C]

and [D] - concentration of substances; a, b, c and d are coefficients in the reaction equation; k1 and k2 are reaction rate constants.

The direct reaction rate constant k1 is numerically equal to the reaction rate at the concentration of reactants equal to unity. It does not depend on the concentration of substances, but depends on their nature and temperature.

In the case of the occurrence of heterogeneous reactions in the kinetic equation,

the concentration of only those substances that are in the liquid

lump or gaseous state. Concentration of solids the value of

stationary, and it is included in the value of the rate constant.

So, for the reaction S (cr.) + H2 (g) = H2 S (g), the rate of the direct reaction is determined

is the following equation: V direct. k 1 H 2.

An example. How will the rate of direct reactions change with increasing

concentration of sulfur (IV) oxide by 4 times?

2SO2 + O2 = 2SO3,

V straight. k 1 SO 2 2 O 2 - until the concentration of SO2 changes;

V direct / k 1 4 SO 2 2 O 2 16 k 1 SO 2 2 O 2 16 V direct - after changing the SO2 concentration;

Consequently, the speed of the direct reaction increases 16 times. 2. The nature of the reacting substances.

Chemical reactions take place, when the impact occurs, the collision reacts

particles. However, not every collision leads to the formation of a new chi-

chemical connection. In order for the chemical transformation to take place,

it is necessary that the particles of the reacting substances have energy sufficient

accurate at breaking old ties and forming new ones. Excess energy, which

which must be possessed by molecules in order for them to form a new compound when they collide, it is called activation energy... Each chemical reaction

The activation energy corresponds to it, its value is determined by the nature of the reacting substances. The smaller its value, the faster the chemical proceeds.

physical transformation, and vice versa. 3. Influence of temperature.

As the temperature rises, the energy of the molecules increases, i.e. age

the number of molecules whose energy is equal to or greater than the activation energy of the reaction melts. Such molecules are called active. Consequently, as the temperature rises, the rate of the chemical reaction increases.

The quantitative relationship between the temperature and the rate of a chemical reaction is described

computed by the Van't Hoff rule.

When the temperature changes by every ten degrees, the rate of chemical

chemical reaction changes by 2-4 times.

t 2 t 1

This rule is expressed by the following relationship: V t 2 V t 1 10,

where V t 1 is the reaction rate at the initial temperature t1,

V t 2 - reaction rate at the final temperature t2,

γ is the temperature coefficient of the reaction. 4. Influence of the catalyst.

A catalyst is a substance that affects the rate of chemical re-

shares, but it itself is not consumed. Catalysts accelerating chemical

sky processes are called positive. In the presence of a catalyst, re-

actions proceed along a new path with a lower activation energy, which leads

leads to an increase in the rate of chemical reaction.

The process involving a catalyst is called catalysis. Catalysis can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

EXPERIMENTAL PART I

EXPERIENCE 1. Dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction on the concentration of reactants

The dependence of the reaction rate on the concentration of substances can be studied using the example of the interaction of sodium thiosulfate and sulfuric acid, which is accompanied by the cloudiness of the solution due to the release of sulfur.

Na2 S2 O3 + H2 SO4 = Na2 SO4 + SO2 + S + H2 O

Experiment execution. Prepare three sodium thiosulfate solutions of various concentrations by the dilution method, for which measure 4 ml of sodium thiosulfate solution and 8 ml of distilled water in the first tube, 8 ml of sodium thiosulfate and 4 ml of distilled water in the second, and 12 ml of sodium thiosulfate solution in the third.

Equal volumes of the obtained solutions contain different numbers of moles of sodium thiosulfate. If we conventionally designate the molar concentration

Na2 S2 O3 in the first test tube is C mol, then in the second the concentration will be 2C mol, and in the third - 3C mol.

Measure with a measuring cylinder 1 ml of 2N sulfuric acid solution and pour into the first test tube, mix. Start the stopwatch while adding acid to the thiosulfate solution. Record the time from the moment the acid flushes until the solution becomes slightly cloudy. Do the same with the remaining thiosulfate solutions.

Enter the experience data in the table.

	V Na2 S2 O3	V H 2 O	With Na2 S2 O3	V H2 SO4		V = 1 / t

Plot the reaction rate versus the concentration of the reactants. Plot the relative concentrations of thio-

sulfate, and on the ordinate - the corresponding speeds (in conventional units

tsakh). Make a conclusion about the dependence of V on the concentration of reactants.

EXPERIMENT 2. Influence of temperature on the rate of a chemical reaction Study of the dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction on the temperature of the

drive at three different temperatures:

1) at room temperature;

2) 10 0 С above room temperature;

3) 20 0 С above room temperature.

Experiment execution. Pour 10 ml of sodium thiosulfate Na2 S2 O3 solution into three clean test tubes, and 1 ml of sulfuric acid H2 SO4 solution into the other three test tubes. Group the tubes in three pairs (acid-thiosulfate).

Place the first pair of test tubes and a thermometer in a glass of water at room temperature and after 5 minutes, when the temperature in the test tubes equalizes,

write down the thermometer reading. Pour the contents of the tubes into one tube and shake it several times. Record the time from the start of the reaction until the solution becomes slightly cloudy.

Place the second pair of test tubes in a glass of water and heat the water until

temperature is 100 C higher than the one at which the first pair of test tubes was located and do the same as in the first case. Do the same with the third pair of test tubes, increasing the water temperature by another 100 C. Record the obtained data in the table.

	Experiment temperature	Reaction time	V = 1 / τ
	t, 0 С

Make a conclusion about the dependence of the rate of chemical reaction on temperature

1. In the system CO + Cl 2 = COCl2, the CO concentration was increased from 0.03 to 0.12 mol L, and the chlorine concentration - from 0.02 to 0.08 mol L. How many times has the speed of the direct reaction increased?

2. How will the rate of the direct reaction change if the concentration of carbon monoxide (II) is reduced by 4 times?

2CO + O2 = 2CO2.

3. How will the rates of the forward and reverse reactions change with an increase in the volume of each of the systems by 3 times:

a) S (k) + O2 (g) = SO2 (g)

b) 2SO2 + O2 = 2SO3.?

4. How will the rates of forward and reverse reactions change with increasing pressure in each of these systems by 3 times:

a) CH4 (g) + 2O2 = CO2 (g) + 2H2 O (steam); b) 2 2 = 2 + 2?.

5. At 200 0 C, some reaction takes place in 20 minutes. Taking the temperature coefficient of the reaction rate equal to 2, calculate through

how long will this reaction end if it is carried out at: a) 230 0 C;

b) 150 0 C?

6. How many degrees should the temperature in the reaction mixture be lowered to reduce the reaction rate by a factor of 27, if the temperature coefficient of this reaction is 3?

THEORETICAL PART II

Reactions proceeding in only one direction until the

one of the reacting substances is consumed, are called irreversible. On-

For example, the decomposition reaction of ammonium nitrate is irreversible, because on-

torture to obtain ammonium nitrate by the interaction of water and nitric oxide (I) is not

led to a positive result: NH4 NO3 N2 O + 2H2 O. Reactions,

capable of flowing in two directions are called reversible. Reverse

there are more reactions than irreversible ones.

An example of a reversible reaction is the interaction of i-

yes with hydrogen: H2 + J2 2HJ. As the direct reaction proceeds, the consumption

the initial reactants are formed and the rate of the direct reaction decreases.

reaction, but the concentration of the reaction product HJ increases and, consequently,

the speed of the feedback increases. After a certain period of time

When the rate of HJ formation becomes equal to the rate of its decomposition, i.e.

chemical equilibrium occurs. Chemical equilibrium Is dynamic

the state in which the continuing education and the decay of molecules at equal rates, i.e. V pr. = V arr.

In general, a chemical reaction can be represented by the equations:

aA + bB = cC + dD; V CR = k1 [A] a [B] b; V arr. = k2 [C] c [D] d.

Since at chemical equilibrium V pr. = V arr. therefore k1 [A] a [B] b = k2 [C] c [D] d. To convert, we divide both sides of the equality by the expression

	[C] c [D] d:	k1 [A] a [B] b				[C] c [D] d	We get K r
		k2 [A] a [B] b				[A] a [B] b
										[A] a b
	The value of Kr as		the ratio of constants is the value of constants

naya called equilibrium constant... Concentrations of reagents when installed

winding equilibrium are called equilibrium concentrations.

For example: 2СO + O = 2СO,								[CO 2] 2
								[CO] 2 [O]

The concentrations of the reactants do not affect the equilibrium constant,

since the rate constants of the reactions, the ratio of which it is, is not

depend on concentration. But k1 and k2 depend on temperature and change with change

temperature rise in different ways, therefore Кр depends on temperature.

Under unchanged external conditions, the state (position) of equilibrium is maintained for an arbitrarily long time. When the external conditions change, the equilibrium position changes, since the equality V pr. = V arr. After some

some time after the change in conditions, a new equilibrium will be established, but at other

their equilibrium concentrations. The transition of the system from one equilibrium state

standing in another is called balance shift (balance shift).

The natural influence of external conditions (concentrations of reagents, temperature

temperature, pressure) on the equilibrium position of reversible chemical reactions was established in 1847 by the French scientist Le Chatelier. Principle of Le-

Chatelier sounds like this: “ If the system, which is equal to

spring state, to exert any external influence (change in temperature

temperature, pressure, concentration), then the equilibrium in the system will shift towards the reaction that minimizes this impact ”

1. With an increase in the concentration of any substance participating in equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts towards the consumption of this substance, and with a decrease in concentration - towards its formation.

For example, in the system 2СO + O2 = 2СO2 with an increase in oxygen concentration, the equilibrium will shift towards its consumption, i.e. to the right, in

side of the formation of CO2.

2. With increasing pressure by compressing the system, the equilibrium shifts

v the side of a smaller number of gas molecules, i.e. in the direction of decreasing pressure, and

with a decrease in pressure, the equilibrium will shift towards a larger number of

gas lecules, i.e. in the direction of increasing pressure.

For example, in the system 2СO + O2 = 2СO2 with increasing pressure equals

the weight will shift towards a smaller number of gas molecules, i.e. to the right, in

side of CO2 formation, since there are three gas molecules on the left side, and

howl only two.

But there are equilibrium systems in which pressure does not affect displacement.

balance. For example, in the H2 + J2 2HJ system, with a change in pressure equal to

the balance will not shift, since there are two gas molecules on the left and right sides.

3. With increasing temperature, the equilibrium shifts in the direction of en-

pre-thermal reaction, and with a decrease - in the direction of exothermic

Exothermic reactions is called the reaction proceeding with the release of te-

PLA (ΔH<0), а реакция, идущая с поглощением тепла называется эндотермиче-

(ΔH> 0).
For example:	2H2 + O2 2H2 O,	H = -484.9 kJ.

With an increase in temperature in this system, the equilibrium will shift towards

in, in the direction of the original reactants, since the reverse reaction is

is endothermic.

Le Chatelier's principle is confirmed and applies not only to chi-

physical, but also on various physicochemical equilibrium processes. Sme-

equilibrium with changing conditions of such processes as boiling, cry-

stalization and dissolution occurs in accordance with this principle.