Differences between human races are determined. Racial Differences (Racial Differences)

Language can be learned. The child of Franco-speaking parents living in France is not born with the ability to speak French. However, barely reaching the age of five, this child will easily learn to speak French. The child of the German-speaking parents living in Germany will also easily learn to speak German.

And this is not because any child is born with special abilities to the language of their parents. If the children from the French and German family would be exchanged in infancy, then the little Pierre would have learned to say "Auf Wiedersehen", and the baby Hans could be as easy to say "Ai Revoir". And if Little Pierre and Hans were in the early years of their lives in America and grew up with American children, they would both learn to speak "Good Bye" without any accent.

Any normal child will examine any language on which the people around him are talking, no matter what native language His father and mother.

As you can see, the language, therefore, can not be a sign of race. If you close your eyes and hear the voice of a person speaking perfect english language, then you can't say for sure where the parents of this person come from, from New York, Shanghai or Timbuktu. I only hearing a voice of a person, you can not say what the color of his hair, the shape of the head or growth.

The same applies to food that a man loves, and to the clothes he prefers to wear. These taste addictions depend on what he is used to from childhood. Children of immigrants in America are also easily accustomed to hamburgers and fried Bobs, as children of original American parents.

Differences between people who are the result of learning are called cultural differences. Cultural differences are impossible to take into account for the separation of people to race. It would like to try to divide dogs to various breeds, according to the tricks that they could do. Imagine such a division: all dogs capable of "depiction of the dead" belong to one breed, and everyone who can "sit and ask for", to the other!

What we have to do is to find the characteristics of a person who are not the result of training. We must find such features with which each person is born or who develop as it increases, but without any interference from the outside. For example, a child is born with ten fingers and ten toes. And it's long before his hair and eyes took a certain color. By the time of his mature, a person reaches a certain growth and acquires an individual physique. Differences in such characteristics, including the size, shape and color of various parts of the body, are all physical differences. These differences were used by anthropologists (scientists who specialize in studying a person) to divide people to various races.

Leather

One of the ways of dividing people to race is to determine the color of the skin. We can find a good example in America - in the case of a black man and a white man. Most blacks differ from most white people, and you could easily distinguish one from the other.

In addition, the skin color is determined from the moment of birth. Negro Child can grow and become a recognized writer, an excellent lawyer or scientist, perhaps even a member of the Congress or nobel laureateBut the color of his skin will not change. He will always belong to the Negroid race.

The color of normal human skin depends on the presence of three types of staining substances, or pigments. The most important of these pigments is melanin, - a dark brown substance. The skin of all healthy people contains melanin. Some people, however, have a lot of melanin than others. White generally have a small amount of melanin in the skin. People with a lot of melanin are darker. Negros, of course, have much more melanin in the skin than white. The question is not in the difference in the color of the skin, but only in large or smaller amounts of melanin, defining one or another shade.

The second of three pigments - carotene. This yellow substance that is present in carrots (from the English Carrot - carrots), in the yolk egg or in human skin. Like melanin, carotene is present in the skin of all people. Because of his light color, the presence of a significant amount of carotene in the skin of people is not so clearly noticeable. Melanin boils him. Among people with a small number of melanin in the skin some have more carotene, others are less. The peoples of East Asia with a large number of carotene have a somewhat yellowish complexion.

The third pigment is hemoglobin, which paints blood in red. Naturally, he is present in all people. However, hemoglobin is in the blood vessels under the skin, so it is practically not visible. Its presence is completely overlapped by proper amount in the skin of both melanin and carotene. Hemoglobin can only be seen in the skin of white people, especially with bright face color. And it is hemoglobin that makes the cheeks pink and allows you to blush.

Based on these differences in color, humanity is sometimes divided into

1) black race - determined by high melanin;

2) the yellow race with a low content of melanin, but high carotene;

3) White race - with low content of both melanin and carotene.

Such a division would seem to be quite satisfactory if not some difficulties. On the one hand, the described differences are not so clear. There are all types of intermediate flower skin. Residents of Southeast Asia and the indigenous people of America - Indians - darker, for example, than the Chinese and the Japanese - members of the yellow race. On the other hand, they are not like blacks. Sometimes inhabitants of Southeast Asia, as well as the inhabitants of many of the Pacific Islands, are believed to the Melanesian race, while American Indians to the Red Rass. (This description is perhaps incorrectly, as Indian has a brownish shade, but not red.) In other respects, these nations are more likely to suit the yellow race; So, perhaps, the best solution would be attributed to the yellow Melanesian race, which includes all these groups.

Another source of doubt lies in the fact that groups of people may have the same skin color and still vary in many other parameters. There are dark-skinned peoples of Africa, called blacks, and there are dark-skinned aborigines of Australia. The average Aboriginal is more dormile than the average ebony, but to consider them both only as representatives of the Black race would not be quite true. In many other physical characteristics, except for skin color, African Ebony and Australian Aboriginal are very different. There is another third group of dark-skinned people called Dravida, they were among the earliest inhabitants of India and now compactly live in the southern regions of this country. Despite their dark color of the skin, in many respects they are different from the blacks of Africa, and from Australian aborigines.

And not all Africans, representatives of the black race, so dark-skinned as we can imagine. Americans are accustomed to see the black blacks, because the ancestors of most black Americans were brought to America from West Africa. And this is a region of residence of the dark-skinned peoples. There are negros whose skin is much lighter. Some East African tribes, for example, are slightly brown, almost yellowish.

The skin color does not remain completely unchanged. Although the skin cannot become lighter, at the same time it often becomes darker, purchasing a tan under the action of natural sunlight. Ultraviolet rays can be very harmful to the skin if they penetrate through its outer layer. (Many of us know the hole from our own experience of tanning.) Melanin protects the skin, blocking ultraviolet rays. Many representatives of the White race, without having a sufficient number of melanin in the skin for protection, can over time to get an additional melanin if they work or play, substituting the body of the Sun. (This is a slow process, and therefore the excessive stay of iodine the sun first causes burns.) Very little people, no matter how hard they tried, they often cannot work out enough melanin. They "burn out", and do not get tanning.

The darkness of the tanned man's skin will slowly disappear, if it is no longer being in the sun. However, many tanned representatives of the White Race actually have more melanin in their skin than many Africans are representatives of the Black Race.

Hair

Hair color, unlike skin color, was not used to share humanity to race. The most important pigment contained in the hair, as in the skin, - Melanin. The hair of most people contains enough melanin, giving the hair dark brown or black. Some representatives of the White Race - Shaten or Blondes, as they have a slight amount of melanin in hair. Some in the hair has a red pigment. His color manifests itself in blonde people in the form of various shades of red hair. With age, the ability to form melanin for new hair, which continuously replace old hair, is often lost. The result is gray, or white, hair.

In Europe and in North America, where modern racial theoryPeople have so different shades of hair that people no longer pay much attention. Of course, the German-speaking peoples who invaded Western and South Europe in the VI century, had a lighter color of the face than the Romanesque peoples they won. While there was no complete mixing, blonde hair among the aristocratic descendants of the invaders met more often than among the descendants of the conquered peasants. Perhaps it is precisely for this reason in fairy tales (many of which were created during the Middle Ages) often there are blond princesses.

Leaving the hair color aside, some anthropologists, however, tried to classify people on races according to the form of their hair. Hair can be straight, wavy or curly.

In fact, all representatives of the yellow melanesian race, for example, have straight hair without a hint of waves or curls. In the Eskimos, which most scientists would attribute to yellow, also straight hair, but the Turkic peoples of Central and West Asia are the same, and many of them, especially in Western Asia, are considered white.

Curly, or finely curled, hair is characteristic of representatives of the black race living in Africa and New Guinea and in the neighboring islands.

Wavy hair is found among representatives of the White race, as well as among the dark-skinned Dravis India and Aboriginal Australia.

It's not so simple here as it seems at first glance. Many Europeans or Americans of European origin have completely straight hair, although they belong to a group with wavy hair. On the other hand, there are at least three kinds of curly hair. There are short curly hair that smoothly cover the whole scalp, like most Negro peoples. There are short curly stripes that grow strands that create pomp, as in some East African groups. There are longer curly hair among the peoples of the South-Western Pacific Islands. Hair Australian Aboriginal, as a rule, curly or wavy, with the exception of one small group in the state of Queensland, which has what is called Curly Hair.

Eyes

Eye color, similar to hair color, is not used to distinguish the races. Rainbow shell (which is a colored part of the eye), like hair and skin, contains a pigment melanin. People S. by brown eyes The rainbow shell contains enough melanin. Those who have a very small number of melanin have a blue eye color.

There is one feature of the structure of the eye, which was used in determining racial differences, is an epicaic eye cut. This is a skin fold, which closes the top eyelid, and sometimes even the top row of eyelashes when the eyes are wide open. It makes eye cut narrower and sometimes incorrectly called "narrow-eyed". Epicantic eye cut inherent in many representatives of the yellow melanesian race, such as the Chinese, the Japanese, Mongols and Eskimos, but, however, not everyone. It is usually not observed in other groups of people we have already mentioned.

Bone system

Along with the color of the skin, the bone system is most often used in determining the differences between people. The bones form the skeleton of the human body, it is the bone system responsible for the fact that one person is tall and narrow-profile, while another squat and has short fingers. (Naturally, the fat layer also affects the appearance of a person, but it easily changes the diet.) Growth is, as a rule, a distinguishable feature. of different nations. All groups of people have low-spirited and high individuals. but medium height Scandinavians are much larger than the average growth of Sicilians. The inhabitants of Northern France are on average somewhat higher than residents of Southern France.

Representatives of yellow and black races can also be divided into different groups depending on growth. The Chinese are higher than the Japanese. A large variety is observed among African peoples. Representatives of some Negro tribes are the same tall as the Scandinavians, or even higher than them. On the other hand, Pygmy Congo are the most low-spirited people.

However, in the growth criteria there are their difficulties. First, the growth of the individual cannot be known until he finally grown; So the growth rate is useless when classifying children. In addition, a separate siclian may be higher than a separate scandinavine. In addition to this, growth depends on the gentle of man, usually men are higher than women of the same group. Finally, human growth is partly dependent on the power system. Children of European immigrants in America are often growing higher than their parents, which is likely to occur because their nutrition has improved.

Shape of the head

Often, the shape of the head is used for racial classification. If you look at the head on top, the head has an oval shape, and its length (from the forehead to the nape) is greater than the width (the distance from the ear to the ear). If the length of the forehead is to the nape to take for 100, then the width of the head from the ear to the ear will be equal to a smaller value. If the width is three quarters of length, this indicator will be 75, if four fifths of length, the indicator will be 80.

The ratio of the width of the head to its length is known as the cefalization index. Naturally, the cefalization index different people Noodynaks. People with the cephalization index less than 75, if you look at them from above, have narrow oblong skulls, since the width of their skull is less than three quarters in relation to length. People with turtles of such a form are called dolikhacelas, which means in Greek "long-rich". With the cephalization index, more than 80 heads, if you look at it from above, it seems shorter and wide. People with similar skulls are called Brachicianflam, which is the "short-headed". The cefalization index between 75 and 80 gives us mesotacephalov, which in Greeting means "average annual".

Groups of people can also differ among themselves and on the shape of the head. The peoples of North-West Europe, including the inhabitants of Scandinavia, Great Britain, Holland, Belgium, as well as the northern parts of France and Germany are most often mesocephal. People living south - in Central France, South Germany and Northern Italy (as well as almost all the peoples of Eastern Europe) are Brachicianflam. Further south, among the residents of the Mediterranean, in Portugal, Spain, South France, Italy and the Balkans, live Mesocephali. In North Africa and the Middle East meets a lot of dolochocephalves.

Using the sizes of the skull as the main criterion, some researchers tried to divide the white race for three sub-<ы. Жителей Северо-Западной Европы они называют скандинавами. Скандинавы имеют i-иетлую кожу и являются мезоцефалами. Жителей Центральной и Восточной Европы относят к альпийцам. Они имеют темную кожу и являются брахицефалами. Наконец, жителей Южной Европы и Северной Африки называют средиземноморцами. Они имеют темную кожу и являются долихоцефалами.

With such a classification, some European countries would be mainly in one such iodora. For example, Norway would almost completely Scandinavian, Hungary - almost completely alpine, and Portugal is almost the whole Mediterranean. Other countries would be made up of two or even three subras. In Germany, there are both Scandinavians and Alytians. Alyshians and the Mediterranean live in Italy. France, which has a very culturally homogeneous population, is represented by all three subprops.

Head forms also change outside the white race. Most of the Black Race Representatives are dolichocels or mesocephalts, and most of the representatives of the yellow melanesian race are Brachicianflam.

The shape of the head, like growth, can change due to the diet. Children born during the long northern winter are deprived sunlight In the early months of your life. If they do not give fish oil or vitamin preparations, they lack vitamin D. Such children suffer from a disease known as Rakhit, in which the bones are not properly strengthened. Soft pliable skulls such children can also be deformed from the pressure of the cradle, and the sizes of the skull at a later age will no longer mean anything.

Life droplets

The smallest of living organisms are called Protozoa, or the simplest. Some of them are barely visible to the naked eye, but most of the microscopic sizes. That is why they are studied under a microscope.

The representative of the simplest, for example, amoeba consists of a tiny drop of a jelly-like liquid called protoplasm. This drop of protoplasm is separated from the water in which the amoeba lives, a very thin membrane. Protoplasm separated by a membrane from the external environment is called a cell.

Although Ameba has microscopic size, it performs all essential life functions. It can capture food particles that are less than it in terms of volume, digest them and throw off the undigested residues. It can detect a danger and in this case to move to avoid it. It can grow, and when it creates up to a certain size, it can be divided in so that on the site of one amuba two are formed. When Ameb is divided into two, new subsidiaries will have all the characteristics of the old parent cell.

It would be reasonable to believe that if we realized how the cell was divided into two cells, while maintaining all its own features, it could become a starting point for studying how these features are transmitted from larger organisms, creatures, for example, people.

The simplest consist of a single cell. The animals are large than the simplest, consist of a variety of cells, closely adjacent to each other. Since each of these cells has about the same size as Protozoa's cell, then in order to form a large animal, they need quite a lot. A person, for example, consists of trillion and trillion microscopic cells. Each human cell consists of protoplasm; Each is surrounded by a cell membrane. Animals consisting of multiple cells are called Metazoa. Man also belongs to Metazoa.

The only protozoa cell is a kind of master on all hands. She can do everything gradually. Metazoa cells have different specialization. In a person, for example, there are long thin cells that make up muscular fabric that become short and thick when muscle strains. There are nervous cells with uneven contours that transmit messages from one part of the body to another. There are skin cells that serve as an elastic protection for the rest of the body parts.

Some of these different cells, for example, those that make up the brain and nerves have become so specialized that they lost the ability to share. Other types of cells, however, continue to share during life or at least can share whenever it becomes necessary. For example, external skin cells are gradually wear out throughout life. For this reason, the cells of deeper layers of skin are continuously growing and divided to replace lost cells.

The process of dividing human cells is almost the same as the process of dividing Protozoa cells. Human cells retain their characteristics after dividing the same, Kai and Protozoa cells. In fact, the division process is approximately the same in all cells. To explore this process, let's turn closer to the cage.

Initially, all cells that grow and divide, consist of two parts. Somewhere within the cell, often near her center, there is a small stain of protoplasm, separated from the rest of the membrane cell even more thin and gentle than the outer membrane of the cell. This inner part of the cell is called the core. Protoplasm, surrounding the kernel, is called cytoplasm.

Of these two parts, the core cage is the most important. Suppose that Ameb is divided into a microscopic needle microscopic edge in such a way that one half contains an integer nucleus, while the other half does not contain the kernel. Half with the kernel will be able to restore the missing part and will then continue to live ordinary life, growing and shaking. Half without the nucleus lives only for a short time, but after that he dries and dies. She does not grow and never shares.

So, now let's stop in more detail on the core itself. If we make very thin sections of the fabrics of some organs and place them under the microscope, we can see individual cells and even possibly cell cores within cells. If we restrict ourselves to considering, then we will not see anything special in the kernel. But we will not be limited to this.

The kernel, like the cell as a whole, is made up of a large number of different substances. Some chemicals when adding to water, to which a plate with a cloth can penetrate into the cells and connect with some, but not with all substances that are there. The obtained chemical compounds are sometimes painted in this or that color. By adding the necessary chemical in the cellular tissue, we stain some parts of the cell and leave the other parts intact. When, for example, the drug called Feulgen reagent is added to the cell, the scattered parts of the kernel acquire a bright red color (painting along Felgen). These parts are called chromatin (from the Greek word meaning "color"). If the drug is added to the cells at various stages of division, the behavior of chromatin may become visible to us, and it is his behavior and is the key to the situation you are interested in.

How cells are divided

At the very beginning of the process of dividing the cell chromatin, the kernel begins to gather into small filamentous forms. These threads of chromatin are called chromosomes. The number of chromosomes is different in cells of various animal species. In flies, for example, only eight chromosomes in its cells, and Langusta has more than a hundred. All cells of any animal of one species have the same chromosome. In human cells, for example, chromatin during the cell division process is assembled exactly in 48 chromosomes.

Since chromatin during division of the cell is assembled into small filamentous forms, the cell division of the cell is called mitosis, from the Greek word "thread".

After the chromosomes were formed, the nuclear membrane disappears, and the substances from the nucleus are mixed with cytoplasm. Chromosomes meanwhile the cells are drawn in the middle.

This is a crucial moment. It is called metaphase. Chromosomes remain in the middle of the cell, and after some time each chromosome is suddenly duplicated by a chromosome-companion, lining next to the original chromosome. In a delicious human cell, the number of chromosomes thus increases from 48 to 96 in the metaphase.

After metafase, everything happens quite quickly. First, the chromosomes are separated from each other. One set in 48 chromosomes (in human cells) is moved to one end of the cell. Another set in 48 chromosomes is to the other end of the cell.

Chromosome in each end of the cell are then covered by new nuclear membranes. For a short time, the cell has at once two cores. Within each chromosome nucleus, they begin to deploy and lose their filamentine form. But they do not disintegrate and do not dissolve. This can be compared with the way if a strongly stretched string, after it was released, suddenly weakened and would become long and twisting. It is so chromosomes that are deployed to chromatin and are waiting for the next separation of the cell when they form once again chromosomes.

After these two cores were formed in opposite ends of the cell, the cell begins in the middle of it. The middle becomes more and more narrow until the cells are separated. Protozoa has two obtained cells disconnected from each other and become two separate individuals. Metazoa has two subsidiaries remain in place. The new cell membrane, however, now separates two parts of what was once a single cell.

Now back to the metafhase. One unusual thing that can interest us in the mitosis process is the doubling of chromosomes. Everything else is just the question of dividing the cell substance into two equal parts and separating them from each other membrane.

You may ask: "Doesn't it happen to chromosomes? Is there any chromosome just divided by its length, becoming two chromosomes? "

To answer this question, we are not enough to consider only the cell itself or even the kernel. We must pay our attention to the chromosoma itself.

Inside chromosomes

Now we are dealing with objects that are so tiny that we have to stop to think about how small sizes we can do somehow at all. As we all living in the age of an atomic bomb, probably know, the whole world consists of atoms. Atoms are extremely small objects. Chromosome, which is large enough to be seen using a microscope, contains many billion atoms.

Atoms are one hundred different types, some of them are simpler than others. Over rare exceptions, atoms are associated together in groups. Sometimes such a group consists of only one type atoms. More often, the group consists of two or more different types of atoms. Sometimes these groups can only be drawn up from two atoms each, sometimes from half a dozen, sometimes from several million. In any case, a group of atoms, whether it is from one species or of many, whether it contains two atoms or two million, called a molecule.

Each of the various types of substances known to us (and such - many hundreds of thousands) consists of molecules of their own type. Each of the various types of molecule has its own set of properties and characteristics.

For example, if you share a piece of a matter of a substance, such as sugar, sunbath, each part it is still sugar. If you continue to divide sugar for smaller and smaller parts, each fragment is still sugar. Even if it would be possible to divide sugar as accurately to divide it into individual molecules (billions of trillion molecules), each molecule would remain sugar. The molecule, however, is the smallest particle that can preserve the characteristics of the substance it is. If you had to divide the sugar molecule in two, you would remain with two groups of atoms, each of which is half the size of the original molecule. Pi one of the new groups, however, would no longer be sugar.

This is the same as if you took a class of 16 students and would be divided into two. You would then have two grades of 8 students in each. You could continue and make 4 classes but 4 student in each, 8 classes of 2 students in each or even 16 classes on 1 student in each. But on this you would have to stop. If you tried to continue this exciting process and form 32 grade half a student in each, you would stay without classes at all, without any disciples, but with serious trouble with the police.

Now let us return to the chromosome. The chromosome is made up of a substance named by nucleoprotein. The nucleoprotein molecule has a huge size but compared to most molecules. It is in a million or more times more than, for example, sugar molecule. (Even in this case, everything is still too small in order to be seen under ordinary microscopes.) Chromosome - thread from several thousand of these giant nucleoprotein molecules connected together.

Now imagine what would happen if each chromosome had to split in the middle in the metaphase and become two chromosomes. It would like to break the pearl necklace. You would not have more than two pearl necklaces, just two sets of pearls, and nothing else.

Now we can answer the question that finished the previous section. Chromosomes are so simple not divided in the middle, becoming two chromosomes in the metaphase. If the chromosome was fragmented in the middle, each nucleoprotein molecule would be destroyed. Instead of having two chromosomes, we would not have any.

Therefore, in order for each chromosome to become two chromosomes in the metaphase, one of them should be re-created from simpler materials.

How it's done? Nobody knows exactly. Many scientists study this process. As soon as they receive a complete answer, they will have at their disposal one of the important keys to know the nature of life itself.

In the rough approximation, this is not less, it seems to be as follows: the protoplasm in the cell contains various simple substances that can be connected to form chromosome. (Like parts of the mosaic, when you see, which of them, with the right connection with others, can compile a big picture.) Some of these substances are called amino acids. Others are called purines, pyrimidines, penos and phosphate ions. In some way, these simple substances are pulled out of the protoplasm and are built into the line near different chromosomes. The location of substances is such that each amino acid in each chromosome has a similar amino acid next to him; Each Purin is adjacent to the same Purin, etc. When the construction is completed, all these small molecules and ions are connected together, and in the end we have the second chromosome next to the first. Since the second chromosome is made up of exactly the same molecules and ions as the first, and is built in the line in the same order, then we have an accurate duplicate of the first chromosome. The first chromosome acted as a kind of model, but which the second is flattered.

The process that the chemical structure forms another structure only directly from materials in protoplasm, is known as self-reproduction.

Summing, thus, what happens in a human cell in metaphase, we see that each of these forty-eight chromosomes in the cell is reproduced. The formed second set of chromosomes is an exact duplicate of the first set. Two sets are moving into opposite ends of the cell, and when the cell is divided, each subsidiary has its own set of chromosomes.

Enzymes and Genes.

We saw that the cell contains many different substances that can be used as raw materials in the manufacture of complex structures of Tina chromosomes. Each cell, in fact, contains many thousands of different chemicals within its microscopic structure. These chemicals are continuously encountered and combined with each other, exchange atoms, swinging and inspired, rebuild atoms within their own structure, etc. The actions of this kind are called chemical reactions.

As you may seem from this description, the events within the cell must be very confusing, the molecules will be blown back and forth, like people encountered with each other on a crowded railway station. However, there is one type of molecule that brings order and meaning in chemical reactions that have a place within the cell. This is enzymes. Enzymes are relatively large molecules that can affect some chemical reactions. Each enzyme can affect one specific chemical reaction, since it only happens near it, and no other.

Within one cell, various enzymes are apparently located ordered. For example, a set of enzymes - parts of small structures within the cytoplasm of the cell. These structures are called mitochondria. Like chromosomes, mitochondria composed of nucleoprotein. The nucleoprotein of mitochondria has, however, is chemically different from chromosomal type.

We can consider the cage as something similar to a microscopic factory. Molecules of all species come to our body from air and from food that we eat, and transferred to individual blood flow cells. It reminds the path of how coal, steel, rubber and other raw materials are supplied at the factory trains and courts.

In the cage, these molecules are destroyed to give energy as a result, or they are built up to form more complex molecules. It's all just like the factory burned coal to get energy, or use steel and other materials to create a complex structure similar to a car or aircraft. Each chemical reaction in the cell is controlled by an enzyme, just as each action in the factory is controlled by any worker. Enzymes are organized in mitochondria as well as workers are supplied along assembly lines.

Just as the factory could not do anything substantial, for example, if all the workers were used and the cell could not create anything without thousands of her enzymes. But then where does the enzymes come from? This is an important question. The best answer, which we still know the following: enzymes are formed by nucleoprotein molecules within the chromosomes.

As we said, the chromosome consists not from a single nucleoprotein molecule, but of thousands of such stretched molecules. Every nucleosicotein molecule is called the genome.

Genes have two important properties. The first is the ability of self-reproduction during mitosis, the process explained in the sections "how cells" and "inside the chromosome" are divided. The second is the ability to produce an enzyme. The accurate process of the production of the enzyme is still unknown. Perhaps the entire gene is used as a model for another gene, and only some of the gene is used as a model for the enzyme.

Some scientists believe that each gene has the ability to form one specific enzyme, and no other. Others are not fully convinced that the genes are so specialized. It seems fairly reasonable, however, that the nature of the genes represented in the chromosomes of the cell determines the nature of the enzymes in the cell. Since enzymes control chemical reactions, the genes control cell chemistry. After separation of the cell, each subsidiary has identical genes and therefore identical chemical composition. This is the result of self-reproduction in mitoz: both subsidiaries have identical genes.

Genes and physical characteristics

Now, when we showed how cells retain their characteristics after dividing, you can wonder how all this refers to the problem of human races. The use of all this is the following: the physical characteristics that we mentioned in the previous section are identified by cell chemistry. All that somehow affects cell chemistry may somehow affect body physical characteristics.

As an example, let's look at the skin color.

The large pigment molecule of melanin is formed in skin cells from a much smaller molecule, called Tyrrosian. (Tyrosine is blunt and present in all cells.) The specific stages of this process are still unknown, but one of the first steps known to us require the presence of an enzyme called Ti-Rosina. In the cells of the skin of most people there is a good extent one gene, whose work should lead to the formation of tyrosinase. If the gene has a view that can form significant amounts of tyrosinase, the skin cell is like a well-equipped factory. There are significant amounts of melanin, and a person with this genome has therefore dark brown skin, black hair and dark brown eyes. If the gene has a form that produces only a small amount of tyrosinase, it will be faithful to the opposite. Only a small number of melanin will be formed, and the person will have a pale skin, blonde hair and blonde eyes. In addition, there are some people whose genes do not form tyrosinases at all. Since there is no small number of tyrosinase in their cells, they cannot have melanin. Such people have very light skin, white hair, and they have no pigmentation of the iris. (Their eyes look red, because small blood vessels appear through a transparent colorless rainbow shell.) Such people are called albinos. If you have ever met Albino, then personally were able to make sure that the presence or absence of only one gene could have a terrible effect on the physical condition of a person.

There are other enzymes, and therefore many other genes are involved in the formation of melanin. Skin color for this reason is more complicated than it could seem from what we have yet told.

Another physical characteristic that we could consider is an increase. One of the chemical factors that affect human growth is known as growth hormone. This substance is formed in the cells of a small structure, called the pituitary gland, which is located right under the brain. Growth hormone penetrates the pituitary glands. Blood carries it to all parts of the body, one way or another (again we do not know the exact details) encouraging the cells to grow and share.

If there are no other factors that could be considered in conjunction with it (for example, diet or illness), a person with a large number of blood growth hormone will grow more quickly than a person with a smaller number of this hormone. He is likely to become big and very high. There are people who, for some reason, the pituitary gland is only a very small amount of growth hormone. Such a person is generally growing at all, and as a result he remains a dwarf. On the contrary, some people have excessive production of growth hormone, and as a result they turn into giants. Dwarfs and giants that we see on ideas in the circus - the result of a lack or surplus of growth hormone.

Growth hormone is formed in the hypophysies under the control of enzymes. The amount of growth hormone therefore depends on at least partially, on the number of some enzymes formed in cells. This, in turn, depends on the nature of the genes responsible for the formation of these enzymes. So growth, like skin color, depends on the nature of the genes, which man has.

Such arguments can be extended for any physical characteristics. It is always a matter of gene. For this reason, it is logical to assume that if we want to succeed in dividing people to racial groups, we must first study everything we can learn how the genes are transmitted from parents to children.

Egg and sperm

All animals, except the simplest, produce special cells, which, with favorable circumstances, have ways to develop into new individuals. Such cells produced by female animals are known as egg cells. The egg is often called the Ovum Latin word, which means "Egg". Chicken egg - egg cell, with which we are all familiar. In this example you can immediately see how much the egg cell differs from other cells. Look at the chicken egg and remember that this is just the only single cell. And now compare it with the cells, which are so small that they can only be seen in the microscope. In fact, only a microscopic speck on the surface of the egg is alive on the surface of the egg. Everything else is just a food supply. Chicken will need three weeks to grow from this microscopic spot into a small creature that filling the shell. The egg must contain all calories, vitamins and minerals in which chicken will need these three weeks.

People (as well as other mammals) the situation is somewhat different. Egg is developing inside the maternal body. Shortly after the fertilized egg begins to grow, an organ known as the placenta name is formed. In the placenta, blood vessels of a developing child are very close to the blood vessels of the mother. Nutrients, vitamins, oxygen - in general, everything necessary to maintain life - from the blood of the mother in the blood of the child. In this way, the mother feeds the child. (Please note that the blood vessels of the mother and the child are not connected. No bleaching is happening!)

Since it is the blood of a mother's blood feeds a developing fruit, there is no need for a human egg to contain a lot of nutrients. Therefore, it is much less chicken egg. In fact, the size of the human egg is only "/, 75 inches in diameter. But even in this case it is still the largest cell in the entire human body.

Males also produce special cells that contribute to the development of new individuals. They are called spermatozoa, or sperm. They are much smaller than eggs. 600 or more spermatozoa weigh as much as the only egg cell.

The human spermatozoa is a very unusual view of the cell, as it can move independently. He does it with a long tail, waving them in all directions. This tail is approximately ten times the rest of the cell. When the spermatozoa is viewed under the microscope, it is very similar to the tiny tasty.

And eggs and spermatozoa - all of them are produced in special organs. Eggs are formed in the ovaries. All normal women possess two ovaries. They produce one egg cell every four weeks. Cercept cells are produced in the testicles, all normal men have two testicles. The testicles continuously produce an extensive amount of sperm. A drop of fluid produced by the testicles contains many and many millions of spermatozoa.

When the sperm is released near the egg, a lot of spermatozoa is rareered to it randomly. Only one of the spermatozoa penetrates the egg through the layer of small cells surrounding it. As soon as the sperm enters the egg cell, no other spermatozoid can no longer do the same. The connection of the egg and spermatozoa is called a fertilized egg, or a zygotea.

The difference between the egg generated in the ovaries and the fertilized egg is extremely large. If the formed eggs is not fertilized by spermatozoom, it will soon be destroyed. The fertilized egg, however, immediately begins to share and share again, grow and develop in the embryo. Finally, if everything goes smoothly, a human baby appears on the world.

Now we can ask yourself a lot of questions at once. Why exactly two cells are required for the production of a new individual? Why should he have a father and mother? Does the meaning matter that the sperm is so different in appearance from the egg?

To answer these and other questions like them, let's reverse our attention on chromosomes.

Earlier, we have already talked about the fact that human cells contain 48 chromosomes. These 48 are built in pairs. Each human cell therefore contains 24 pairs of chromosomes. The genes in any chromosome are similar to genes in the chromosome, which is with her pair. If one chromosome contains a thyrosinase gene, its twin chromosome is also. This gene is even located in the same place in each chromosome. Genes can be unidenticious; That is, one of them, for example, can be capable of forming a larger number of tyrosinase than the other. However, both of them are associated with the same enzyme.

In other words, the human cell contains 24 different chromosomes plus "spare parts" for each of these 24, total - 48.

You may remember that in the previous chapter we mentioned one exception to the rule that states that all human cells contain 48 chromosomes. This is an exception - a female egg and spermatozoa.

Sperm eggs and cells are formed from parental cells containing ordinary 48 chromosomes. Parental cells, however, are subjected to an unusual form of cell division known as meyosis. Chromosomes are not self-reproduced. Instead, these 48 chromosomes are simply divided into two groups and travel to the opposite ends of the cells. At one end - 24 different chromosomes, and in the other - 24 "spare parts".

The result is that both egg and spermatozoa - only "half-cells", at least in relation to the number of chromosomes. They have but 24 chromosomes.

The small cell of the sperm contains as much chromosomes - 24, as well as a significantly large egg. Sperm cell, however, does not contain anything more than anything else: only 24 chromosomes, tightly packed together and sent to the woolly tail. The egg cell, on the other hand, contains a significant amount of nutrients, due to which the embryo can live as long as the placenta is formed.

When the sperm cell enters the egg (leaving its tail outside), it becomes a core, very similar to the small kernel in the egg. These two cores are approaching and dissolved in each other. Now fertilized egg cell is already a complete cell. It contains all 48 chromosomes. That is why the fertilized egg can develop into the embryo, while the neulent eggie cannot. This requires a total number of chromosomes - namely 48.

There is one important difference between the fertilized egg and all other cells in the female body in which it exists. Chromosomes are different! Only 24 of the chromosomes of the fertilized egg were obtained from the cells of a woman, that is, from the mother. The other 24 chromosomes entered the cage from the outside, that is, from "Father's sperm. Now that the fertilized egg is divided and divided again, each new self-reproducing cell has chromosomes, which are identical chromosomes of the initial, fertilized egg. Cells of each person PA Earth therefore contain 24 chromosomes They have received from his mother, and 24 chromosomes received from the Father. In addition, in each pair of chromosoma, one received from the mother and one - from the Father. Now we can go further. Each person has two genes responsible for each specific enzyme , And in each case, one gene is received from the mother and one - from the Father. (There are some exceptions to this rule, and we will see in the future.)

It does not matter that the mother, as it seems, sacrifices much greater than the father, to the development of the child. She sacrificed an egg, which is much larger than the sperm cell of the Father. And further, for nine months, only the blood of the mother feeds the growing embryo. However, with regard to chromosomes, each parent makes an equal contribution. And it is chromosome that determine the specifics of the inheritance of physical characteristics.

Man and woman

The first question that asks any newborn child: "Boy or girl?" You can wonder when the sex of the child is determined. The answer to it may surprise you. The floor of the child is determined at the moment when the sperm cell fertilizes the egg.

Let's see why this is exactly the case. As we have already said, all human cells (except for eggs and sperm cells) contain 24 nara chromosomes. In fact, it is not entirely right. Women cells really contain 24 perfect couples. Men cells, however, contain 23 perfect couples plus 24th steam, which is a bit unusual. The 24th couple in men consists of one perfect chromosome and one stupid little partner. The full chromosome is called x-chromosome. Clash partner is called Y-chromosome. In other words, the 24th pair in men does not have proper "spare parts". What does this mean for the ripening process? When an egg cell is formed, 24 pairs of chromosomes in a woman are divided evenly. Each egg receives 24 perfect chromosomes. Therefore, all eggs are similar in this regard and each contains X-chromosoma.

However, when spermatozoa is formed, 24 pairs of chromosomes are divided in such a way that one cell 1 cum obtained 24 perfect chromosomes, and the other receives 23 perfect chromosomes plus y-chromosome. Therefore, two types of sperm cells are formed - one view with Y-chromosome, the other - without it. Both of these species are formed in equal proportions.

Now, if the egg fertilizes sperm without a Y-chromosome, a fertilized egg is turned out to be 24 perfect chromosomes, and the embryo is automatically developing as female. If the egg cell is fertilized with a sperm with Y-chromosome, a fertilized egg is turned out to be 23 perfect chromosome pairs and a 24th pair with Y-chromosome. Embryo then automatically develops as a male1.

Since both types of sperm cells are formed in equal proportions, there are equal chances for one of the representatives of the first or second type fertilized the egg, and for this reason, the world has as many men as women.

In fact, the distribution of IOLOs is somewhat different from the proportion of 50 to 50. Eggs, fertilized with sperm with Y-XPoosmoy, are somewhat more common than eggs, fertilized with sperm with x-chromosome. The reason for this is still unknown. But there is another factor that requires our consideration. Have a spare part for each chromosome very useful. If something is wrong with the genome on a specific chromosome, then the gene on its parts may be in perfect order, and the body can get out of the difficult situation in this way. In relation to 23 pairs of chromosomes - both sexes are equal. In the 24th chromosome, however, women have an advantage. They have a spare part, and men are not. If women have an imperfect gene on the X-chromosome, the spare part saves them. If men have an imperfect gene in the X-chromosome, they are not very lucky.

It is for this reason that mens embryos may meet more difficulties than women's embryos. Less of them and lives until the moment of birth. In addition, male babies die at an early age more than female babies, and in general, men live less than women. Thus, despite the fact that there are more boys's conceptions than girls, the population as a whole has a slightly higher percentage of women.

In short, men can be higher, heavier and more muscular than women, but as for their chromosomes, then actually they are a weaker floor.

Varieties among genes

As we have already said, the genes control the development of enzymes and thus control the nature of physical characteristics. Unfortunately, our knowledge of cell chemistry is very limited. We can hardly ever know exactly what kind of enzyme or enzymes manage ordinary physical characteristics. In fact, we know that the triosinase enzyme is necessary for the formation of melanin, and it determines the color of the skin, hair and eyes. We are confident, however, that other enzymes are also needed for this process.

For this reason, you can skip the details about the enzyme and only connect the gene with a physical characteristic. For example, we could talk about the lumpy gene, the genine of five fingers or an eye color gene. Sometimes we would be convenient to talk about various genes that affect the same physical characteristics, but in various ways. Eye color is a good example. We could talk about the genury of brown eyes and about the genuine blue eye.

Every place on the chromosome can be occupied only by one gene at the same time. However, there may be several genes capable of occupying this place. When different genes are capable of occupying a certain place on the chromosome, they are said to form alleles, that is, the specific forms of the same gene. Usually, different allel genes affect the same physical characteristics, but in different ways. For example, a gene forms tyroshszu and capable of forming a significant amount of tyrosinase will lead to the fact that the child will be brown eyes. Another similar gene, which is capable of forming only minor queries, and which will thus lead to the fact that the eyes will be blue, it may be in the same place chromosome in some other individuals. The brick of the brown eye and the blue eye gene is two alleles of the same gene.

In addition to genes on x and y-chromosomes in men, all genes exist in pairs, because all chromosomes exist in pairs. For each gene that exists on a certain place of chromosome, there is a second gene, managing the same physical characteristic and in the same position on another pair chromosome. These two genes can be identical, and may not be, but they both affect the same physical characteristics - they may affect it with the same way or in various ways.

Each cell has two genes that are responsible for the color of the eyes by forming tyrosinase. One is on some chromosome, and the other is located on the same place on the twin chromosome. One can be the genome of the brown eyes, and the same may be the other; Or it can be the genome of blue eyes, and the other too. Whenever these two genes are identical, a person, as they say, is homozygous but this characteristic. It is homozygous by the brown eye in the nerve, and in the second case - homozygous on the blue eye gene.

But these two genes are not obliged to be identical. They may be different alleles of a specific gene. A person may have a genome (allele) of brown eyes on one chromosome and a blue eye genome on twin chromosome. Such a person is a heterozygoten on genes determining the color of the eyes.

"Homozygous" and "heterozygous" - difficult words. Sometimes people talk about "clean lines" when these two genes are similar, and about "hybrids" when they are not like. These are much simpler terms, and also more familiar. You can wonder why we do not use them instead of the words "homozygous" and "heterozygous". Unfortunately, too many people think that there is something good in being "clean", and something bad in being "hybrid". To avoid trouble with these prejudices (in fact, as we will see, both of these states have good and bad parties), we will adhere to the words "homozygous" and "heterozygous" in this book.

We will continue our topic with eye color genes. Consider, for example, eggs that are formed by a woman who is homozygous to the karem color of the eyes. Couples chromosomes are divided, and, since a woman has only a brown eye gene, each egg cell will have one brown eye gene. With regard to the eye color gene, all egg cells will be identical.

A man who is homozygous by Karim's eyes, the same makes sperm cells that have one brick eye gene.

Suppose this homozygous man and a homozygous woman are married and have a child. The child will have an eye color, depending on the nature of the genes in the sperm cell and in the egg cell, which combined to form a fertilized egg. But, as we have already explained, all egg cells contained one brown eye gene, and all sperm cells contained one brown eye gene. Therefore, no matter which of the sperm cells fertilizes the egg, this fertilized egg will always have two brown eyes gene. Like both parents, the child will be homozygous by Karim's eyes. All other children from this marriage will be the same.

If the mother and father are both homozygous but blue eyes, then, arguing the same way, all their children will be homozygous in blue eyes.

But - and this is very big but - is it often happening that one parent is homozygous by Karim's eyes, and the other homozygous in blue eyes? Suppose the mother is homozygous by Karim's eyes. Then every egg, which it produces, will contain one brown eye gene. Father - homozygous on blue eyes; So each sperm cell, which it produces, will contain one blue eye gene. Regardless of which spermatozoa is fertilized by an egg, fertilized egg will contain one gene for blue eyes and one brown eye gene. The child will be heterozygous.

If Karie's eyes were not from the mother, but at the father, and the mother would be with blue eyes, the result would be the same. Each egg cell would have one blue eye gene, and each sperm cell is one brown eye gene. Again the fertilized egg would have both the other gene, and the child would be heterozygous.

What happens to the child, which is heterozygous in the color of the eyes? The answer is as follows: he (or she) has a brown eye. The child has one gene, which can form a large amount of tyrosinase, and a gene that can form a small amount of tyrosinase. However, one-only gene can form a relatively more tyrosinease, and it may be enough to paint the eye into the brown color.

As a result, two parents, one of whom is homosigue, but Karim's eyes, and the other homozygoten in blue eyes, have children who are heterozygous and at the same time have brown eyes. The gene of the blue eye is not manifested. He is invisible. It seems that he disappears.

When a person has two different genes for some physical characteristic when identical places of a pair of chromosomes and only one gene is manifested, this gene is called dominant. A gene that does not manifests itself is recessive. In the case of the color of the eye, the brick of the eye is a dominant but attitude to the blue eye gene. The gene of blue eye is recessive in relation to the brown eye.

It is impossible to say, just looking at a person whether he is homozygous or heterozygous by Karim's eyes. In any case, his eyes brown. One way to say something definite is to learn something about his parents. If his mother or his father had blue eyes, he should be heterozygous. Another way to learn something is to see the color of his children's eyes.

We already know that if a man is homozygous but Karim's eyes get married to a woman homozygous on Karim's eyes, they will have children homozygous in Karim's eyes. But what will happen if he marries a heterozygous girl? A homozygous man would form only sperm cells with brown eyes. His heterozygous wife would form the eggs of two types. During meiosis, since its cells and the genome of the brown eye, and the genome of the blue eye, the brown of the eye will travel to one end of the cell, and the blue eye gene is to another. Half of the formed egg cells will contain the brown gene gene, and the second half is a blue-eye gene.

The probability that fertilizes the sperm cell with an egg with a brown eye or an egg with a blue-eye genome is thus 50 to 50. Half of the fertilized eggs will be homozygous by brown eyes, and half will be heterozygous. But all children will have brown eyes.

Now suppose that. And the father and mother are heterozygous. Both would have brown eyes, but both at the same time possess the genome of blue eyes. Father would form two types of sperm cells, one with the genome of blue eyes and the other with the genome of the brown eyes. In the same way, the mother would form two types of egg cells.

Now there are several combinations of sperm cells and egg cells. Suppose that one of the sperm cells with the brown eye genome fertilizes one of the eggs with the brown eye genome. A child in this case will be homozygous by Karim's eyes and, of course, will have brown eyes. Suppose that a sperm with a brown eye genome fertilizes an egg with a blue eye genome or a sperm cell with a blue eye genome fertilizes an egg with a brown of brown eyes. In any case, the child will be heterozygous and still will have brown eyes.

But there is another option. What if a sperm cell with a blue eye genome fertilizes an egg with a blue eye genome? In this case, the child will be homozygous but blue eyes and will have blue eyes.

Thus, two carbohydrate parents may have a blue-eyed child. The gene, which seemed to disappear, manifested itself again. In addition, you can, looking at the child, to say something about parents. Although their eyes are brown, like a homozygous man, you know that they are both dollars to be heterozygous, otherwise it would be no blue eye gene.

When two people are similar to some specific physical characteristics, they say, belong to the same phenotype. All people with brown eyes have the same phenotype against the color of the eyes. The same in relation to people with blue eyes. When two people have the same combination of genes for some specific physical characteristics, they belong to the same genotype. Since all blue-eyed people are homozygous and have two genes for blue eyes in their cells, they all have the same combination of genes and everyone belongs to the same genotype in terms of eye color. Karglase people, however, may be homozygous or heterozygous. For this reason, they belong to two different genotypes regarding eye color. One genotype includes people with two brown eyes; Another includes people with one brown eye genome and with one blue eye genome.

You can define a person's phenotype, just looking at him, but you can define a human genotype, only exploring his parents, or his children, or those and others together. Sometimes, as we will see, you will not be able to determine the human genotype even in this case.

Here is our excellent work on scientific racism, I advise you to get acquainted.

Races are basic groups of human individuals. Their representatives, differing from each other in many small aspects, constitute one unit, concluding certain signs that are not subject to change and inherited from the ancestors as their essence. These certain signs are most manifested in the human body, where you can trace the structure and carry out measurements, as well as in congenital abilities to intellectual and emotional development, as in temperament and character.

Many people believe that the differences between races are manifested only in the color of their skin. In the end, we are taught in school, and in many television programs that promote this idea of \u200b\u200bracial equality. However, we are becoming older and seriously thinking about this issue and considering our life experience (and calling for help historical facts), we can understand that if races would be really equal, the results of their activities in the world would be equivalent. Also from contacts with representatives of other races one can conclude that their course of thoughts and actions is often different from the movement of the thoughts and actions of white people. There are definite differences between us and these differences are a consequence of genetics.
There are only two ways for people to be equal. The first way is to be the same physically. The second is the same spiritually. Consider the first option: Can people be identical physically? Not. There are high and small, thin and complete, elderly and young, white and black, strengths and weak, fast and slow and mass of other signs and intermediate options. It is impossible to see any equality among the many individualities.
As for the differences between races, their many, such as the shape of the head, face features, the degree of physical maturity at birth, the formation of the brain and the scope of the skull, acuity of view and hearing, body size and its proportion, the number of vertebrae, blood type, bone density, duration pregnancy, the number of sweat glands, the degree of radiation of alpha waves in the brain of newborns, fingerprints, the ability to absorb milk, the structure and arrangement of hair, smell, daltonism, genetic diseases (such as sperm cell anemia), electroplating skin resistance, skin pigmentation and eye and exposure to infectious diseases.
Looking at such a number of physical differences, it is stupid to assert that there are no spiritual differences, and even on the contrary, we will dare to assume that they not only exist, but are crucial.
The brain is the most important organ in the human body. It takes only 2% of the human weight, but absorbs 25% of all calories that we consume. The brain never sleeps, it works for a day, supporting the functions of our body. In addition to mental processes, it controls the heart, breathing and digestion, and also affects the organism resistance to diseases.
In his epic book, "Human History", Professor Karlton S. Kun (former President of the American Association of Anthropologists) wrote that the weight of the middle brain of black is 1249 grams in comparison with 1380 grams - the weight of the middle brain of a white man, and that the middle volume of the black brain 1316 cubic meters. See, and a white person - 1481 cubic meters. See he also found that the size and weight of the brain is the greatest in white people, then the inhabitants of the East (Mongoloids) are coming, after them black and in the last place of Australia's aborigines. The differences between races in the sizes of the brain mostly are associated with the structure of the skull. For example, any anatist can look at the skull, a person was determined to determine the white or black race, it was discovered as a result of crime investigations when it turned out that it was possible to determine the racial affiliation of the body found even if it was almost completely decomposed and only a skeleton remained.
Negro Skull is narrower with low forehead. It is not only less but also thicker than the average skull of white. The rigidity and thickness of the blacks of blacks are directly related to their success in boxing, as they can carry more blows on the head rather than their white rivals.
A part of the brain concluded in the cerebral cortex, the most developed and complex part of it. It regulates the most significant types of mental activities, such as mathematical abilities and other forms of abstract thinking. Dr. Kun wrote that there is a big difference between the brain of the Negro and White. The front share of the negro brain is developed less than that of white. Thus, their abilities in the field of thinking, planning, communicating and behavior are more limited than that of white. Professor Kun, also found that this part of the brain in black thinner and has less intrusted on the surface than in white people, and the development of this brain area is stopped at an earlier age than whites, thereby restricting further intellectual development.
Dr. Kun is not alone in his conclusions. The following researchers in listed years, using different experiments showed the difference between blacks and white ranging from 2.6% to 7.9% in favor of white: Todd (1923), Pearl (1934), Simmons (1942) and Connole (1950) . In 1980, Kang-Cheng Ho with his assistants, working at the Institute of Pathologies Case Western determined that the brains of white men are 8.2% more of the brains of black men, while the brains of white women are 8.1% more of the brains of black women ( Women's brain is smaller in terms of brain sizes, but more in percentage ratio to the rest of the body).
The development of black children goes faster than whites. Their motor functions are developing quickly together with mental, but later delayed and the age of 5 years old children are not only catching up with them but also have the advantage of about 15 IQ units. The larger brain of white children by 6 years is another evidence. (There were no tests on IQ on whom, they all showed the results of differences from 15% to 23%, with 15% of the most frequent result).
Todd Study (1923), Screw (1932-1934), Pearl (1934), Simmons (1942), Connoli (1950) and Ho (1980-1981) showed an important difference between races and in brain sizes and in its development, and hundreds Psychometric experiments have also confirmed these 15 units of differences in intellectual development between blacks and white. However, now the hunt for such research, and such initiatives would meet the mad attempts to suppress, they have place. Undoubtedly, the study of biological differences between races seems to be today one of the first to which it is forbidden to speak in the United States.
The findings of Professor Andrei Shui in the monumental 50-year-old work on conducting IQ tests, called "Testing Intellect of Negro", suggest that the assessment of black intelligence on average by 15-20 points is lower than whites. These studies were recently confirmed in the Best Curve Bestseller. The magnitude of the "overlap" (cases of exceptions, when blacks are gaining as many units as white) is only 11%. For equality, this value must be at least 50%. According to Professor, Henry Garrett, the author of the book "Children: White and Black", on each gifted black child accounts for 7-8 gifted white children. He also found that 80% of gifted black children have mixed blood. In addition, researchers: Baker, Eiznek, Jensen, Peterson, Garrett, Pinter, Shui, Tyler and Yerkes agree that blacks are inferior in logical and abstract thinking, numerical account and speculative memory.
It should be noted that people have mixed origins the results are higher than that of purebred blacks, but lower than that of purebred white. This explains why negros with a light tone of the skin are more definite than with very dark skin. A slight way for you to check out this or not to look at the blacks shown on TV, famous leading or artists. Most of them have more white blood than black, and thus more capable of communicating Sakood with white.
The argument was put forward that the IQ test is associated with a culture of a certain society. However, it is easy to refute, the fact that Asians, only those who arrived in America and distant from the specifics of American culture (which, of course, cannot be said about American blacks) in the tests of blacks ahead. Also, American Indians, which, as everyone know, are a group of society, which is not in the best social situation, ahead of blacks. Finally, white poor people with a slight advantage, but even the upper class of blacks, which were completely integrated into the culture of America.
In addition, each test IQ provided by the US Department of Education, all the levels of the armed forces, the staff of the formation of states, counties and cities, has always showed that negros on average for the same 15% weaker than white. If this test would be even associated with the White Culture, it would be almost impossible that each test containing a huge number of different questions, as a result, would like to go to one number with such accuracy.
The following is a schedule from the Society for the research of children's Development of the United States, which shows that most of the black children are in the field of low IQ coefficient. Since the value of IQ from 85 to 115 is considered normal, it can be seen that most black children have IQ below. You can also see that much more than white children than the black has IQ more than 100.

The difference in the power of the mind is not the only mental distinction between white and blacks.
According to the analyzes of J. P. Rashton Negros more excitable, more prone to violence, less sexually designed, more impulsive, are more prone to committing crimes, less altruistic, less located to follow the rules and less united. Criminal statistics, impulsive and violent nature of crimes who make negros, the fact that schools with mixed students require more discipline and the presence of the police than schools only with white students, and the readiness of a certain part of blacks to take part in the learning of mass riots, all this confirmed observations Mr. Rashton.
Thomas Dickson, the author of the book "Birth of a Nation", which became possible the greatest event, probably bestly determined the idea of \u200b\u200bracial equality between white and blacks, when wrote the following:
"Education, sir, this is the development of what is. Eat for centuries ebony owned an African continent - wealth for the limit of poetic fantasies, lands with diamonds under their feet. But they never raised a single diamond of dust while the white man did not show them him. Shine light .. The mighty and obedient animals were crowded on their lands, but they didn't think to damage the wagon or sleigh. Hunters needed, they never did an ax, a spear or an arrow tip to save them after the moment of use. They lived like a flock of bulls Satisfied pinching herbs for an hour. On Earth, Full Stone and Forest, they did not bother to drink boards, carving at least one brick or build a house not from sticks and clay. On the infinite ocean coast, next to the seas and lakes, the number of four thousand years they watched ripples From the wind on their surface, heard a rumble of a surf on the beaches, howling the storm over their heads, peered into the foggy horizon, calling them into worlds lying on the other side, and Never a dream of navigation did not cover them! "

At one time, when there was more expression of freedom: and the means of information were not completely under Jewish control, scientific books and reference books unambiguously interpreted outlanded facts. For example, the "Scientific Popular Collection" Volume 11, the revision of 1931, p.515, states the following in the "section of primitive peoples": "The conclusion is such that the ebony really belongs to the lower race. The possibilities of his brain is weaker, and its device is easier. In this The relationship, alcohol and other drugs that can paralyze self-control are its enemies. " Another example serves as a direct quotation from the section "Negro" in the British Encyclopedia, 11 editions, p.244:
"The skin color, which is also recognized by the velvety skin and a special smell, does not exist due to the presence of some special pigment, but with a large number of coloring substances in a malpiyeval mucous membrane between the inner and outer layers of the skin. Excessive pigmentation is not limited to leather, pigment spots often Internal organs, such as the liver, spleen, etc., are found in internal organs, such as the peculiarities discovered, a more pronounced venous system and a smaller brain volume compared with a white race.
Of course, on the aforementioned characteristics of the NEG, it should be attributed to the lowest stage of evolutionary development rather than white, and being closer to the degree of relationship with the highest anthropoids (monkeys). These features: the length of the hands, the shape of the jaw, a heavy massive skull with large abnormal arcs, a flat nose, depressed at the base, etc.
Mentally ebony is inferior to white. Notes F Manetta, collected after many years of black studies in America, can be taken as a basis for describing this race: "Negro kids were smart, smart and full of liveliness, but by approaching the maturity period, change gradually occurred. Intellect, it seemed to clouded, revitalization was inferior to the place a kind of lethargy, the energy was replaced by laziness. We must certainly understand that the development of blacks and white is happening to various ways. Whereas on the one hand, the cranial box is expanded with the brain and the formation of it in accordance with the form of the brain, then on the other hand there is a premature Closing the cranial seams and the subsequent squeezing of the brain with frontal bones. " This explanation makes sense and maybe one of the reasons ... "

Why was this information removed? Just because it did not correlate with the plans of the government and the media. Please remember that until 1960, racial differences between white and black were world famous and adopted.
Here are biological facts about races. We understand that they can be "politically incorrect", but the facts do not cease to be facts. In the statement of biological facts that the white race has great intellectual possibilities of no more "inciting hatred" than in the statements that human beings have great intellectual possibilities than animals, or alone animals have large intellectual possibilities than other animals. Science has nothing to do with the "inciting hatred", it deals with reality.

The historical importance of the race.

The story in itself can be considered as the most significant evidence of the initial differences between races in the ability of construction and (or) attitudes towards civilizations. Also, as we describe a student at schools on the marks that he gets, we can define the characteristics of human races by what they have achieved in the process of history.
Many people know about the origin of the White race from ancient Rome, Greece and Sumerian civilization, but few know about whites originating from ancient Egypt, Central America, Indian, Chinese and Japanese civilizations. Essentially, having studied these civilizations, we can detect not only that they were no doubt were created by white people, but also that their decline and fall were related to the fact that their creators created interracial and interethnic marriages whose descendants were not capable of Take care of what was created by their ancestors.
Although we do not affect this huge topic as it is done in other sources, we hope that the information shown below (from the book "White America") will allow you to realize that races played a decisive role in history, the role that our people Must realize not to continue our current Dalton path - the path that will have only one result - the destruction of the civilization that our great-grandparents created for us.
The listed records cover a short period in human history. To understand the result of contacts between races, you must remove the history curtain and trace the early events. The ancient migration of the white race people from time immemorials carried along with them the sprouts of intelligence and culture, which subsequently developed successfully.
When races are in constant contact, interracial marriages occur, creating a mixed race. However, language, carved ornaments, sculptures and monuments remain proof that the representatives of the White race once created civilization. People of the White race were always in motion, being away from Europe almost as much as being in it.
Civilization originated along the rivers Nile and Effrat. In antiquity, white people moved to Greece, Rome and Carthage. They moved to India to the East and further to Asia. These racial movements can be easily installed on the remains of skeletons, shapes of skulls, labor tools, gravestones, etc. The sign of an ancient white man is his grave and the stone to which modern crypts and monuments are torn. J. Macmilla Brown called it the Caucasian Trail on Earth. Famous British ethnologist Professor A. Kane wrote: "These monuments of Neolithic, completely from stone, similar to the scleps and tombstones found in Asia, Iran of Syria, Palestine, Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, Ethiopia, in the Crimea, in the British Islands and in China." These structures are not found among the yellow or black races.

Classification of RAS. All people living at present belong to one type; Any marriages between them give prolific descendants. To get a reliable answer to the question of whether any ancient forms of man were, for example, Neanderthal person, representatives of the type Homo Sapiens, is impossible. The view of Homo Sapiens is divided into populations, which are commonly called races. Race is a large population of individuals who have a significant part of the genes common and which can be distinguished from other races for her a gene pool. In ancient times, representatives of the same race often lived together in similar sociocultural conditions. The concept of "race" overlaps with other concepts used to designate smaller in the size of population units, for example, with the concept of "dem." The classification and history of the CAP amounted to one of the main directions of research in the field of classical anthropology conducted in the XIX and especially at the beginning of the 20th centuries. The previously proposed classifications were based on the corresponding visual impressions and on the analysis of the statistical distributions of anthropometric signs. As human genetics develop, data on the frequencies of polymorphic genetic markers began to be used. Classifications of different authors are somewhat different in detail; However, the division of mankind on chicoids, the Mongoloids and Core windows does not cause any doubt. Two smaller groups are often added to these three greater races, namely, kaisanids or capoids (Bushmen, and Gottentotov) and Australoids (Australian Aboriginal and Negritos).

Genetic differences between races. The calculation of the race here is genetic, and therefore it would be desirable to build a racial classification based on the signs well studied at the gene level. There are several groups of such signs.

Many genes function in all human beings, manifesting, perhaps only small quantitative differences in expression level. For example, each person has genes determinizing the structure of the enzymes necessary for the implementation of a plurality of basic metabolic processes. Unusual individuals are carriers of rare mutations that have changed these genes suffer from congenital metabolic errors. Many genes belonging to this group are also in other living beings.

There are signs and, therefore, determining their genes common to all or almost for all representatives of some kind of race; Individuals have no other races. The number of such signs seems to be very small; From a genetic point of view, they are described poorly. One example of signs of this kind-vertical fold of the upper eyelid in the Mongoloids.

The third group of signs should include such that occur only in one of one of the three main races, and representatives of the other two are absent. This group includes a large number of gene markers constituting a set of well-characterized systems of genetic polymorphism (Table 7.5). One of such signs is a degoing factor in the blood test. This blood group was discovered in 1953 among representatives of the four generations of one Venezuelan family; It has been shown that most of the white people there is no factor of Diego. The phenotypic frequencies of this factor obtained in the study of populations of American Indians vary from 0.025 to 0.48. In the populations of white and blacks, the corresponding allele was not discovered at all. On the other hand, from the Mongoloids, such as the Japanese and Chinese, it is found, albeit with a lower average frequency. These data confirm the assumption, extended in classical anthropology, according to which American Indians are part of a large mongoloid race.

There is another class of signs that in some populations are more common than in others. These include signs and alleles existing in all human races, but are encountered in them with different frequencies. To this class belongs, for example, the alleles of most systems of genetic polymorphism and genes, determinizing quantitative signs, such as growth, body proportions and physiological functions. Polymorphic alleles are increasingly used in studies undertaken in order to characterize various populations from a genetic point of view. Due to this, it was possible to objectively objectively classify the populations. The results of the work devoted to the specified problem are summarized in Muangt's monograph. The available data indicate the similarity of the frequencies of some homologous genes in different populations and that the construction of racial classifications - the task is not easy: intragroup differences between representatives of any racial group often exceed the differences between representatives of different large races (Mongoloids, neurodes and Europeanoids).

How was the evolution flowed, led to the emergence of genetic differences between races? The main factor in the evolution of phenotypes and, in particular, the main factor of the omegenesis is the natural selection that causes adaptation to various environmental conditions. In order for the selection that leads to the occurrence of genetic differences (for example, between large races) was effective, a significant reproductive insulation of subpolations is needed. Was there a period in the early history of mankind, when the population of people was divided into three more or less isolated subpopulations?

For most of the last ice age (about 100,000 years ago), the huge surface area of \u200b\u200bthe earth was covered with ice (Fig. 7.11). The Himalayan and Altai Mountains with the Glaciers located on them were divided by the Eurasian continent into three areas, thereby creating conditions for separate evolution of whites in the West, Mongoloids in the East and Negroids in the south. Modern areas of settlement of the three large races do not coincide with those areas in which they were formed; This inconsistency can be explained by migration processes.

Genetic differences due to the action of certain selective mechanisms: skin pigmentation and irradiation. The most notable differences between big races are differences in skin pigmentation. Most modern primates have dark pigmentation, and therefore there is reason to assume that the populations of an ancient person also consisted of dark-skinned individuals, especially if we consider that the first people arose in Africa. Why then is so weakly pigmented by leather of white and mongoloids?

According to one plausible hypothesis, in places of settlement of these two races there was an adaptation of people to the low level of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. UV light is involved in the human conversion in the skin of a person to vitamin D (Fig. 7.12). Vitamin D in turn is necessary for the classification of bones; His lack leads to rickets. One of the most dangerous manifestations of Rakhit is the deformation of the pelvis, which violates normal childbirth, that in the conditions of life of primitive people often led to the death of mother and child. This effect obviously generates a strong selection pressure. In fig. 7.13 shows a map reflecting the degree of pigmentation of the skin of people and the intensity of irradiation of UV light in different parts of the world.

Fig. 7.13. The intensity of ultraviolet light and the degree of pigmentation of the skin of the native population in various parts of the world. These numbers are the average size of the intensity of solar radiation falling on the horizontal plane on the surface of the Earth (average for 24 hours, expressed in MW × cm -2)

From this hypothesis, it follows that the UV radiation is weakly penetrated, than in a strong-popiment, and, therefore, with the same doses of UV irradiation in light skin, more vitamin D is formed than in the dark. Such a conclusion is confirmed by data obtained on pigs. There is a breed of pigs, in which the middle part of the body is strongly pigmented, while the rest of the skin is almost deprived of the pigment. The formation of vitamin D after UV irradiation in vitro in the incigumented skin turned out to be higher than in the pigmented areas of the same animal (Fig. 7.14). The dependence between the geographic location of the population and the pigmentation of its members is not confirmed in two cases - for Eskimos and African Pygmen. Both populations, especially the latter, consist of dark-skinned individuals, although in the Arctic areas, and on Earth under the canopy of the wet rainforest UV radiation are relatively weak. Eskimos, apparently, receive the desired amount of vitamin D from fish and seal of the liver, and pygmeni - from the larvae of insects that make up part of their diet.

Fig. 7.14. The formation of vitamin D (mg / cm 2 of the skin: ordinate) in pigs after irradiation with UV light (S 300; distance 50 cm). On the abscissa axis, the irradiation time is postponed. Brackets marked standard deviations of medium values

The discovery of the fact that Duffy blood type (DuffY) is related to the functioning of receptors for Plasmodium vivax, is very important. In this case, the clarification of the biological role of the erythrocyte polymorphism system occurred after it is detected. Almost all Africans are Duffy-negative. It can be assumed, therefore, due to its selective advantage, this allel spread throughout the population.

Recently, an alternative hypothesis was developed. According to it, the preexisting high frequencies of Duffy-negative allele prevented the malaria caused by P. Vivax, became an endemic disease of West Africa. The thesis is justified that the malaria caused by P. Vivax appeared at the ancestral primacy and could not spread in Africa due to the presence of Duffy-negative allele.

Suction and impaired lactose suction. Lactose is a significant carbohydrate of milk (Fig. 7.15). In order for the absorption of lactose in the small intestine, it should be hydrolyzed by a special lactase enzyme, which is localized in the brush cut of the intestinal epithelial cells. Lactose is contained in the milk of almost all mammals; The activity of lactase is high in newborns and breast-age children belonging to any population and race, and decreases when the chest is taken away. Subsequently, lactase activity is maintained at a low level, making usually less than 10% of the activity of this enzyme in the newborn.

A few years ago there was an idea that people "normally" the high activity of lactase remains in adulthood. Persons with high lactase activity can carry large amounts of lactose; After the lactose load in their blood, the concentration of glucose and galactose is significantly increased - the sugars, of which the lactose molecule consists.

Lactose absorption failure. In people with low lactase activity after the use of milk, the increase in glucose in the blood is either not at all, or it is slightly. In such people after receiving 25-50 grams of lactose (1 liter of cow milk contains 45-50 g lactose), clinical symptoms of intolerances appear. They include diarrhea, gravity abdominal pain, meteorism. Small amounts of milk and dairy products in which most of the lactose is hydrolyzed (yogurt or yogurt) are transferred without any unpleasant consequences. A comparative analysis of lactose tolerability in black and white Americans showed that blacks do not tolerate the milk much more often than white. Currently, many populations are studied in this regard (Fig. 7.16). The most reliable results can be obtained by measuring lactase activity in biopsy intestinal samples. It is quite clear that such a method is not suitable for population or discents. For them, standard tests were developed based on measuring H 2 content in exhaled air after oral reception of a certain dose of lactose.

In most populations of the Mongoloids, Indians and Eskimos, the preservation of lactase activity in older children and adults are very rare or not found at all. As much as the low frequency of lactose tolerance is registered with most Arabs and Jews, as well as in the populations of tropical Africa, the Australian Aborigines and Melanesians. The significant predominance of persons retaining lactase activity in an adult state (\u003e 75%) is characteristic only for residents of Northern and Central Europe And for their descendants on other continents. Note, however, that the high frequency of lactose tolerance was noted in a number of groups of African nomads-cattle breeders. The population of Spain, Italy and Greece found intermediate frequencies (30-70%). The peoples of South Asia show high variability on this basis; It is possible that his appearance among the population of this region is due to migration. In the population of American blacks, the frequency of this feature is somewhat higher than the Africans.

What condition should be considered normal? In most people populations, after taking away children from breasts, they have a decrease in lactase activity; This feature is common to two of the three large races (blacks and mongoloids). The preservation of the activity of lactase in adulthood is characteristic only for white, and even they have this sign not in all populations. Consequently, for people, as well as for other mammals, the loss of this specific activity is quite a "normal" phenomenon.

However, scientists who conducted these studies, the norm considered the portability of lactose, since this attribute was distributed in European populations. Such a conclusion had certain economic consequences. It is known that to improve the protein nutrition of children from African and Asian countries in these regions, a large amount of milk powder was supplied; The initiators of this action proceeded from the non-devoid of the hypothesis logic, according to which the fact that good for European children should also be good for children of developing countries. In the light of our current knowledge about population distributions of lactose portability, these programs seem to be revised. Of course, it is unreasonable to prohibit the consumption of lactose-containing food in populations consisting of non-lactose persons, since otherwise they will suffer from protein deficiency.

Enzyme induction or genetic variability? There are two possible biochemical explanations of lactose absorption disorders.

1. The lactose absorption impairment is possible, is a consequence of a low level of lactose consumption by most individuals after the cessation of breastfeeding. We know that the activity of many enzymes can increase when adding a substrate (substrate-specific induction). This hypothesis was initially widely recognized, but its subsequent animal test and people gave negative results.

2. Family research testified genetic conditional This feature, or rather, about the autosomal-recessive type of inheritance of the absorption of lactose absorption.

Autosomal-recessive inheritance of lactose absorption disorders was demonstrated in a large-scale study of the relevant types of marriages in Finland. This result was confirmed when studying many other populations. Lactose's "suction" are either homozygotes or heterozygotes on the lactose absorption gene, and persons with impaired suction of this gene do not have.

Multiple allelism? The decrease in lactase activity to a certain level (recessive sign) in different populations occurs at different ages. In Thailand and the Bantu, all children over 4 years old do not discover blood glucose after lactose load. The share of children of American blacks, unable to absorb lactose, from total The peers are growing with an increase in their age up to 14 years, and in Finland, the complete expression of the respective genes is delayed and occurs in the interval between 15 and 20. Such phenotypic variability can be due to multiple alleles or differences in the amount and properties of milk used in childhood, and requires further study.

Genetic mechanism. We have already said that residual lactase activity is present in adults unable to absorb lactose. It is still unknown, is there any differences in the structure of lactase in persons with impaired suction and "suction". Switching with high on low activity somewhat resembles the transition from the production of the γ-chain of hemoglobin to the production of the β-chain, accompanied by the transition from HBF formation to the formation of HBA; The preservation of lactase activity in adults can be compared with the preservation of fetal hemoglobin (sect. 4.3).

Natural selection. The preservation of people in most populations of people capable of sucking lactose, the presence of this feature in other mammals indicates that the gene responsible for the preservation of lactase activity, from time to time arose during the evolution of a person as a result of mutation and that high frequencies of this gene in some populations are due to its Selective advantage. What is the nature of this advantage? Two main hypotheses are put forward on this.

1. Cultural and historical hypothesis.

2. The hypothesis according to which lactose contributes to the better absorption of calcium.

According to the first hypothesis, Domestication of dairy cattle, which happened in the Neolithic era (about 9,000 years ago), led to the selective advantage of individuals who could satisfy most of their food needs in protein, using milk. Indeed, there are a number of populations consisting of milk consumers; For example, the cattle breeding tribes mentioned above. This hypothesis is quite applied to them. However, the statement on its universal meaning causes certain doubts. For example, the absence of parallelism is drawn between the custom of drinking milk and the predominance of persons capable of sucking lactose. Large populations of Africa and Asia consist of milk consumers, but are characterized by very low frequencies of lactose-absorbing persons. Nevertheless, in any population there are always several individuals capable of absorbing lactose; Consequently, this gene had before and could experience a conducive selection action. In Europe, the highest frequency of the lactose suction gene is found in the south of Scandinavia (0.7-0.75), where the dairy cattle breeding has become relatively recently developed. Before people learned to artificially cool the milk or get it in a dry form, persons who are unable to absorb lactose, easily discovered that the sour milk is digested with them much better than fresh. All of the above convinces us in the fact that an alternative assumption about the specific advantage of milk nutrition in natural conditions Northern Europe deserves attention.

It is known that vitamin D deficiency in the northern regions is due to a reduced level of UV radiation. Currently, it is assumed that lactose can replace vitamin D, improving calcium absorption. For this hypothesis, the key problem is the question of the mechanism of possible anti-radiation high level Lactose suction. Is there a phenomenon of a specific increase in the absorption of calcium conjugate with hydrolysis of lactose? Animal experiments cannot give an unequivocal answer, as adult animals are unable to suck lactose. Recent studies in people showed that the absorption of lactose really enhances calcium absorption.

Regardless of whether the calcium hypothesis is confirmed or will be refuted, it can be stated that it has a number of features characteristic of heuristic hypotheses. It is concrete, contains an assumption about the mechanism of action and gives the idea of \u200b\u200bexperiments, with which it can be checked.

Vitamin D and genetic serum markers (GC system). The genetic polymorphism of the β 2 fraction of human serum hair is detected by immunological methods and is known since 1959: many alleles of this system are currently described, but most populations are polymorphic only in two of them, namely, GC 1 and GC 2; Australian Aboriginal has a third allele - GC AB0, and the Chippev Indians have the fourth - GC Chip. The first data on the frequencies of these genes showed that in very arid areas, the GC 2 allele is rare. This result became clear when the GC protein function was installed, which, as it turned out, tolerate vitamin D.

Later, data indicating the relationship between the intensity of solar illumination and the GC allele polymorphism; In most populations living for a long time in areas with low intensity of sunlight, high frequencies GC 2 are detected.

Such a geographical distribution testifies to the selective advantage of GC 2. It is possible, it is due to the fact that this allel provides more efficient transportation of vitamin D (which is especially important when the reserve of this vitamin is limited). This in turn can lead to a decrease in rakhita frequency either in individuals, heterozygous by the GC 2 allele, or in homozygous individuals, or both from those and others. The exact selection mechanism acting in this case has yet to find out.

Possible selective mechanisms in the case of other racial characteristics. In addition to the examples given in the preceding paragraphs and used in the chapter dedicated to population genetics, very little is known for the selective advantage or harmfulness of racial signs.

It can be assumed that a small growth and a dense physique of the Eskimos, as well as the relatively thick layer of subcutaneous fat, characteristic of them give certain advantages in a cold climate, and the wide chest of South American Indians living high in Andes is related to respiratory adaptation to life in the conditions of high mountains.

Representatives of different racial groups in the United States and other developed countries detect differences in exposure to multifactorial diseases. For example, American negros more often suffer from hypertension than white. It was also shown that some groups of Indians, such as those living in Trinidad, have a higher share of diabetes patients than other population groups. There is no doubt that the reason for such differences will become understandable when researchers are interested in population genetics medical education, good knowledge of specific diseases.

To explain the existing frequency of diabetes and atherosclerosis, several hypotheses are proposed, for example, the concept of "economical genotype" and the rapid mobilization of lipids. It is assumed that in the conditions of starvation, the diabetic genotype provides more efficient mobilization of carbohydrates, and the predisposition genes to atherosclerosis contribute to faster mobilization of fats.

It is believed that such selective mechanisms operating in the past, when for many generations the starvation was the usual state of a person, explain the high frequency of diabetes and atherosclerosis at present. Unfortunately, none of these hypotheses is consistent with the modern pathophysiological concepts of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.

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The style of communication in differential psychology can also be allocated to communicate people belonging to different races. The classification, starting with Lynneevskaya, was distinguished between the "races", if it was possible to determine the differences between the members of the groups from each other. Reliable setting of differences requires that some races differ from the other specific frequency of alleles of some genes affecting the features available to observation. This criterion can be adopted in relation to most of the subgroups of humanity as a biological species. The most widely used classification of races subdivides them on the Europeanoid, mongoloid and non-erased race. Other, more subtle differentiation of humanity as species include nine Garna races and seven major Ras Levtontina.

All people, regardless of racial, have common story Evolution. Represents B. high degree It is unlikely that the selection factor varies significantly from the group to the group. All people have come across the same common problems throughout the almost all of their history of evolution. About 6% of genetic discrepancies in people as species are explained by race, 8% - differences between populations within racial groups and over 85% - differences between individuals of the same populations within racial groups.

In Western world, division into races is often based on skin color. However, another Charles Darwin reasonably noted that "the color is usually assessed by naturalist-systematics as an insignificant sign." Differences such as morphology, physiol are much more important. and behavior.

Physical differences may be the result natural selection, mainly due to adaptive evolution. For example, the majority of groups inhabiting high arctic latitudes are distinguished by a chorey torso and short limbs. This type of body leads to an increase in its mass attitude to common Square Its surfaces and, therefore, to a decrease in thermal energy loss while maintaining the body temperature. High, thin, long-legged representatives of the Sudan tribes that support the same body temperature as the Eskimos, but inhabitants in extremely hot and wet climatic conditions, developed a physique that involves the maximum ratio of the total surface area of \u200b\u200bthe body to its mass. This type of body best meets the goals of heat dissipation, which would otherwise lead to an increase in body temperature above the norm.

Other physical differences between groups may arise as a result of non-adaptive, neutral from the point of view of the evolution of changes in different groups. For most of its history, people lived in small generic populations (Dimami), in which the random variability of the gene pool, provided by the founders of this Dima, became fixed signs of their offspring. Mutations arising within Dima, if they were adaptive, spread first within the limits of this Dima, then in neighboring Ditsa, but probably did not reach spatially remote groups.

If we consider racial differences in terms of physiology (metabolism), a good example of how can be explained genetic influence On the differences between races, there will be a sickle cell anemia (SKA). SKA is characteristic of the black population of West Africa. Since the ancestors of black Americans lived in West Africa, the Black Population of America is also susceptible to this disease. People suffering from them live less. Why is the likelihood of SK disease so high only for certain groups? Allyson discovered that hemozygous hemoglobin S (one gene from this pair causes the cremp of erythrocytes, and the other is not) people turn out to be quite resistant to malaria. People with two "normal" genes (i.e. hemoglobin a) genes are exposed to a significantly higher risk of malaria, people with two sickle-shaper genes suffer from anemia, and with heterozygous genes are exposed to much less risk of the other diseases. This "balanced polymorphism" was formed independently - presumably as a result of the selection of random mutations - in a number of different racial / ethnic groups in the infected malaria regions. A variety of types of anemia arising due to sickle cells are not genetically identical in various racial / ethnic groups, but they all have the same basis - the advantage of heterozygility.

Since we still do not have all the facts, such information is as it were for the warning signal: despite the fact that racial differences may exist, the reasons for these differences require a comprehensive and thorough study. Estimated genetic differences may be in their origin predominantly - or exclusively due to media factors.

It has long been known that black Americans get lower indicators over intelligence tests (IQ) than white Americans. At the same time, it was repeatedly reported that Asian faces show higher results on the tests of intelligence than whites, on which these tests were mostly standardized. The question of at least about the differences between black and white is not that there are differences in their test indicators, and in whether there may be the causes of these differences.

In modern humanity, three main races are distinguished: the Europeanid, Mongol-Indian and Negroid. These are large groups of people who are distinguished by some physical signs, such as facial features, skin color, eyes and hair, hair shape.

For each race, the unity of origin and formation on a certain territory is characteristic.

The European-like race includes the indigenous population of Europe, South Asia and North Africa. Currents are characterized by a narrow face, strongly protruding nose, soft hair. The skin color in northern European views is light, the southern - mostly dark.

The mongoloid race includes the indigenous population of Central and East Asia, Indonesia, Siberia. Mongoloids are distinguished by a large flat-widespread face, eye cut, hard straight hair, dark skin color.

In the Nero-shaped race, two branches are distinguished - African and Australian. For a neotroid race, dark skin color, curly hair, dark eyes, wide and flat nose.

Racial features are hereditary, but at present they do not have significant importance for human vital activity. In addition, in the distant past, racial signs were useful for their owners: dark skin of blacks and curly hair, creating around the head of the air layer, protected the body from the action of sunlight, the shape of the face skeleton of the Mongoloids with a more extensive nasal cavity may be useful for Heating of cold air before it enters the lungs. According to mental abilities, i.e., the abilities for knowledge, creative and in general work, all races are the same. Differences in the level of culture are not connected with the biological characteristics of people of different races, but with the social conditions of the development of society.

The reaction essence of racism. Initially, some scientists confused the level of social development with biological characteristics and tried among modern peoples to find transitional forms, binding a person with animals. These errors used racists who began to talk about the allegedly existing inferiority of some races and peoples and the superiority of others to justify merciless operation and direct destruction of many peoples as a result of colonization, the seizure of foreign land and unleashing wars. When European and American capitalism tried to conquer the African and Asian peoples, White Race was declared the highest. Later, when the Hitler's Hordes stepped in Europe, destroying the captured population in death camps, the highest was declared the so-called aryan RaceTo which the fascists ranged German peoples. Racism is a reactionary ideology and policies aimed at justifying human exploitation by a person.

The failure of racism is proved by the present science on races - the emission. Distoping studies racial features, origin, formation and history of human races. The data obtained by the emission indicate that the differences between races are insufficient in order to consider races by various biological species of people. Mixing races - mohethisation - happened constantly, as a result of which interim types, smoothing differences between races occurred at the boundaries of representatives of various races.

Will races disappear? One of the important conditions for the formation of races isolation. In Asia, Africa and Europe, it to some extent exists today. Meanwhile, the recently populated regions, such as North and South America, It can be compared with the boiler in which all three racial groups are interposed. Although public opinion in many countries does not support interracial marriages, there is almost no doubt that the mixture of races inevitably, and sooner or later will lead to the formation of a hybrid population of people.