Institutionalism Unlike neoclassical theory. Old and new institutionalism

Institutionalism - the direction of social studies, in particular those who consider the organization of society as a complex of various associations of citizens - institutions (Family, Party, Trade Union, etc.)

Institutional approach

The concept of institutionalism includes two aspects: "Institutions" - norms, customs of behavior in society, and "institutes" - consolidation of norms and customs in the form of laws, organizations, institutions.

The meaning of the institutional approach is to include in the analysis of institutions, take into account various factors.

In the framework of the institutional approach, the Company is considered as a certain institutional structure that accumulates the social experience of society and the state, the system of established laws, relationships and traditions, ties and the image of thinking.

From the point of view of an institutional approach, an understanding of how the institutionant system is functioning, requires consideration of very complex relationships between society and institutions. The relationship between society and institutions is determined by a set of institutional restrictions that determine the method of functioning of the social system. Institutions are the key to understanding the relationship between society and the economy, policies, the right and the influence of these relationships on development. Ultimately, institutions act as fundamental factors for the functioning of different systems in the long run.

For an institutional approach, history is of paramount importance. It matters not just because it is possible to learn lessons from the past, but also because the present and the future are related to the past continuity of the Company's institutions. The choice that is being done today or tomorrow is formed by the past. And the past can only be understood as the process of institutional development.

The institutional approach relies the question of the general and special path of development of a country, since the existence of an individual institutional matrix has an existence of each country, namely, the interlacing of interrelated formal rules and informal restrictions leading to the economy of each country on their path other than the development path of another country.

The community of borrowed rules of the game in countries with various institutional systems leads to substantially different consequences. Although the rules are the same, but the mechanisms and practice of control over compliance with these rules, the norms of behavior and the subjective models of players others. Consequently, there are also a real system of incentives, and subjective assessment of players of the effects of decisions made.

In the framework of an institutional approach, for example, the market is considered as a certain institutional structure, covering laws, rules of the game and, most importantly, a certain type of behavior, relationships and connections. Everything else is an ineffective imitation of market activities, this is the inertia of development, element that cannot be regulated by society and the state.

Institutionalists consider the social behavior of the individual as a result mainly sustainable stereotypes of activities, customs and habits. As the main object of analysis, institutional theory takes not an individual, as neoclassics do, and institutes. Institutionalism considers individual as a product of a constantly evolving social and cultural environment. This helps to explain the creative and innovative human activity. In this institutionalists also diverge with neoclassics, which consider a person as a kind of slave sustainable preferences. As part of the old institutionalism, the institute is determined through the custom category. So, the weblin interprets the institutes as "established customs of thinking, common for this community of people." W. Hamilton, developing this idea, determines the institute as "in some respects of the prevailing and unchanged method of thinking or actions that rests on the customs of a group of people or the whole people." Thus, institutions are considered primarily as socio-psychological phenomena, mixed on habits, customs, instincts.

By definition of D. Norta, institutions are the "Rules of the game" in society, or, expressing more formally created by a person's restrictive framework that organize relations between people. The most important properties of institutions from the point of view of this approach include the following * Institutes represent a framework, within which people interact with each other. * Institutions are determined and limited to a set of alternatives that have each person. * Institutions set the structure of the motives of human interaction.

Methodological foundations

The differences between the three schools of institutionalism are manifested not only in the definition of the institute, but also in the methodological grounds, i.e. How the school answers questions: where institutions are taken from how they develop and how they institutionalize human activity.

"Old" institutionalism was based on the following logical constructions. When customs become common to the group or social cultureThey grow into routine or tradition. As a rule, customs are introduced in other individuals with repeated imitation of social traditions or routine. This creates a self-consuming contour: private customs apply to the whole of society, which leads to the emergence and strengthening of institutions; Institutions feed and strengthen private customs and transmit them to new elements of this group. As the weblin showed, the processes "selection" turn out to be involved: "Today's situation forms tomorrow's institutions through selection and coercion, by influencing the usual representation of people or consolidate the point of view or mental perception introduced from the past." [160, p.41].

Customs as institutions in the understanding of old institutionalism are stable and inert, they tend to maintain their characteristics and thus "transmit them further", from the present in the future and from the institute to the institute. Knowledge and skills are partially rooted in customs. In this sense, the customs possess the properties similar to the "information loyalty" of the living gene.

At the same time, institutions can change, they have nothing like the constancy of the gene. It is emphasized only by the relative yariance and self-assertion nature of institutions. Institutions attach the form and social coherence of human activity, including through continuous production and reproduction of stereotypes of thinking and activities.

Separating institutions from the Custom "New Institutional Economics" formed new methodological foundations. The arrow of the explanation is directed from individuals to institutions, individuals are accepted for this, they are given ontological priority. At the same time, a certain initial "natural state", free from institutions, is assumed. "A typical new institutional program is an attempt to explain the existence of institutions such as a firm or state with the help of a model of rational individual behavior, treating unforeseen consequences in terms of interactions between people." .

The newest institutional approach has rejected the methodological parcels of the "new institutional economy" on the grounds that, in their opinion, the source point of explanation cannot be free from institutions. The question of the emergence of institutions from a certain imaginary primary world, where there are individuals, but there are no institutions, in itself erroneous. The reformulated program focuses on the evolution of institutions partly from other institutions, and not from the hypothetical free of the institutions of the "natural state".

According to D. North, "Institutes are created by people. People develop and change institutions. At the same time, restrictions imposed by the institutions on the human choice are influenced by the individual itself." . The idea that "institutions and form individuals, and form them," J. Khodzhson is intensified. "Institutions do not just limit individuals and affect them. Along with our natural environment and our biological heredity, institutions form us as social beings. They are our socio-economic flesh and blood." .

The "newest institutional approach" does not think their studies without inclusion in the institutional analysis of the historical past. "Economic history relies on an unstructured multiple parts and fragments of theory and statistics, it is not able to generate or analyzing the framework of a specific historical plot. The inclusion of institutions in history allows you to make a much better presentation than without institutions, because it (history) It appears before us as a continuum and a sequence of institutional changes, i.e. in evolutionary form. " [94, p.167].

Such an approach follows from the key analysis point, which is as follows. .

Institutions form a basic structure, relying on which people throughout history have created order. Institutions are associated with the present and future, so the story becomes the process of mainly incremental (continuous) institutional development, and the functioning of economic systems for long historical periods becomes clear only as part of the unfolding institutional process. Dependence on the trajectory of preceding development means that history matters. It is impossible to understand the alternatives that we face today and determine their content, without tracing the path of incremental development of institutions, for which the typical flow is usually very complete, the content of old institutions in new ones.

Institutionalism and neoclassic relationships

All three directions of institutionalism were different to "mainstream" - the main channel of the Western economy - neoclassical theory.

There was a strong confrontation between the old institutionalism and non-slasses of the beginning of the century. In essence, old institutionalism and arose as "the reaction to the non-historical and mechanistic interpretation of economic activity by the Orthodox doctrine." [92, p. 10 ]. This confrontation caused tough assessments of the results of representatives of the "old institutionalism" by orthodox economists. The institutional economy was called "intellectual fiction", "a pathetic desire for dissident in relation to the orthodox economic science", "a strange mixture of excellent methodological abstracts and wretched analyzes of AD HOC.", Produced by "piles of descriptive material waiting for theoretical reflection or burning" and t .. .

"New institutionalism" is in greater harmony with neoclassical theory, they are more likely to expand its capabilities due to the treatment of economic institutions. The focus of new institutionalists attract the concepts of property rights and transaction costs. This position is due to the proximity of the methodological grounds. Following the traditions of the orthodox theory, the "new" institutionalists see the primary element of economic analysis in an abstract and individualistic subject with almost unchanged preferences, and organizations, right, etc. are derived from direct interaction between individuals. As a result of the rapprochement of neoclassics with new institutionalism, a large area of \u200b\u200bresearch of economic science "Institutional aspects of market economy" has appeared, which is currently taught by students in the economics. .

The "newest" institutional approach recognizes that at present the relationship between institutional-evolutionary theory and neoclassics is much more complicated than in the days of old institutionalism, the aggressiveness of which was caused by the desire to approve new principles and approaches in the scientific community. Institutional-evolutionary theory is significantly wider than neoclassical, and on the object of analysis and on the methodology. This allows you to consider neoclassic as a theory that gives a simplified vision of economic processes, which is far from equivalent to distorted vision. The ratio of institutionalism and neoclassics even more definitely expressed J. Khodjon: "The neoclassical economy is the particular case of an institutional economy." .

Unlike the "new" institutionalists, "the newest" do not simply emphasize the importance of institutions, but consider them as full objects of economic analysis. Already the fact that institutions demonstrate constancy for long periods of time and can live longer than individuals, is one of the reasons for the choice of institutions, and not individuals, as a fundamental unit. According to the newest institutionalists, institutions fill out a significant conceptual space. Institutions are both "subjective" ideas in the heads of agents and "objective" structures with which these agents face. The concept of the institute binds the microeconomic world of individual action, custom and choice with the macroeconomic sphere seemingly removed and faceless structures. The choice of the Institute as a unit of analysis does not necessarily imply the subordination of the role of the individual to the domination of institutions. Individuals and institutions mutually constitute each other. [160, p. 64].

The results of institutionalism

For almost a hundred years, institutionalism not only managed to "make up" with neoclassical theory, but also formed a deep intellectual baggage.

Old institutionalism is usually criticized for "he could not work out a single methodology and a clear system of concepts." . At the same time, it is representatives of this direction that two key topics were put forward, without which modern economic science could not do [160, p.34]:

* condition of people's actions with customs and norms; * Institutions as possible bases or units of analysis.

New institutionalism has enriched economic theory with the concepts of property rights and transaction costs. In a traditional sense, property is considered as the absolute right to resources. The theory of property rights argues that it is wrong to identify property with material objects, it represents "bundles" of rights to the ratio of actions with these objects: to use them, assign their income from them, change their shape and location. The main thesis of this theory is that the structure of property rights is affected by the distribution and use of resources. [119, p. 29 - 30].

The new institutional theory also introduces the transaction costs as a key concept, which consolidate from the cost of finding and acquiring information, negotiations and decision-making, verification and ensuring their implementation. With the measurement of these costs there are considerable problems, but the use of this category allows you to refer to the analysis of contractual relations. In the institutional economic theory, the person acts as a contractor. It is the contract relations that become effective means of sharing "bunches" of property rights. .

The newest institutional approach is trying to overcome non-historical arguments of new institutionalism and sets itself the task of developing a theoretical scheme for analyzing historically determined obstacles to economic growth. " [119, p. 31]. The methodological program of the newest institutional approach, which was able to synthesize everything necessary from the old and new institutionalism, shows the directions of the future development of institutional-evolutionary theory.

The horizon of this work is seen by the resolution "of the main riddle of human history - how to explain the broad divergence (discrepancy) of the trajectories of historical changes. How happened that societies began to develop on divergent historical trajectories? Why are societies so different from each other? After all, we are all in the end, The primitive communities of hunters and collectors occurred. The discrepancy of historical trajectories, especially puts us in a dead end, when we are trying to consider the global historical process from the standard positions of the neoclassical doctrine. " [94, p.21 -22].

The main provisions of the institutional approach

As part of the institutional approach, the main categories, which, being collected together, reflect the being this approach and which were actively used to develop the institutional theory of economic development of Russia. These include the following provisions. [94, p. 17.21, 112, 143, 144; 16, p.41]

Effective institutional system is such an institutional system that provides economic growth. Institutional equilibrium (stability) is this situation that means that in these relative costs and winnings from changing the game that the participants in contractual relations behave, they are unprofitable to change the game. This situation does not mean that all players are satisfied with existing rules and contracts. The stability of institutions is not at all contrary to the fact that they undergo changes. All institutions develop. Institutional changes determine how societies develop in time, and thus are the key to understanding historical changes. The dependence on the trajectory of the preceding development arises due to the action of the mechanisms of self-investigation of institutions, which (mechanisms) be fixed once the selected direction of development. Intermittent equilibrium is the presentation of socio-economic development in the form of a sequence of periods of institutional continuity, intermitted by periods of crises and coolest changes. Ideas and ideologies are important, and institutions in a decisive degree determine how long this value is. Ideas and ideologies form subjective mental designs, with the help of which individuals interpret the world around and make a choice.

The methodological and categorical instruments of the newest institutional approach, in our opinion, is most adequate for the analysis of the institutional structure of Russian society, identifying the historical logic of its institutional development and the nature of modern institutional changes.

Features of the institutional approach

The institutional approach has one very important feature, which is characterized by this work. The essence of this property is that in the framework of the institutional approach at the same time (i.e., one author) combines theoretical work, historical research and analysis of situations on specific objects. This is due to those tasks that institutionalism poses: "The result can be the development of the theory, which will allow connecting the micro level of human activity with the macro level of the motives formed by the institutional system." [94, p. 144].

Triune characteristic ("Theory - History - a specific situation") All well-known institutionalists were distinguished its research. Weblen studied prestigious consumption, U. Litchel was studying the applied issues of economic dynamics, incl. economic cycle and monetary circulation, in the context of the activities of public and private organizations. [92, p. 12] Williamson explored the many years of experience in the relationship of the large Japanese Corporation "Toyet" with subcontractors. D. North applied an institutional approach to the US housing market.

In the institutionalist environment, the conviction has developed that "scientists often resort to analyzing specific situations because they are considered representative, but because they are most pronounced and especially dramatically to illustrate the problems under consideration." [148, p. 204].

Development of new institutional economic theory.

Even a simple listing of the main approaches in the framework of the new institutional theory shows how its development rapidly went and what widespread it received in recent decades. Now it is the legitimate part of the main building of modern economic science. The emergence of a new institutional theory is associated with the emergence of such concepts as transaction costs, ownership, contractual relations in economic science. The awareness of the importance for the work of the economic system of the concept of transaction costs is associated with the article by Ronald Cone "Nature of the Company" (1937). Traditional neoclassical theory viewed the market as a perfect mechanism where there is no need to take into account the cost of servicing transactions. However, R. Kouz showed that with each transaction between economic entities arise the costs associated with its conclusion - transaction costs.

Today, in the composition of transaction costs, it is customary to allocate:

1) costs of searching for information - the costs of time and resources for obtaining and processing information about prices, goods and services, about suppliers and consumers available;

2) negotiation costs;

3) costs of measuring the quantity and quality of goods and services entering into exchange;
4) costs according to the specification and protection of property rights;
5) Costs of opportunistic behavior: in the asymmetry of information, an incentive occurs, and the ability to work not with complete returns.

The theory of property rights was developed by A. Alchian and G. Demetsiem, they laid the beginning of a systematic analysis of the economic value of property relations. Under the property rights system in the new institutional theory means all many rules governing access to rare resources. Such norms can be established and defended not only by the state, but also by other social mechanisms - customs, moral attitudes, religious commandments. Property rights can be represented as "Rules of Game", ordering relations between individual agents. Neo-propitismalism operates with the concept of "beam of property rights": each such "bundle" can be clever, so that one part of the law on making decisions on a particular resource begins to belong to one person, the other - to another, etc.

The main elements of the beam of property rights are usually referred to:

1) the right to exclude from access to the resource of other agents;

2) the right to use the resource;

3) the right to receive income from him;
4) the right to transfer all previous emphasis.

A prerequisite for the effective work of the market is precise definition, or "specification", property rights. The principal thesis of a new institutional theory is that the specification of property rights is not refredient, therefore in real economy it cannot be determined with an exhaustive fullness and is protected with absolute reliability. One key term of the new institutional theory is a contract. Any deal involves the exchange of "bunches of ownership" and this happens through a contract that records the crime and conditions on which they are transmitted. Neo-propitismalists are studying the diverse forms of contracts (explicit and implicit, short-term and long-term, etc.), the mechanism for ensuring the reliability of the fulfillment of the commitments made (court, arbitration, self-priced contracts).

In the 1960s, American scientist James Bucanen (born in 1919) put forward the theory of public selection (TOV) in the classical work: "Calculation of consent", "Borders of Freedom", "Constitution of Economic Policy". Tov studies the political mechanism for the formation of macroeconomic solutions or policies as a kind of economic activity. The main areas of research Tov are: a constitutional economy, a model of political competition, a public selection in the context of representative democracy, the theory of bureaucracy, the theory of political rent, the theory of Fiasco State. Buchanan in the theory of public selection comes from the fact that people and in the political sphere are followed by personal interest, and, moreover, politics are similar to the market. Voters, politicians and officials are in the role of major political market entities. In a democratic system, voters will give their votes to those politicians whose pre-election programs most correspond to their interests. Therefore, politicians, to achieve their goals (entry into power structures, career), should be focused on voters. Thus, politicians take certain programs for which voters expressed themselves, specify and control the progress of these programs. Within the framework of the theory of public selection, all activities of state economic policy are understood as endogenous for the economic and political system, since their definition is influenced by the requests of the political market entities, which are simultaneously economic entities.

The economic behavior of the bureaucracy was considered by W. Niskane. He believes that the results of bureaucrats are often "intangible" character (rulings, reports, etc.) and therefore it is difficult to monitor their activities. At the same time, it is assumed that the welfare of officials depends on the size of the Agency's budget: it opens up opportunities to increase their remuneration, enhance official status, reputation, etc. As a result, it turns out that officials are able to significantly inlay the budgets of the agencies compared to the level really necessary to perform the functions of the agency. These arguments play a significant role in the substantiation of the thesis on the comparative inefficiency of the provision of public goods by government agencies, which shares the overwhelming majority of supporters of the theory of public selection. The model of the political business cycle is proposed by D. Gibbs. Gibbs believes that the nature of economic policy depends on which party is in power. "Left" parties, traditionally focused on supporting employees, conduct policies aimed at an increase in employment (even due to inflation). The "right-wing" parties - to support large businesses, more attention is paid to preventing inflation (even due to the growth of unemployment). Thus, according to the simplest model, cyclic oscillations in the economy are generated by changing the "right" and "left" governments, and the consequences of policies by the relevant governments remain throughout the term of their powers. Thus, the emergence of a new institutional theory is associated with the emergence of such concepts as transaction costs, ownership, contractual relations in economic science. As part of the transaction costs, it is customary to allocate: information search costs; negotiation costs; costs of measuring the number and quality of goods and services entering into exchange; Costs according to the specification and protection of property rights; Costs of opportunistic behavior.

Neoclassic.

Neoclassicism - arising in late XIX. in. The course of economic thought, which can be considered the beginning of modern economic science. It produced the marginistan revolution in the classical economy of the XIX century, which was represented by such names as A. Smith, D. Ricardo, J. Mill, K. Marx, and others. Neoclassiciki developed the toolkit of the limit analysis of the economy, primarily the conceptious usefulness, almost at the same time open W. Jevons, K. Mengerom and L. Valras, as well as limiting performance, which was also used by some representatives of the classical economy (eg, I. Tunen).

Among the largest representatives of neoclassicism, except those named, J. Clark, F. Ejieworth, I. Fisher, A. Marshall, V. Pareto, K. Vixel, they emphasized the importance of the deficit of goods to determine their price, laid the overall idea of \u200b\u200bthe essence of the optimal distribution (specified ) Resources. At the same time, they proceeded from the limit analysis theorems, determining the conditions for the optimal election, the optimal structure of production, the optimal intensity of the use of the Factors, the optimal point of time (interest rate). All these concepts are summed up in the main criterion: subjective and objective norms of substitution between any two benefits (products and resources) must be equal to all households and all production units, respectively. In addition to these basic conditions, the conditions of the second order are investigated - the law of decreasing return, as well as the ranking system of individual utilities, etc.

Apparently, the main achievement of this school is a model of competitive equilibrium developed by Valras, nevertheless, in general, for N. t. E. A microeconomic approach to economic phenomena is characteristic, unlike Keynesianship, in whose theory is dominated by a macroeconomic approach. Neoclassics laid the database for later economic concepts, such as the theory of welfare economy, economic growth theory (for example, Hardrod - Domar model). These concepts are sometimes called a modern neoclassical school. A number of recent economists have also tried to combine some of the provisions of the classical theory, neoclassicism and Keynesianity - this flow received the name of neoclassical synthesis. Ideas N. t. E. The most fully was set out in the "principles of economic theory" A. Marshall, who "... should be recognized as one of the most durable and viable books in the history of economic science: this is the only XIX treatise. According to economic theory, which is still sold by hundreds every year and who still can be read with a modern reader. " We add that in Russia, the Marshall three-volume member was published in 1993. The neoclassical direction of political economy arose in the 70s of the 19th century. His representatives: K. Menger, F. Vizer, E. Bem-Baberk (Austrian School); W. Jevons, L. Valras (Mathematical School); A. Marshall, A. Pig (Cambridge School); J. B. Clark (American School).

The neoclassical direction is based on the principle of state non-interference in the economy. The market mechanism is able to regulate the economy itself, establish the balance between proposal and demand between production and consumption. Neoclassics advocate for freedom of private entrepreneurship.

Neoclassical theory is a theory according to which unforeseen changes in price levels are able to generate macroeconomic instability in the short period; In the long term - the economy retains stability in the production of a national product that provides full resource employment due to price flexibility and wages. The neoclassical direction explores the behavior of the so-called economic person (consumer, entrepreneur, employee), which seeks to maximize income and minimize costs. Economists of the neoclassical direction have developed the theory of marginal utility and the theory of limit productivity, the theory of general economic equilibrium, according to which the mechanism of free competition and market pricing provides a fair distribution of income and the full use of economic resources; Economic theory of well-being, the principles of which are based on the current theory of public finance.

Neoclassical synthesis is a combination of a single system of Keynesian macrostoria and neoclassical microporia. The essence of the concept of neoclassical synthesis is combined by state and market regulation of the economy. The combination of state-owned and private entrepreneurship gives a mixed economy.

In the mid-50s, monetarism arose - economic theory, attributing the money supply that is in circulation, the role of the defining factor in the process of forming an economic situation and establishing the causal relationship between changes in the number of money and the value of the gross final product. M. Fridmen tried to prove that the market economy was inherent in special sustainability, making unnecessary state intervention. Thus, neoclassics developed the toolkit of the limit analysis of the economy, primarily the concept of utmost utility, and they proceeded from the limit analysis theorems, identifying the conditions for the optimal choice of the benefit of the optimal production structure, the optimal intensity of the use of factors, the optimal point of time. The neoclassical direction is based on the principle of state non-interference in the economy. Market mechanism is able to regulate the economy itself.

Comparative analysis of neoclassics and institutionalism.

The key discrepancy between the new institutional economic theory, the founder of which is O. Williamson, and the neo-secret economic theory, the ideas of which were fully reflected in the numerous works of D. S. Norta, lies in the field of the methodology used. New institutional economic theory is based on two basic methodological postulates, divergent with the main provisions of the methodology of traditional neoclassical theory. This is a significant weakening of the prerequisite for the rationality of economic entities, involving the impossibility of imprisonment of complete (taking into account all possible circumstances) of contracts. Accordingly, the postulate on the optimizing behavior of the market agents is replaced by the postulate of finding a satisfactory result, and the category of "relation contracts" turns out in focus of attention, that is, fixing contracts general rules The interaction of the parties to the transaction to adapt the structure of their mutual relations to changing conditions. Inevitable in these conditions, the discrepancy between the terms of contractual agreements at the stage of their conclusion and implementation determines the need to study the contracting as a holistic process occurring in time.

Thus, the new institutional economic theory differs from the neoclassical not only by the introduction of transaction costs, but also the modification of some fundamental methodological principles while maintaining others (in particular, is not questioned by the neoclassical postulate about the strict orientation of individuals to follow their own interests). On the contrary, neo-intestitial economic theory relies on the same methodological principles as the traditional neoclassical economic theory - that is, on the principles of rational optimizing behavior of economic entities in a given system of restrictions.

The peculiarity of a conceptual approach peculiar to the neosoinstitiate economic theory is to integrate the category of transaction costs into the structure of neoclassical analysis, as well as in expanding the category of restrictions by taking into account specific features of the structure of property rights. Since the institutional economy arose as an alternative to neoclassic, to highlight the main principal differences Between them. A new institutional and neo-electological theory is alternative approaches to the study of issues related to the existence of transaction costs and specialized contractual structures that ensure their minimization. At the same time, the focus of both directions is the problem of an economic organization. Although institutionalism, as a particular flow, was still at the beginning of the twentieth century, for a long time he was on the periphery of economic thought. An explanation of the movement of economic benefits of only institutional factors did not find a large number of supporters. This was partly due to the uncertainty of the very concept of the "Institute", under which some researchers understood the mainly customs, others - trade unions, the third - the state, the fourth corporations - etc., etc.

Partly with the fact that institutionalists tried to use the methods of other social sciences in the economy: rights, sociology, political science, etc. As a result, they lost the opportunity to speak single language Economic science, how was the language of graphs and formulas. Of course, other objective reasons for which this course turned out to be not sought-after contemporaries.

The situation, but radically changed in the 1960-1970s. To understand why it is enough to spend at least a quick comparison of the "old" and "new" institutionalism. Between the "old" institutionalists (like T. Belamina, J. Kommons, J. K. Galbreyt) and neo-propitismalists (such as R. Kouza, D. Norta or J. Buchenane) There are at least three indigenous differences.

First, the "old" institutionalists (for example, J. Commons in the "Legal Foundations of Capitalism") went to the economy from law and politics, trying to study the problems of modern economic theory of the methods of other sciences on society; Neo-secretizerists go directly opposite - they study politicalological and legal problems with the methods of neoclassical economic theory, and above all, using the apparatus of modern microeconomics and the theory of games.

Secondly, traditional institutionalism was based mainly on the inductive method, it sought to go from particular cases to generalizations, as a result of which the general institutional theory did not work out; Neo-regisitutionalism is deductive - from general principles Neoclassical economic theory to explain the specific phenomena of public life.

Thus, the discrepancy between the new institutional economic theory and neoclassical economic theory lies in the field of the methodology used. New institutional economic theory is based on two basic methodological postulates, divergent with the main provisions of the methodology of traditional neoclassical theory.

Criterion	Neoclassica	Institutionalism
Right period	XVII\u003e XIX\u003e XX century	20-30 - years of the XX century
Place of development	Western Europe
	Industrial	Post-industrial
Analysis methodology	Methodological individualism - an explanation of institutions through the need of individuals of the existence of a framework,	Holism is an explanation of the behavior and interests of individuals through the characteristics of institutions that predetermine their interactions.
Character of reasoning	Deduction (from total to private)	Induction (from private to general)
Rationality of man		Limited
Information and knowledge	Full, knowledge limited	Partial, knowledge specialized
	Maximization of profit utility	Cultural Education, Harmonization
	Defined independently	Defined by culture, team
Interaction	Commodity	Interpersonal
Dependence on the impact of social factors	Full independence	Is not strictly independent
The behavior of participants	No cunning (deception) and no coercion	Opportunist behavior

Table is a comparative analysis of neoclassics and institutionalism.

There are several reasons why the neoclassical theory (early 60s) ceased to meet the requirements for it by economists who tried to comprehend the actual events in modern economic practice:

Neoclassical theory is based on unrealistic prerequisites and restrictions, and, therefore, it uses models inadequate economic practice. COUPE called such a state of affairs in the neoclassic "of the" economy of the class board ".

Economic science expands the circle of phenomena (for example, such as ideology, law, norms, family), which can be successfully analyzed from the point of view of economic science. This process was called "Economic Imperialism". The leading representative of this direction is nobel laureate Harry Becker. But for the first time, the need to create a common science studying the human action wrote more Ludwig von Misa, who proposed the term "Praxology" for this.

In the framework of neoclassics, there are practically no theories that are satisfactory explaining the dynamic changes in the economy, the importance of learning, which became relevant on the background historical events XX century. (In general, within the framework of economic science until the 80s of the 20th century, this problem was considered almost exclusively within the framework of Marxist political economy).

Now let's stop on the main prerequisites of the neoclassical theory that make up its paradigm (hard core), as well as the "protective belt", following the methodology of science nominated by Imre Lacutos:

Hard core:

stable preferences that are endogenous;

rational choice (maximizing behavior);

equilibrium in the market and general balance in all markets.

Protective belt:

Property rights remain unchanged and clearly defined;

Information is absolutely available and complete;

Individuals satisfy their needs with sharing, which occurs without costs, taking into account the initial distribution.

Lacutos Research Program, leaving a hard core in immunity, should be aimed at clarifying, developing already existing or nominating new auxiliary hypotheses that form a protective belt around this kernel.

If a hard core is modified, the theory is replaced by a new theory with its own research program.

Consider how the prerequisites of neo-propitismalism and classical old institutionalism affect research program Neoclassics.

5. Old institutionalism and its representatives: T. Weblin, W. Mitchell, J.commons.

"Old" institutionalism, as an economic flow, arose at the turn of 19-20 centuries. He was closely related to historical direction In economic theory, with the so-called historical and new historical school (sheet F., Schmoler G., Britano L., Buukher K.). For institutionalism, from the very beginning of its development was characterized by defending the idea social control and society intervention, mainly states in economic processes. It was a heritage of the historic school, whose representatives not only denied the existence of sustainable deterministic relations, and laws in the economy, but also were supporters of the idea that the welfare of society can be achieved on the basis of the rigid state regulation of the nationalist economy.

The most prominent representatives of the "old institutionalism" are: Torstain Welen, John Commons, Wesley Mitchell, John Galbreit. Despite the significant range of problems covered in the works of these economists, they failed to form their own unified research program. As the coexist noted, the work of American institutionalists did not lead to anything, since they did not have the theory for the organization of the mass of the descriptive material.

Old institutionalism criticized the provisions constituting the "hard core of neoclassics". In particular, the weblin rejected the concept of rationality and the corresponding maximization principle as a fundamental behavior of economic agents. Analysis object is institutions, rather than human interactions in space with restrictions that are asked by institutions.

Also, the works of old institutionalists are distinguished by significant interdisciplination, being, in fact, continuations of sociological, legal, statistical studies in their annealing to economic problems.

The predecessors of neo-propitismalism are economists of the Austrian school, in particular Karl Menger and Friedrich von Hayek, who introduced an evolutionary method into economic science, and also set the question of the synthesis of many sciences of the society.

6. New Institutional Economics and Neoclassical Economic Theory: General and Special.

Modern neo-propitismalism originates from the pioneering works of Ronald Cone "Nature of the Company", "The Problem of Social Costs".

The attack of neo-secretationalists primarily underwent the provisions of neoclassics, which constitute its protective core.

Economic exchange occurs only when each of his participant, carrying out an act of exchanges, receives any incremental value to the value of the existing set of goods. This proves Karl Menger in the work of "the foundation of political economy", based on the assumption about the existence of two exchange participants. The first has the benefit of the value of W, and the second is good in with the same value w. As a result of the value between them, the value of the benefits at the disposal of the first will be W + X, and the second - W + y. From this we can conclude that in the process of exchanging the value of the good for each participant increased by a certain amount. This example shows that the exchange associated with the exchange is not a waste of time and resources, and the same productive activity as the production of material benefits.

Exploring the exchange, it is impossible not to stop at the limit. The exchange will occur until the value of the benefits at the disposal of each exchange will be estimated, less than the value of those benefits that can be obtained as a result of exchange. This thesis is true for all exchange counterparties. Using the symbolism of the above example, the exchange occurs if W (A)< W + х для первого и W (B) < W + у для второго участников обмена, или если х > 0 and И\u003e 0.

So far, we have considered the exchange as a process occurring without costs. But in the real economy, any sharing act is associated with certain costs. Such expeditions of exchange received the name of the transaction. They are usually interpreted as "costs of collecting and processing information, the costs of negotiation and decision making, the cost of control and legal protection of the contract."

The concept of transaction costs contradicts the thesis of the neoclassical theory that the costs of functioning of the market mechanism are zero. Such an assumption made it possible to not take into account the economic analysis of the impact of various institutions. Consequently, if the transaction costs are positive, it is necessary to take into account the impact of economic and social institutions on the functioning of the economic system.

Secondly, recognizing the existence of transaction costs, there is a need to revise the thesis on the availability of information. Recognition of the thesis on the incompleteness and not excellence information, opens up new prospects for economic analysis, for example, in the study of contracts.

Thirdly, underwent a review of the thesis on the neutrality of the distribution and specification of property rights. Research in this direction served as a starting point for the development of such areas of institutionalism as the theory of property rights and economics of organizations. As part of these areas, the subjects of economic activity "Economic organizations have ceased to be considered as" black boxes ".

As part of the "modern" institutionalism, attempts to modify or even changes in the elements of the hard kernel of neoclassics are also carried out. First of all, it is a background of non-slasses on rational choice. In the institutional economy, classical rationality is modified with the adoption of assumptions about limited rationality and opportunistic behavior.

Despite the differences, almost all representatives of neo-secretationalism consider institutions through their influence on decisions that make economic agents. At the same time, the following fundamental tools belonging to the human model are used: methodological individualism, utility maximization, limited rationality and opportunistic behavior.

Some representatives of modern institutionalism go even further and question the prerequisite for the maximizing the usefulness of the behavior of an economic person, offering it to replace the principle of satisfactoryity. In accordance with the classification of Tran Eggerson, representatives of this area form their own direction in institutionalism - a new institutional economy, whose representatives can be considered by O. Williamson and Symeon. Thus, the differences between neo-propitismalism and a new institutional economy can be carried out depending on which prerequisites are replaced or modifications in their framework - "hard kernel" or "protective belt".

The main representatives of neo-propitismalism are: R. Kouz, O. Williamson, D. North, A. Alchian, Simon G., L. Teveno, Menar K., Bucanene J., Olson M., R. Posner, Demsen, with . Peyovich, T. Eggerssson, etc.

Institutionalism and Neoclassical Economic Theory

The concept of the Institute. The role of institutions in the functioning of the economy

Question Principles and methods for the formation of preschool children.

Research methods help to explore and summarize the data of pedagogical practice. These methods include conversations, surveillance, observations, experiments, analysis of special literature, pre-school works.
Training methods are methods of targeted interconnected activities of the teacher and preschoolers, in which children absorb the skills, knowledge and skills, their worldview is formed, the abilities are developing.

Methods of education are the most common ways to achieve educational tasks. They can be divided into simpler subsystems of pedagogical impact and education methods.

Study of institutions Let's start with the word of the institute.

to Institute (English) - install, establish.

The concept of the institute was borrowed by economists from social Sciences, in particular from sociology.

Institutecalled a set of roles and status, designed to meet a certain need.

Definitions of institutions can also be found in political philosophy and social psychology. For example, the category of the Institute is one of the central in John Rolza "Theory of Justice".

Under institutesi will understand the public rules system that determine the position and position with the relevant rights and obligations, power and integrity, and the like. These rules specify certain forms of action as permitted, while others as prohibited, and on them are punished by some actions and protect others when violence occurs. As examples, or more general social practices, we can bring games, rituals, courts and parliaments, markets and ownership systems.

In economic theory, for the first time, the concept of the institute was included in the analysis of the television web.

Institutions- It is essentially a common image of thought in terms of individual relations between society and the personality and individual functions performed; and the system of life of society, which is composed of the aggregate existing in a certain time Or at any time of the development of any company, maybe from the psychological party to be characterized in general terms as the prevailing spiritual position or a common idea of \u200b\u200bthe lifestyle in society.

Also under the institutes Welen understood:

familiar ways to respond to incentives;
structure of the production or economic mechanism;
currently adopted system of public life.

Another founder of institutionalism John Commons determines the Institute as follows:

Institute- Collective action to control, exemption and expansion of individual action.

In another classic institutionalism - Wesley Mitchell can find the following definition:

Institutions- dominant and in high degree Standardized, public habits.

Currently, within the framework of modern institutionalism, the most common is the interpretation of the Institutes of Douglas Norta:

Institutions- These are the rules, mechanisms that ensure their implementation, and the norm of behavior that structure repetitive interactions between people.

The economic actions of the individual proceed not in an isolated space, but in a certain society. And therefore has great importanceHow society will react to them. Thus, transactions acceptable and income-generating in one place are not necessarily appropriate even under similar conditions in the other. An example of this may be the limitations imposed on the economic behavior of a person with various religious cults.

To avoid matching the set external factorsaffecting the success and on the possibility of making one or another solution itself, in the framework of economic and social order, schemes or algorithms of behavior, which is the most effective under these conditions. These schemes and algorithms or matrices of the behavior of individuals have nothing like institutions.

There are several reasons why the neoclassical theory (early 60s) ceased to meet the requirements for it by economists who tried to comprehend the actual events in modern economic practice:

Neoclassical theory is based on unrealistic prerequisites and restrictions, and, therefore, it uses models inadequate economic practice. COUPE called such a state of affairs in the neoclassic "of the" economy of the class board ".
Economic science expands the circle of phenomena (for example, such as ideology, law, norms, family), which can be successfully analyzed from the point of view of economic science. This process was called "Economic Imperialism". The leading representative of this area is the Nobel laureate of Harry Becker. But for the first time, the need to create a common science studying the human action wrote more Ludwig von Misa, who proposed the term "Praxology" for this.
As part of the Neoclassics, there are practically no theories that satisfactorily explain the dynamic changes in the economy, the importance of studying, which became relevant against the background of the historical events of the 20th century. (In general, within the framework of economic science until the 80s of the 20th century, this problem was considered almost exclusively within the framework of Marxist political economy).

Hard kernel :

stable preferences that are endogenous;
rational choice (maximizing behavior);
equilibrium in the market and general balance in all markets.

Protective belt:

Property rights remain unchanged and clearly defined;
Information is absolutely available and complete;
Individuals satisfy their needs with sharing, which occurs without costs, taking into account the initial distribution.

If a hard core is modified, the theory is replaced by a new theory with its own research program.

Consider how the prerequisites of neo-propitismalism and classical old institutionalism affect the research program of neoclassics.

"Old" institutionalism, as an economic flow, arose at the turn of 19-20 centuries. It was closely connected with the historical direction in the economic theory, with the so-called historical and new historical school (sheet F., Schmoler G., Britano L., Buukher K.). For institutionalism, from the very beginning of its development, defended the idea of \u200b\u200bsocial control and intervention of society, mainly states, economic processes. It was a heritage of the historic school, whose representatives not only denied the existence of sustainable deterministic relations, and laws in the economy, but also were supporters of the idea that the welfare of society can be achieved on the basis of the rigid state regulation of the nationalist economy.

Modern neo-propitismalism originates from the pioneering works of Ronald Cone "Nature of the Company", "The Problem of Social Costs".

The attack of neo-secretationalists primarily underwent the provisions of neoclassics, which constitute its protective core.

First, criticized the background that the exchange occurs without costs. Criticizing this situation can be found in the first works of Couza. Although it should be noted that the possibility of the existence of exchange costs and their impact on the decisions of exchanging actors wrote another Menger in its "grounds of political economy".
Economic exchange occurs only when each of his participant, carrying out an act of exchanges, receives any incremental value to the value of the existing set of goods. This proves Karl Menger in the work of "the foundation of political economy", based on the assumption about the existence of two exchange participants. The first has the benefit of the value of W, and the second is good in with the same value w. As a result of the value between them, the value of the benefits at the disposal of the first will be W + X, and the second - W + y. From this we can conclude that in the process of exchanging the value of the good for each participant increased by a certain amount. This example shows that the exchange associated with the exchange is not a waste of time and resources, and the same productive activity as the production of material benefits.
Exploring the exchange, it is impossible not to stop at the limit. The exchange will occur until the value of the benefits at the disposal of each exchange will be estimated, less than the value of those benefits that can be obtained as a result of exchange. This thesis is true for all exchange counterparties. Using the symbolism of the above example, the exchange occurs if W (A)< W + х для первого и W (B) < W + у для второго участников обмена, или если х > 0 and u > 0.
So far, we have considered the exchange as a process occurring without costs. But in the real economy, any sharing act is associated with certain costs. Such expeditions of exchange got a name transaction.They are usually interpreted as "costs of collecting and processing information, the costs of negotiation and decision making, the cost of control and legal protection of the contract."
The concept of transaction costs contradicts the thesis of the neoclassical theory that the costs of functioning of the market mechanism are zero. Such an assumption made it possible to not take into account the economic analysis of the impact of various institutions. Consequently, if the transaction costs are positive, it is necessary to take into account the impact of economic and social institutions on the functioning of the economic system.
Secondly, recognizing the existence of transaction costs, there is a need to revise the thesis on the availability of information. Recognition of the thesis on the incompleteness and not excellence information, opens up new prospects for economic analysis, for example, in the study of contracts.
Thirdly, underwent a review of the thesis on the neutrality of the distribution and specification of property rights. Research in this direction served as a starting point for the development of such areas of institutionalism as the theory of property rights and economics of organizations. As part of these areas, the subjects of economic activity "Economic organizations have ceased to be considered as" black boxes ".

There are several reasons why the neoclassical theory (early 60s) ceased to meet the requirements for it by economists who tried to comprehend the actual events in modern economic practice:

Economic science expands the circle of phenomena (for example, such as ideology, law, norms, family), which can be successfully analyzed from the point of view of economic science. This process was called "Economic Imperialism". The leading representative of this area is the Nobel laureate of Harry Becker. But for the first time, the need to create a common science studying the human action wrote more Ludwig von Misa, who proposed the term "Pressology" for this .

As part of the Neoclassics, there are practically no theories that satisfactorily explain the dynamic changes in the economy, the importance of studying, which became relevant against the background of the historical events of the 20th century. (In general, within the framework of economic science until the 80s of the XX century, this problem was considered almost exclusively within the framework of Marxist political economy. ).

Now let's stop on the main prerequisites for neoclassical theory, which make up its paradigm (hard core), as well as the "protective belt", following the methodology of science put forward by Imre Lakatosoma :

Hard kernel :

stable preferences that are endogenous;

rational choice (maximizing behavior);

equilibrium in the market and general balance in all markets.

Protective belt:

Property rights remain unchanged and clearly defined;

Information is absolutely available and complete;

Individuals satisfy their needs with sharing, which occurs without costs, taking into account the initial distribution.

If a hard core is modified, the theory is replaced by a new theory with its own research program.

Consider how the prerequisites of neo-propitismalism and classical old institutionalism affect the research program of neoclassics.

3. Old and new institutionalism

Modern neo-propitismalism originates from the pioneering works of Ronald Cone "Nature of the Company", "The Problem of Social Costs".

The attack of neo-secretationalists primarily underwent the provisions of neoclassics, which constitute its protective core.

First, criticized the background that the exchange occurs without costs. Criticizing this situation can be found in the first works of Couza. Although it should be noted that the possibility of the existence of exchange costs and their impact on the decisions of exchanging actors wrote another Menger in its "grounds of political economy". Economic exchange occurs only when each of his participant, carrying out an act of exchanges, receives any incremental value to the value of the existing set of goods. This proves Karl Menger in the work of "the foundation of political economy", based on the assumption about the existence of two exchange participants. The first has the benefit of the value of W, and the second is good in with the same value w. As a result of the value between them, the value of the benefits at the disposal of the first will be W + X, and the second - W + y. From this we can conclude that in the process of exchanging the value of the good for each participant increased by a certain amount. This example shows that the exchange associated with the exchange is not a waste of time and resources, and the same productive activity as the production of material benefits. Exploring the exchange, it is impossible not to stop at the limit. The exchange will occur until the value of the benefits at the disposal of each exchange will be estimated, less than the value of those benefits that can be obtained as a result of exchange. This thesis is true for all exchange counterparties. Using the symbolism of the above example, the exchange occurs if W (A)< W + х для первого и W (B) < W + у для второго участников обмена, или если х > 0 and u > 0. So far, we considered the exchange as a process occurring without costs. But in the real economy, any sharing act is associated with certain costs. Such expeditions of exchange got a name transaction.They are usually interpreted as "costs of collecting and processing information, costs of negotiations and decision making, costs of control and legal protection of the contract implementation" . The concept of transaction costs contradicts the thesis of the neoclassical theory that the costs of functioning of the market mechanism are zero. Such an assumption made it possible to not take into account the economic analysis of the impact of various institutions. Consequently, if the transaction costs are positive, it is necessary to take into account the impact of economic and social institutions on the functioning of the economic system.