On the success of training students in higher education educational institutions many factors influence: financial situation; health status; age; marital status; the level of pre-university training; possession of the skills of self-organization, planning and control of their activities (primarily educational); motives for choosing a university; the adequacy of the initial ideas about the specifics of university education; form of education (full-time, evening, part-time, distance learning, etc.); availability of tuition fees and its value; organization of the educational process at the university; material base of the university; the level of qualifications of teachers and service personnel; the prestige of the university and, finally, the individual psychological characteristics of students. This article is devoted to the analysis of these features, methods of assessing and taking them into account in order to increase the effectiveness of the educational process.

Why do some students work a lot and willingly on mastering knowledge and professional skills, and the difficulties that arise only add to them energy and desire to achieve their goal, while others do everything as if from under a stick, and the appearance of any significant obstacles dramatically reduces them activity up to destruction learning activities? Such differences can be observed under the same external conditions of educational activity (socio-economic situation, organization and methodological support of the educational process, teacher qualifications, etc.). When explaining this phenomenon, psychologists and teachers most often appeal to such individual psychological characteristics of students as intelligence level(the ability to assimilate knowledge, abilities, skills and successfully apply them to solve problems); creativity(the ability to develop new knowledge yourself); educational motivation, providing strong positive experiences in achieving educational goals; a high self-evaluation, leading to the formation of a high level of aspirations, etc. But neither each of these qualities individually, nor even their combination is sufficient to guarantee the formation of a student's mindset for daily, hard and hard work to master knowledge and professional skills in conditions enough frequent or long-term failures that are inevitable in any complex activity. Each teacher can give examples from his teaching practice, when a very capable and creative student with high (and sometimes inadequately high) self-esteem and initially strong learning motivation, “broke down”, faced with serious difficulties in one or another type of learning activity and stopped moving forward, while his much less gifted comrade successfully overcame these difficulties and, over time, achieved much more.

To come to the answer to this question, it is necessary at least briefly to consider the main types of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of people, as well as the available data on their influence on the educational activity of students.

Constitution (physique). According to E. Kretschmer, the following types are distinguished: leptosomatic(asthenic) - average or above average growth, underdeveloped muscles, narrow chest, elongated limbs, elongated neck and head; picnic- average or below average growth, large internal organs, shortened limbs, not very muscular development, short neck, overweight; athletic- average or above average growth, well-developed muscles, large chest volume, broad shoulders, narrow hips, proportional head; dysplastic- sharp imbalances in the structure of the body (for example, too long limbs, wide hips and narrow shoulders in men, etc.). There are few data on the influence of the constitution on learning activity, but some authors indicate that more reactive picnics consume energy faster and therefore it is better to ask them among the first and give more difficult problems at the beginning, and easier ones later. They are more likely to need to revisit what they have covered because of their poorer long-term memory. Asthenics can be given tasks of increasing complexity, in exams they can ask among the latter. They need less repetition of the material.

Neurodynamics - features of the course of processes of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system according to I.P. Pavlov. The following properties stand out: strength-weakness of arousal processes(the ability to adequately respond to strong stimuli without going into transcendental inhibition; people with a weak nervous system are not capable of this, but they have a higher sensitivity); strength-weakness of inhibition processes(the ability to inhibit the response to a very strong stimulus); balance of processes of excitation and inhibition in terms of strength; mobility-inertia- the speed of transition from inhibition processes to excitation processes and vice versa. According to I.P. Pavlov, the features of human neurodynamics act as a physiological basis temperament. The latter means a set of formal-dynamic (power and speed) characteristics of human behavior that do not depend on the content of the activity and are manifested in three areas - motor skills, emotionality and general activity. A person with a weak nervous system - melancholic; with a strong and unbalanced - choleric(excitation processes dominate over inhibition processes); with a strong, balanced, agile - sanguine; with a strong, balanced, inert - phlegmatic person.

The properties of the nervous system and temperament are of a genotypic nature and practically do not change during life, but a person with any temperament is capable of any social achievement, including in educational activity, but this is achieved in different ways. For people with different types of temperament, some conditions are more favorable for successful learning, while others are unfavorable. Organizational forms of education in a modern school and university are more favorable for people with a strong and mobile nervous system, therefore, among them there are more of those who study well than among those who have a weak and inert nervous system. The latter need to develop compensatory techniques in order to adapt to the demands of the activity that are not relevant to their temperament. The following difficulties are distinguished for students with a weak nervous system [Ibid, p. 102-105]: long, hard work; responsible, requiring neuropsychic or emotional stress, independent, control or examination work, especially when there is a lack of time; work in conditions when the teacher asks an unexpected question and requires an oral answer to it (the situation of a written answer is much more favorable); work after an unsuccessful answer, assessed negatively by the teacher; work in a situation requiring constant distraction (to the teacher's remarks, to the questions of other students); work in a situation requiring the distribution of attention or its switching from one type of work to another; work in a noisy, hectic environment; work with a hot-tempered, unrestrained teacher, etc. To mitigate negative effects of this kind, it is desirable that the teacher uses the following techniques: does not put the student in a situation of a sharp time limit, but gives enough time to prepare; more often allowed the student to provide written answers; split complex and large-volume material into separate information blocks and introduced them gradually, as the previous ones were mastered; did not force to answer according to the newly learned material; more often encouraged and encouraged the student to relieve stress and increase his self-confidence; in a mild form gave negative assessments in case of an incorrect answer; gave time to check and correct the completed task; if possible, did not distract the student's attention to other work until the completion of the work already started.

A student with an inert nervous system has difficulties in the following situations: when tasks are offered at the same time, varied in content and solutions; when the material is presented by the teacher at a sufficiently high pace; when the time to complete the work is strictly limited; when you need frequent distraction from the main task for additional types of work, for answers to the teacher or comrades; when the productivity of assimilation of the material is estimated at initial stages comprehending or memorizing it; when it is necessary to give a quick answer to an unexpected question, etc. Accordingly, the teacher can be recommended when working with inert students: not to demand immediate and active involvement in the work, but to give the opportunity to gradually become involved in the task; do not require the simultaneous execution of several dissimilar tasks; not demand a quick (on the go) change of unsuccessful formulations, remember that improvisation is difficult for inert ones; do not conduct a survey at the beginning of the class or on new material. The main thing is to help such students find the most suitable methods and techniques for organizing educational activities, develop their own individual style according to E.A. Klimov. Students with a weak nervous system can successfully act in situations requiring monotonous work, if necessary, act according to a pattern or pattern; they are able to organize well independent work, carefully plan it and control the results, achieving maximum accuracy; they do not jump from one to another, do not run impatiently forward, doing everything in a strict sequence. Through careful preparatory work they are able to independently penetrate into deeper connections and relationships in the educational material, often going beyond the curriculum; willingly use graphs, diagrams, tables and visual aids. The "inert" ones also have their advantages - they are able to work for a long time and with deep immersion, without being distracted by interference; are distinguished by a high degree of independence in performing tasks; have a more developed long-term memory. Like the "weak", they are capable of long monotonous work, careful planning and control of their activities. With the non-systematic nature of work, characteristic of more than 60 percent of modern Russian students, persons with a strong nervous system have advantages, since they are capable of mobilization and emergency preparation for passing the exam, and the "weak" cannot cope with the overload and are often expelled.

An important factor influencing the success rates of students with a weak or inert nervous system is the teacher's behavior on the oral exam. You can often meet such situations when the teacher, after listening to the student's answer to the questions and problems contained in the ticket, gives an additional problem with words like: “Solve the problem, while I ask another student and after 5 (10, etc.) minutes I will approach you. If you decide, you will get "excellent", and if not, then "good". A “weak” or “inert” student in a time-limited situation may never start solving a problem in the short time allotted to him. He will be disturbed by the consciousness that half a minute has passed and only 4.5 are left and so on. Approaching a student and seeing a clean paper, the teacher demands “I haven’t decided, well then answer a very simple question….”. "Backed", as they say, to the wall, the student, having no time to think, says the first thing that comes to his mind, just to say something. The indignant teacher "clutches his head": "Why, you don't even know such a simple thing, what a five is here, you don't even deserve a three." The further is not difficult to imagine - heavy stress for the student, light stress for the teacher…. In this case, the teacher's mistake consisted in a sharp limitation of the time to find a solution in a situation that was given increased importance (if you solve a problem, you will get a "five", if you do not solve it, it can be anything). Of course, a lot in this case depends on the attendant factors: the emotional state of the student, the degree of benevolence demonstrated by the teacher, the importance of the exam outcome for the student (he may be left without a scholarship, be expelled, etc.).

It should be noted that there are psychophysiological methods and questionnaires that make it possible to determine, if necessary, the type of a student's nervous system. With all the controversial nature of the typological approach to temperament and its physiological foundations (the partial nature of the properties of the nervous system, the predominance of mixed types, etc.), the empirical data described above can help in solving many pedagogical problems both in terms of optimizing the organizational and methodological foundations of teaching, and in terms of helping students develop an individual style of activity and communication. After all, it is the extreme (pronounced) types that most often need psychological and pedagogical assistance.

There is data on the relationship of some indicators of the electroencephalogram with the success of training (see, for example,). However, the laboriousness and the need for sophisticated equipment for their fixation makes this diagnostic tool difficult to access for practical use in higher education.

Influence Statement abilities on the success of students' learning seems trivial, but the nature of this influence was not as unambiguous as it seems at first glance. Much depends on the place of abilities in the personality structure of a particular student, in the system of his life values ​​and how they affect the development of other personal qualities. First, in the structure of abilities, such relatively independent components should be distinguished as general intelligence, social intelligence, special abilities and creativity(creativity). We can unequivocally say about a positive relationship with the success of training only relatively special abilities... These include sensory abilities(phonemic hearing for a linguist, pitch for a musician, color sensitivity for an artist, etc.); motor abilities(plasticity and fine coordination of movements for athletes, dancers, circus performers, etc.); professional ability(technical thinking, spatial thinking, mathematical, etc.). In many cases, the low level of development of professionally important special abilities simply makes it unavailable to successfully study at a university of the corresponding profile. And vice versa, successful education at a university will actually coincide with the process of forming special professional abilities.

IN recent times in psychology, as a relatively independent type, stands out social intelligence, understood as a complex of abilities that underlie communicative competence (competence in communication), which ensures the successful solution of problems of adequate perception human human, establishing and maintaining contacts with other people, influencing other people, ensuring joint activities, taking a decent position in the team and society (social status). A high level of social intelligence is important for mastering professions, such as "man-man" according to the classification of E.A. Klimova At the same time, there is evidence that a high level of social intelligence sometimes develops as a compensation for a low level of development of subject (general) intelligence and creativity. In favor of the fact that a high level of social intelligence often correlates with a low level of learning success, some typologies of students' personality, which will be discussed below, also record. At the same time, the formal academic performance of such students can be overestimated by skillfully influencing teachers in order to obtain the desired higher grade.

In many studies, fairly high correlations of the level general intellectual development with the academic performance of students .. At the same time, only slightly more than half of the students increase the level of general intelligence from the first year to the fifth, and, as a rule, such an increase is observed in weak and average students, and the strong often leave the university with the same and came. This fact reflects the predominant orientation of the entire system of our education towards the secondary (and, in a sense, the average) student. All teachers are well aware of the phenomenon when a very capable and "shining" student in the first year of study develops an inadequately high self-esteem, a feeling of superiority over others, he stops working systematically and sharply reduces the success of his studies. This phenomenon also found its expression in almost all typologies of student personality.

Creativity, like intelligence, it belongs to the number of general abilities, but if intelligence is the ability to assimilate knowledge and skills already existing in society, as well as to successfully apply them to solve problems, then creativity ensures that a person creates something new (primarily new for himself often new to others). Although the debate still continues, most psychologists tend to view creativity as a relatively intelligence-independent entity, measured using fundamentally different tests than in intelligence tests. In tests of creativity, open-type problems are used, in contrast to closed-type intellectual problems, in which there is only one or several correct solutions known in advance. At the same time, it is estimated fluency thinking (the number of generated solutions), flexibility thinking (variety of used decision categories), originality(fixed when the frequency of occurrence of this solution is less than in one percent of cases). The author of this article at the students of the faculty of advanced training of Moscow State University in 1995-97. a study of the options for combining the levels of development of intelligence and creativity was carried out. The results obtained were consistent with literature data on significant differences in intelligence and creativity in different people (high levels of both, high levels of creativity and low levels of intelligence, low levels of creativity and high levels of intelligence, low levels of both).

Most psychologists accept the so-called "threshold theory", according to which for successful activities (including educational) it is preferable to have a high level of creativity and an IQ (intelligence quotient) of at least 120. A lower IQ may not provide creative products of sufficiently high social significance ( creativity for yourself), and a higher level of intelligence does not greatly increase a person's capabilities. Finally, an extremely high level of intelligence can inhibit successful activity by refusing to use intuition. There are few direct experimental studies of the relationship between creativity and the success of university studies, however, data on the influence of creativity on the success of other types of activity, as well as the experience of each teacher, based on intuitive ideas about the creative abilities of students, compared with their success in learning, allows us to conclude unequivocally that creativity contributes to the success of learning, but at the same time is not a prerequisite for it.

If intelligence tests include closed-type problems (and the initial conditions and solutions are strictly defined), and the creativity problems, named above as open ones, have an open end (an indefinite number of solutions), but a closed beginning (the problem conditions are quite definite; for example, “ what can I use a pencil for? "), then open-end and open-end problems are used to study another relatively independent component of our mental activity - exploratory behavior. It arises when a person, on his own initiative, begins to study a new object for him or a new situation, so to speak, disinterestedly, out of pure curiosity. In this case, there is no clear formulation of the conditions of the problem and there is no pre-planned solution. The task that the subject poses for himself is to master something new, to obtain information, to remove uncertainty. Such activity is called orientation-research and satisfies the need for new impressions, new knowledge, in reducing uncertainty, in adequate orientation in the environment. You can also call it curiosity or curiosity. The task of the experimenter in this case comes down to the design of complex objects and systems that have a high degree of novelty for a person and are a rich source of information, as well as to create conditions for a collision (meeting) of the subject with this object in a situation where he has time, strength , and opportunities for research activities.

A.N. Pddyakov convincingly shows that the ability for exploratory behavior and the level of its development do not always correlate with the level of intelligence and creativity, and also develop in ontogenesis along relatively independent lines. This also follows from the analysis of the place of research behavior in the structure of cognitive activity. Intelligence tests imply an adequate normative use of existing knowledge, creativity tests - the original use of existing knowledge, their new interpretation, and research behavior tests - the acquisition of this new knowledge "for future use", outside of a specific pragmatic task. The latter type of tests has not yet become widespread, and therefore the author has not yet been able to find data on the relationship between the level of development of research behavior and the success of studies at a university. Nevertheless, any teacher, summarizing his own experience, will agree that an inquisitive student with an inquiring mind and a willingness to unselfish (not stimulated by reward or evaluation) new research has good chances successfully cope with training programs. But this connection is not unambiguous, since much depends on which objects arouse the student's research interest (biological, technical, social, abstract, etc.) and whether they lie in the field of professional training. It should also be noted that the levels of development of exploratory behavior of the verbal or manipulative type also do not correlate with each other.

The vast majority of authors consider high self-esteem and the associated self-confidence and high level of aspirations are important positive factors for successful student learning. A student who is not confident in his abilities often simply does not tackle difficult problems, admits defeat in advance. But, as A. Dweck notes, in order for high self-esteem to be adequate and encourage further progress, a student or student should be praised first of all not for an objectively good result, but for the degree of effort that the student had to make to obtain it, for overcoming obstacles on the way to the goal. Praise for easy success often leads to the formation of self-confidence, fear of failure and avoidance of difficulties, to the habit of tackling only easy-to-solve problems. The emphasis on the value of efforts, rather than a specific result, leads to the formation of an attitude towards mastery.

The most important factor in successful education at a university is the nature of the educational motivation, its energy level and structure. Some authors straightforwardly divide the motivation for educational activity into insufficient and positive, referring to the latter as cognitive, professional, and even moral motives. In this interpretation, a straightforward and almost unambiguous relationship between positive motivation and learning success is obtained. With a more differentiated analysis of the motives of educational activity, the focus is on acquiring knowledge, obtaining a profession, and obtaining a diploma. There is a direct correlation between focus on acquiring knowledge and learning success. The other two types of directionality did not find such a connection. Students aimed at acquiring knowledge are characterized by high regularity of educational activity, purposefulness, strong will, etc. Those who are aimed at obtaining a profession often show selectivity, dividing disciplines into "necessary" and "not necessary" for their professional development, which can affect academic performance [Ibid.]. The attitude towards obtaining a diploma makes the student even less choosy in choosing the means on the way to obtaining it - irregular classes, "storming", cheat sheets, etc.

Recently, significant differences have been revealed in the motivation of the educational activities of students of commercial departments or universities in comparison with "state employees". Students in the first group have about 10 percent higher self-esteem than the second; the desire for business achievements is more pronounced (18.5% versus 10%); the higher the significance good education and vocational training (40% versus 30.5%); greater emphasis is placed on freehold foreign languages ​​(37% versus 22%). Differs and internal structure motivation for obtaining higher education from "commercial" and "budgetary" students. For the latter, the motives are more significant "to get a diploma", "to acquire a profession", "to conduct scientific research", "to live a student cultured person”,“ Get the opportunity to study abroad ”,“ master the theory and practice of entrepreneurship ”,“ gain respect among friends ”,“ continue the family tradition ”[Ibid.]. Nevertheless, the success of training "commercial" students is significantly worse than students of "state employees", especially in prestigious universities, where high competition ensures the selection of the most powerful and prepared applicants.

To study the motivation tendencies of students abroad (and in recent years in Russia), the Edwards A questionnaire of "personal preferences" is widely used, tested on Russian samples by T.V. Kornilova. When comparing samples of students in the late 50s and early 70s in the United States, the latter showed significantly lower indicators on the scales of "respect for authority", "love of order", "affiliation" (desire for social contacts, desire to feel like a member of the community ), "Dominance" and higher indicators on the scales "self-knowledge" and "aggression". At the same time, the differences between the sexes in the profiles of motivational tendencies decreased. This trend intensified even more in the 1980s. Among contemporary Russian students, the following motivational tendencies turned out to be the most pronounced: "self-knowledge", "radicalism", "guardianship", "autonomy" and "achievement motivation". The least expressed are "respect for authorities" and "love of order." It is interesting that in terms of “love of order” and “persistence in achieving goals”, students are significantly inferior to teachers, and in terms of “desire for self-knowledge”, “affiliation”, “tolerance for new things” and “orientation towards people of the opposite sex” they are ahead of them ( hereinafter, data by T.V. Kornilova).

The gender differences in motivational tendencies among Russian students are more pronounced than among American students. Female students turn out to be more open to changes, have a greater need for social contacts, are more inclined to accept custody and search for reasons for failure in their actions, and male students show greater resilience in achieving goals, higher motivation for autonomy and domination. It is interesting to note that the gender differences in teachers are much less pronounced and relate mainly to the tendency to self-knowledge and the motivation for achievement, which are significantly stronger in men. Male students are more demonstrative and less aggressive than male teachers.

Interesting is the results of a cross-cultural study of the structure of motivation of Russian and American students, carried out in 1992–93. High values ​​of the indices of achievement motivation, propensity for self-knowledge and autonomy were common for both samples. The latter indicator among Russian students was significantly higher. A much lower level of development among Russians than among Americans of the motivation for striving for order turned out to be significant. This can be explained by the well-known desire for rationality and organization of American society. American students do much more independent work and are more responsible for planning and careful execution of it. It is this motivational tendency (love of order) that carries a huge reserve for increasing the efficiency and success of education in our universities and the high indicator of the tendency for self-knowledge inspires optimism that over time this reserve will be used. Maybe it is here that we need to look for the reason for the higher index of guilt among Russian students (guilt for the still unordered student life?).

As noted by the authors of one of the most voluminous studies of the psychological characteristics of students, the main factor determining the success of educational activity is not the severity of individual mental properties of the individual, but their structure, in which the leading role is played volitional qualities... According to V.A. Ivannikov, a person shows his volitional qualities when he performs an action that is initially insufficiently motivated, that is, yields to other actions in the struggle for a “behavioral outlet”. The mechanism of volitional action can be called the replenishment of the deficit of realization motivation by intentionally strengthening the motive for this action and weakening the motives of competing actions. This is possible, in particular, by giving the action a new meaning.

Direct test methods for measuring volitional qualities of a person have not yet been developed, but they can be indirectly judged, for example, by the index of motivational tendencies, "steadfastness in achieving a goal." The very fact of the connection between the success of training and the volitional qualities of the personality does not raise doubts among any of the teachers, but the big problem is in such a structure of the educational process so that the student has to overcome himself as rarely as possible, force himself to be included in educational activities. It seems impossible to completely exclude the need to appeal to the student's volitional qualities, but it is also unacceptable to blame all the problems and shortcomings in the organization of the educational process on the laziness and lack of will of students. The motive for learning should lie within the learning activity itself or as close as possible to its process. This can be achieved in two ways. The first and most important is to make the learning process as interesting as possible for the student, bringing him satisfaction and even pleasure; help the student to form such motives and attitudes that will allow him to feel satisfaction from overcoming internal and external obstacles in learning activities.

The American researcher K. Dweck has been developing an original approach to solving this problem for several decades. In her opinion, the presence of any of the factors we have analyzed above, or even all of them together, is not enough to form a stable person in a person. mastery orientation”(Mastery-oriented qualities), which implies a love of learning, a constant readiness to respond to the challenges of life, persistence in overcoming obstacles and the high value of subjective efforts in assessing oneself or other people.

Mastery orientation is contrasted with helpless patterns, which occur when confronted with failure, and consists of a drop in self-esteem, low expectations, negative emotions, and a sharp deterioration or even destruction of performance. What factors determine the formation in a person of an orientation towards mastery, which guarantees high life achievements, and which ones doom to helplessness, defeatist moods and sometimes leave enormous human potential unused? In search of an answer to this question, K. Dweck conducted research on different age groups (from children 3.5 years old to adults), but the main object of study was students of American colleges.

She tries to break down the biases that, from her point of view, often make it difficult to see the true reasons that promote or hinder the formation of a mastery orientation. These include: the belief that students with higher intelligence are more likely to be oriented toward mastery; the conviction that school success directly contributes to the formation of a mastery orientation; the belief that praise (especially a high score for intelligence) inspires students to master a skill; the conviction that students' confidence in their intellectual abilities is key to a mastery orientation. K. Dweck is convinced that a completely different factor plays a key role - a set of spontaneously formed ideas of a person about the essence and nature of his intellect (hence the name of her book - "Self-Theories" - "Theories of oneself" or "I-theory"). Some people believe that intelligence is a constant (little change) property and that everyone has some of its "quantity". K. Dweck calls such representations "entity theory" (in this context, this is the idea of ​​intelligence as something really, objectively existing within us). Such perceptions can give rise to anxiety about how much of this reality we have, and make us, first of all, and at any cost, look as if we have enough of it. People who share such ideas value easy success, strive to be better than others in everything, and any difficulties, obstacles, and successes of their peers force them to question their intellectual capabilities. Any challenge is fraught with a threat to their self-esteem, serves as a source of defeatist moods, makes them give up, avoid difficulties.

For others, intelligence acts as a property that “grows” in the learning process; in terms of K. Dweck - they have formed the "Incremental Theory" (the theory of building up). Adherents of such views are not afraid of challenges, obstacles, difficulties, since they hope to develop their intellect in the course of overcoming them, which is more valuable for them than concrete success and more important than temporary failure. Even if they do not estimate the level of their intelligence high at the moment, or this estimate decreases as a result of failure, they are sure that a further increase in efforts will sooner or later lead to an increase in intelligence. Those for whom it is more important to "look smart" avoid difficulties and give in to obstacles. Those who believe in the possibility of increasing the mind, meet challenges and difficulties, and, ignoring temporary setbacks, increase their efforts. The first in a situation of failure begin to say “I always considered myself not very capable”, “I always had a bad memory”, “I don’t get this type of tasks”, etc. The latter do not blame themselves, do not focus on the reasons for failure, to a certain extent, they do not even notice it. They treat it simply as another problem to be solved. Their typical reactions are: “the harder it is, the more effort I have to put in,” “I must take my time and then it will work out,” that is, they begin to cheer themselves up and control their behavior.

Analyzing the influence of implicit theories of intelligence on the setting of life and learning goals, K. Dweck notes that some choose goals that are primarily result-oriented (Performance goals), for them the most important is a positive assessment and avoidance of failures, while others - on learning (Learning goals ). It is students oriented towards mastery that most often choose learning goals; “It is important for me to learn something, and not to be the first in the class” is a typical position of a representative of this group of students. The author proves that it is the implicit theory of the essence of intelligence that determines the type of goals preferred by students.

The whole scheme of analysis, which was used by the author in relation to intelligence and the role of implicit theories of intelligence in the determination of the processes of solving specific problems, turns out to be applicable to the individual, to solving social problems, building relationships with other people (including intimate ones). Here again, two types of theories stand out. Those who believe in the person as an immutable, rigid entity are afraid to enter into a relationship when there is a risk of rejection, failure, and low self-esteem. Those who believe that the personality itself in the process of developing relationships with other people can change and grow, actively engage in relationships even with an uncertain outcome and "work on themselves." In this case, we are talking not only about a person's ideas about himself, implicit theories also apply to the understanding of the personality of other people, thus influencing the choice of goals, the type of reaction to failure, etc. The negative influence of "entity theories" on the perception and assessment of other people is manifested, in particular, in hasty and lightweight judgments about other people, sticking labels, susceptibility to stereotypes, disbelief in the potential for personal development of oneself and other people, etc.

Analyzing in detail the role of praise and criticism in the origin of the increased vulnerability of people, K. Dweck comes to the conclusion that praise or criticism itself does not matter (although the first, all other things being equal, is preferable), but what they are aimed at. As we noted above, the student should not be praised or criticized for the result, but for the efforts made to achieve it. In some cases, self-esteem is nurtured by easy success with little effort and other people's failure. Then even high self-esteem leaves a person vulnerable and unable to form an orientation towards mastery. In other cases, high self-esteem grows out of situations of openly accepting challenges, working hard, developing one's abilities, and helping others.

In conclusion, it stands again and in general view to formulate the answer of K. Dweck to the question that, in addition to motivation, the level of intelligence, self-esteem and success in previous activities, it affects our willingness to enjoy learning, work tirelessly, respond to the challenges of life, do not give in to failures and achieve outstanding and socially significant results. Oddly enough, this is a kind of cognitive formation, which can be called a hidden, often spontaneously formed and therefore not always realized theory regarding the essence and nature of our intellect, character and personality. The central link of such an implicit theory is the belief or conviction that our intellect and personality are capable of significant, not only quantitative, but also qualitative change, i.e. development.

The work on approbation of the methods proposed by A. Dweck on Russian samples is a matter of the near future, but it is already obvious that any study of the factors of student learning success can only be complex. Attempts to implement such an approach to assessing the character and personality of a student have been made in the construction of numerous typologies of students, we will cite some of these typologies, having previously defined the concepts of character and personality.

Character- an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person, setting a typical way of behavior and emotional response for him in certain life circumstances. Unlike temperament, it determines not the energy (strength and speed) side of the activity, but the choice of certain typical this person techniques, ways to achieve the goal, we can say "blocks" of behavior. It is formed in vivo on the basis of temperament and environmental factors. Like temperament, character does not directly affect the success of learning, but it can create difficulties or favor learning, depending on the organizational forms, teaching methods, and the teacher's style of pedagogical communication. First of all, this applies to people with so-called character accentuations that create “ sharp corners"," Problem areas "that make it difficult for their owners to build adequate relationships with other people, including in educational activities. One of the most popular classifications of accentuated characters was developed by the Russian psychiatrist A.E. Lichko (it partially coincides with the typology of the German psychiatrist K. Leonhard). Here are just some of the most striking types of character accentuations, with an indication of the problems that their owners may have in the learning process.

Hyperthymic type- with a constantly elevated mood, energetic, sociable, inaccuracy, hypertim, noisiness and a tendency to mischief can lead to conflicts primarily with teachers. But more important is restlessness, a tendency to change activities and hobbies, which often turns into superficiality in relations with people and in relation to business.

Cycloid type - moods change in cycles; two to three weeks of elevated, almost euphoric mood is followed by a similarly long cycle of depressed mood, with increased irritability and a tendency to apathy. Such people find it difficult to change life stereotypes, in particular, the transition from school education to university; during periods of depression, they need a sparing attitude in order to avoid deep breakdowns with serious consequences.

Fondling type - suffers from mood swings many times a day, caused by the most insignificant reasons. In the presence of serious reasons, they demonstrate a tendency to reactive depression, which leads to serious disturbances in educational activity. During these periods, like cycloids, they need a sparing attitude. They feel and understand other people well, and they themselves often look for a psychotherapist in a friend.

Sensitive type - very sensitive to all good and bad, shy, timid, often notorious; he is sociable only with those whom he knows well and from whom he does not expect a threat. Has a heightened sense of duty, is conscientious, often takes the blame; in the case of strong and undeserved accusations, a suicidal outcome is real. Disciplined, diligent, works regularly.

Unstable type - reveals an increased craving for entertainment, idleness and idleness, has no stable professional interests, does not think about the future. Prone to alcoholism. Weakness and a certain amount of cowardice make it necessary and possible to regulate and carefully monitor educational activities. It is more common among "commercial" students, since it is not realistic to withstand a serious competition for students of this type.

Conformal type - demonstrates thoughtless, uncritical, and often opportunistic submission to any authority or majority in the group. Life credo is to be like everyone else. He is capable of betrayal, but always finds a moral justification for himself. As a pedagogical influence, we can recommend the demonstration of the harmfulness of opportunistic methods and the negative value of conformist attitudes.

The schizoid type is closed, emotionally cold, has little interest in the spiritual world of other people and is not inclined to admit them into his world. Often has highly developed abstract thinking combined with insufficient criticality. It is recommended not rude, but persistent involvement in communication, in the collective forms of student life.

Epileptoid type - possesses very strong inclinations, is prone to emotional outbursts, often demonstrates cruelty, selfishness and imperiousness, love of gambling. Viscosity and inertness are combined with accuracy (excessive prophecy) and punctuality. They easily obey (even to the point of being obsequious) to an imperious and strong teacher, but, having felt “weakness,” they can show all the baggage of their negative inclinations.

The hysterical (demonstrative) type - most of all likes to be in the spotlight, longs for praise and admiration, is prone to theatricality, posturing and acting. Often has real artistic talent. To attract attention, he begins to fantasize, to tell fables, in which he begins to sincerely believe. Perhaps an escape into illness or false suicidality to attract faded attention to oneself. In order to create optimal conditions for learning activities, the teacher is recommended to devote more time and attention to such students.

The severity of a particular accentuation is determined using the PDO questionnaire.

There are also attempts to formulate the most effective methods of pedagogical influence on students with different types of character when teaching various disciplines (mathematics, languages, etc.). True, in this case we are talking about a different classification of characters, going back to the works of C. Jung. (introverts, extroverts, intuitive, thoughtful, etc.).

Concept personality in psychology it is used in a broad and narrow sense. In the first case, the personality is defined as “a set of psychological qualities that characterize each person ... In this broad sense the term personality includes concepts such as character, temperament and abilities ”; “The term“ personality ”thus covers the ensemble of the mental organization of the human individual”. Sometimes personality is given an even broader definition, interpreting it as an integrated organization of all cognitive, affective and physical characteristics of an individual that distinguish him from other people. In the narrow sense, by personality, they mean the highest integrating authority that gives the entire mental organization of a person a unique unity and integrity. At the level of the personality, the most important life choices are made, decisions are made that are of crucial importance for a person. Only when such decisions are made can the true system of life human values, approved his ideas about his purpose and the meaning of existence.

We can talk about personal choice if it is carried out by a free, responsible and consciously acting person. An act or deed cannot be carried out under duress, under pressure of circumstances or in conditions of unclear consciousness; neither can they be the result of an automatic action or the transfer of responsibility for the decision to another person. Thus, personality in the narrow sense of the word at the highest stage of its development, it is a spiritual individual living in a broad context of culture and universal human values, possessing conscience and honor, convictions and ideals, a sense of duty and responsibility.

Differences in the value systems of students and the degree of their personal maturity, precisely in connection with the success of training, find their expression in numerous typologies of students. The basis for the construction of these typologies are primarily attitudes towards the profession, to study, to science and the entire system life values and attitudes of students.

Three types of students are distinguished according to the nature of educational activity and the corresponding models of behavior.

• For the first type of students, interests go beyond the limits of knowledge outlined by the curriculum and discipline programs. They are active in all spheres of university life and are focused on broad specialization, on versatile professional training.
• The second type is distinguished by a clear focus on narrow specialization. Here, too, the cognitive activity of students goes beyond the curriculum, but rather not in breadth, but in depth. The entire system of activity is limited by the framework of “near-professional interests”.
• For students of the third type, cognitive activity is aimed at assimilating knowledge and skills within the framework of the curriculum. These students demonstrate minimal levels of activity and creativity.

There are five groups in relation to students' attitude [ibid., P. 355 - 356].

• Students who are active in all types of learning activities. Due to diligence and creativity, they demonstrate excellent academic success.
• Students of the second type are also active in all spheres of educational activity, but are not focused on obtaining deep knowledge, acting on the principle of "little by little is best."

• Students of the third type limit their activity to narrow professional frameworks, are aimed at selective assimilation of only those knowledge that, in their opinion, are necessary for the future. professional activity... They do well in special subjects, but do not pay due attention to related disciplines.

• Students of the fourth type show interest only in those disciplines that they like and are easy to learn. They often skip classes, almost completely ignoring some disciplines.
• The fifth type includes "idlers and lazy people" who have no expressed interests in any of the areas of knowledge. They, as a rule, enter universities "for the company", at the insistence of their parents or to evade military service, work, etc.

If we build a typology based on academic performance, then we can distinguish the following types of excellent students [Ibid, p. 356-357]:

• “Versatile” - enjoys the very process of acquiring knowledge, studies primary sources and literature that goes beyond the curriculum in all disciplines. This type of excellent student is the most common.
• "Professional" - concentrates on the major disciplines, mastering general education subjects more superficially, but at a level sufficient to obtain an excellent mark.
• "Universal" - combine the advantages of the two previous types. Thanks to their immense hard work and talent, they achieve outstanding success in the major fields of knowledge. This type of student is the most rare.
• "Cramps" (by definition of the students themselves) - do not have good abilities, but due to zeal and diligence they master the material at a level sufficient for an excellent assessment.

Similar types can be distinguished among the "good", but with lower levels of achievement.

The most complete classifications of a student's personality are based on taking into account the level and quality of students' activity in four areas: 1. Attitude towards studies, science, profession; 2. Attitude towards social activities, the presence of an active life position; 3. Attitude towards art and culture (level of spirituality); 4. Expression of collectivist attitudes, position in the team. ,. ...

• “Harmonious” (ideal student) is the most active in all four areas and achieves excellent results everywhere.
• “Professional” - deliberately chose his specialty; academic performance is usually good; he does little research work, since after graduation he plans to work in the practical sphere. Conscientiously fulfills public assignments, moderately goes in for sports, is interested in literature and art. Honest, decent, respected by his comrades.
• “Academician” - he chose his specialty deliberately, he studies only with excellent marks. He is focused on studying in graduate school, so he devotes a lot of time to research work, often to the detriment of other occupations.
• “Social activist” - a propensity for social activity prevails over other interests, which negatively affects educational and scientific activity. I am sure that I chose my profession correctly, and is interested in literature and art. In recent years, this type has been less common.
• “Art lover” - usually studies well, the main interests are concentrated in the field of literature and art, so he does not pay enough attention to scientific work. Possesses good aesthetic taste, broad outlook and erudition in the field of art.
• "Diligent" - he chose his profession not quite consciously, but he studies conscientiously, making great efforts to study. Abilities are insufficiently developed, little interest in literature and art, prefers light genres. Uncommunicative and not very popular in the team.
• "Medium" - learns without much effort, and is even proud of it. When choosing a profession, I did not really think about it, but I am convinced that since I have already entered a university, I need to finish it, although I do not get pleasure from studying.
• "Disappointed" - has good abilities, but the chosen specialty does not appeal to him. I am also convinced that since I have already entered a university, I need to finish it, although I do not get pleasure from studying. Strives to establish himself in hobbies, art, sports.
• "Lazy" - learns, obeying the principle of the least expenditure of effort and not very successfully, although he is satisfied with himself. When choosing a profession, I did not seriously think about scientific and social work hardly engaged. Often he tries to "catch words" - the main thing is to get the desired mark. The team often refers to him as "ballast". The main interests are in the field of leisure.
• “Creative” is inventive in everything he does - in studies, scientific work, social activities or leisure. He does not like activities that require perseverance, accuracy, and performing discipline, therefore he studies unevenly, succeeding only in those areas that are interesting to him. In scientific work, he strives for originality, often neglecting the opinion of authorities.
• "Erudite" - collects knowledge in all areas and loves to demonstrate it, but he himself is not very capable of creativity. He does little social work and sports. In the team, he often enjoys a reputation as a snob. He performs scientific work in a strictly academic tradition.
• "Sportsman" - learns according to an individual plan, acquiring knowledge at the minimum level necessary for passing the exams. He counts on concessions for his sporting achievements. In recent years, such students have become much smaller.
• “Pseudo-modernist” - the main thing for him is personal success. The main range of interests is concentrated outside the university. Follows fashion in all spheres of life. Almost does not engage in scientific and social work. As a rule, he chooses a fashionable profession.
• "Bohemian" - Successfully studies in the so-called prestigious universities, looks down on students who acquire "mass professions". Strives for leadership. Knowledge is vast, but often superficial. Participant of fashionable "parties", a regular at clubs and discos. He is indifferent to sports; in the team, the attitude towards it is polar - from admiring to disdainful.

This list can be continued, but any experienced teacher has his own similar typology, perhaps better reflecting the specifics of education in his university or in his professional environment. But the question remains - what should be the ideal student from the point of view of teachers and students themselves? This question can be reformulated as follows - which student would most teachers like to work with? In the "pre-perestroika" times in our country, the opinions of students and teachers differed significantly. University teachers in the first place put mainly such qualities as discipline, diligence, responsibility, and the majority of real students noted infantilism, social immaturity, educational passivity. Modern teachers have come to appreciate the ability of students to think independently. Students also prioritize the ability to think independently and an interest in science.

We hope that the individual psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of students considered in this article, as well as their influence on the success of training, will help teachers better understand the student, find a common language with him when solving issues of increasing the effectiveness of educational activities and the level of professional training that are important for both sides. This knowledge is also important for organizing and planning the work of the psychological service of the university, the need to create which was recognized by the commission on academic policy under the rector of Moscow University.

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Non-state educational institution

higher professional education

"Moscow Institute of Modern Academic Education"

Federal Institute advanced training and retraining

Faculty of Continuing Professional Education

Test

by discipline: "The main factors

influencing the success of school education "

Completed:

Student of the Faculty of DPO

Dremukhina T.A.

Moscow, 2015

Psychological factors and their impact on school performance. Psychological readiness of the child for schooling

Basic concepts

The internal position of a student is a phenomenon in the motivational sphere of a child, consisting in the emergence of interest in school and educational activities and the emergence of psychological characteristics that provide the opportunity to obtain scientific knowledge, organize their activities and behavior, and obey certain social rules and moral laws.

Strong-willed readiness - the necessary level of development of an arbitrary sphere, which provides an opportunity for the child, as a future student, to overcome the learning difficulties that arise in him and to manage his behavior in accordance with school requirements.

Intelligent readiness - the formation, first of all, of the thinking processes at the level necessary for the successful assimilation of knowledge.

Motivational readiness - dominance in the motivational sphere of the educational motive associated with the cognitive need of the child, with the need for intellectual activity, in mastering educational skills, skills and knowledge.

The psychological prerequisites for mastering educational activities are a combination of psychological qualities and skills necessary for the successful assimilation of knowledge. The nature of social development is the child's preferred style of communication with an adult.

School maladjustment - specific disorders of the student's learning activity and behavior, caused by a mismatch between the school's requirements and the student's ability to satisfy them.

School maturity, or psychological readiness for schooling - the child's achievement of a certain level of development of cognitive processes, the formation of the motivational sphere, the presence of socially significant needs and personal qualities necessary for the learning process.

The next factor influencing the success of school education, which determines a number of school difficulties of the child, is his psychological readiness for school education: a concept first proposed by A. N. Leontiev in 1948. Timely assessment of children's psychological readiness for learning is one of the main types of prevention of possible future learning difficulties.

What is meant by the psychological readiness of children for schooling? Often this readiness is understood in a very narrow and utilitarian way - first of all, from the point of view of the child's reading, writing and numeracy skills, believing that their presence will help the child to better adapt to the requirements of the school. However, it is not. We are not talking about adaptation, but about a radical restructuring of the entire way of life and activities of the child, about the transition to a qualitatively new stage of development, which is associated with profound changes in everything. inner peace the child, which cover not only the intellectual, but also the motivational-need, emotional-volitional spheres of the child's personality. Readiness for schooling means achieving a certain level of development of cognitive capabilities, personal qualities, socially significant needs, interests, motives.

Psychological readiness for school is formed throughout the child's preschool life, and not only in the last preschool, or preschool, year. The school maturity of a child is a natural and inevitable result of a full-fledged life of the preschool period of development. This means, first of all, that the child must spend in the preschool period of development as much time as nature has allotted for him in order to ensure his anatomical, physiological and psychological maturation, so that he is ready to move to another, higher level of his development. And this time is equal to 6-7 years. It has already been noted above that early schooling tends to be harmful to the child. It is worth remembering the words of the great enlightener J.-J. Russo: “Nature wants children to be children before they become adults. If we want to break this order, we will produce early ripening fruits that will have neither maturity nor taste and will not slow down to deteriorate ... Let childhood ripen in children. "

The complete completion of the preschool period is subjectively experienced by the child as an active desire to become a schoolboy. As a rule, by the age of 7, the child's stay in kindergarten loses its meaning for him, ceases to satisfy him. Children who have "outgrown" preschool forms of existence begin to be burdened by them, looking for new forms of satisfying their needs: the forms of communication with peers are being rebuilt, the attitude towards classes is changing, often accompanied by a violation of disciplinary requirements. For such children, the transition to the next stage of development is associated with the desired entry to school. By the end before school age the child begins to realize for the first time that he is a member of society, realizes his social position as a preschooler and strives for a new social role of the student.

The child's social maturity is manifested in the formation of the student's internal position (“I want to go to school!”). This means that the child psychologically moved into a new age period in his development - primary school age. The following indicators testify to the presence of the student's internal position:

the child has a positive attitude towards entering school or staying in it, does not think of himself outside of school or in isolation from it, understands the need for learning;

shows a special interest in the new, proper school content of classes: prefers writing and counting lessons to preschool classes (drawing, singing, physical education), has a meaningful idea of ​​preparing for school;

the child refuses the organization of activities and behavior characteristic of preschool childhood: he prefers classroom lessons to schooling at home, has a positive attitude towards socially accepted norms of behavior, prefers the traditional way of assessing educational achievements (grade) to other types of encouragement characteristic of direct personal relationships (sweets, gifts) ;

The main condition for the formation of the psychological readiness of children for schooling is the full satisfaction of the needs of each child in the game. It is in play, as you know, that all the child's cognitive processes are formed, the ability to arbitrarily control their behavior, obeying the rules set by the playing roles, all the psychological neoplasms of the preschool period of development are formed and the prerequisites are laid for the transition to a new qualitative level of development.

However, in life, especially in recent years (even decades), there is an alarming situation of psychological unpreparedness of a large number of children who come to study in the first grade. One of the reasons for this negative phenomenon is the fact noted in psychological studies that modern preschoolers not only play little, but also do not know how to play. It is stated that the level of development of play in general among modern preschoolers is significantly lower than that of their peers of the middle of the last century, and the level of development of role-playing play in the vast majority of preschoolers does not reach its developed form and remains at a low level. Thus, a developed form of play (play-attitude) occurs only in 18% of children. preparatory group kindergarten, and 36% of the children of the preparatory group do not know how to play at all (Smirnova E.O., Gudareva O.V., 2004). This distorts the normal path of mental development and negatively affects the formation of children's psychological readiness to go to school. One of the reasons for this is the misunderstanding by parents and educators of preparing children for schooling. Instead of providing the child with the best conditions for the development of his play activity, adults, taking time away from play activities and artificially accelerating child development, teach him to write, read and count, that is, the learning skills that the child must master in the next period of age. development. This mistake of adults raising a child still cannot be overcome. D. B. Elkonin noted 50 years ago that the effective and full (and not accelerated) development of a child presupposes not the curtailment of the game, but the timely and maximum full use of its possibilities.

“Many school teachers have a one-sided approach to preschool development. All the successes of preschool education are viewed exclusively through the prism of preparing children for school, and even in a very narrow range (the ability to read, write, count). In general, the approach to a separate period of development in childhood cannot be viewed narrowly pragmatically, as preparation for the transition to the next stage of development. Quite the opposite is true. The very transition to the next, higher stage of development is prepared and determined by how fully the previous period has been lived, how mature are those internal contradictions that can be resolved through such a transition. If it is completed before these contradictions have matured - artificially forced, without taking into account objective factors, then the formation of the child's personality will suffer, and the damage may be irreparable. " (Elkonin D. B., 1989a. - p. 98).

The following case testifies to the negative consequences of early teaching of children to school skills to the detriment of play activity. The parents of 8-year-old Nikita noted that the boy is very talented, he learned to read at the age of 3, and to write at the age of 4. At the age of 7 he entered a school with in-depth study of the Chinese language. Teachers noted the child's high abilities in languages ​​and mathematics. However, Nikita is a very restless child, a fidget. He cannot concentrate on the lessons, he mainly does what he is interested in.

In the first grade, he coped with the tasks faster than anyone and began to interfere with everyone. At the suggestion of the teachers, he was transferred after the third quarter to the second grade. He overcame the difference in the program very quickly, but there were difficulties in contacts with peers. In the third grade, social maladjustment worsened, which led to a decrease in academic performance and a decrease in learning motivation.

The child says that he would be better in kindergarten. There are no homework, delicious food, you can play for a long time. Now his mother allows him to play only for "fives".

There are no friends in the new class. Regrets that he studies with older children. He explains his transfer to another class as follows: “I turned and talked in class, and they decided that I was bored” (Bogoyavlenskaya M., 2005).

Let's consider what indicators make up the psychological readiness for schooling, or what are its components.

1. Motivational readiness.

The content of this component is that the child has a dominant educational motive, the need to acquire knowledge. The importance of this component is so great that even if a child has the necessary stock of knowledge and skills, a sufficient level of mental development, it will be difficult for him at school. A child who is psychologically ready for learning should have a positive attitude towards school and want to learn. They may be attracted as external aspects of school life (acquisition school uniform, writing utensils, you do not need to sleep during the day), and the main thing is teaching as the main activity ("I want to learn how to write", "I will solve problems"). A 6-7-year-old child's lack of desire to go to school indicates that he is still “ psychological preschooler". Such children study unevenly, perform tasks carelessly, hastily, and therefore it is difficult for them to achieve high results in learning.

2. Intellectual readiness.

This component, first of all, is associated with the degree of development of the child's mental activity. The main thing that characterizes intellectual readiness is the ability to analyze, generalize, compare, and draw conclusions independently. Of course, one should not underestimate the importance of the child's knowledge about the environment, about nature, people, and himself. “An empty head does not reason. The more knowledge the head has, the more it is capable of reasoning ”(P. P. Blonsky). Earlier, and often even now, the opinion is expressed that the more a child has mastered various knowledge, the more vocabulary he has, the better he is developed. This approach is flawed. The existing knowledge should be primarily the work of thinking, not memory, understanding, understanding them, and not mechanical memorization. By identifying only the child's stock of knowledge, we cannot say anything about the way of acquiring them and cannot assess the level of development of the child's thinking, which plays an extremely important role in educational activity. The child's intellectual unpreparedness leads to a poor understanding of the educational material, difficulty in developing the skills of writing, reading and counting, that is, what constitutes the main content of the initial stage of school education.

3. Volitional readiness.

The importance of this component in educational activities is great. Strenuous mental work awaits the child, he will have to do not only what he wants and is interested in at the moment, but what the teacher requires of him, the school regime, regardless of the child's immediate desires and needs. You need to be able to subordinate your behavior to the rules adopted at school: how to behave in class, at recess, in relations with classmates and the teacher. In addition, the child must be able to control his processes of attention, voluntary memorization, and purposefully control his thought processes. As a rule, the level of volitional readiness of children entering school is insufficient. This explains the child's refusal to complete the assignment if it seems difficult to him or does not work out the first time, and the incomplete assignment if the child is tired, but it takes some effort to complete it, and the violation of school discipline, if the child does what at the moment he wants, and not what the teacher requires, etc.

4. The nature of the child's social development.

Here we are talking about what style of communication with an adult the child prefers. The learning process is always carried out with the direct participation of an adult and under his guidance. The main source of knowledge and skills is the teacher. The child's ability to hear, understand the teacher, and carry out his assignments is essential for learning at school. In this regard, it is very important to take into account the child's preferred style of communication with an adult as part of his general readiness for schooling. The preferred style of communication between a child and an adult is determined by what the child likes to do more with the adult: playing with toys, reading books or just talking. As it was established in a psychological study (EO Smirnova), children who prefer to play with an adult are not able to listen to the teacher for a long time, they are often distracted by extraneous stimuli; they, as a rule, do not fulfill the teacher's assignments, but replace them with their own, therefore, the success of teaching such children is extremely low. On the contrary, children who like to read books with an adult or who, in free communication, could be distracted from a specific situation and communicate with an adult on various topics, were more attentive during classes, listened with interest to the adult's tasks and diligently completed them. The educational success of such children was much higher.

As already noted, psychological readiness for schooling does not consist in the presence of a child learning skills writing, reading and counting. But its necessary condition is the formation of his psychological prerequisites for educational activity.

The assimilation of knowledge is a process that is complex in its psychological structure, the success of which largely depends on the presence and degree of formation of certain psychological qualities and skills in students. Full and deep assimilation of educational material is impossible in the absence of psychological prerequisites for its assimilation by students. It is precisely the lack of formation of the prerequisites for mastering educational activity, which is most often encountered in junior schoolchildren, is one of the reasons for the general lag in learning.

The psychological prerequisites for mastering educational activities include the ability to analyze and copy a pattern, the ability to perform tasks at the verbal direction of an adult (the ability to listen and hear), the ability to subordinate one's actions to a given system of requirements and control their implementation (self-regulation and self-control) (D. B. Elkonin ). Without these, at first glance, simple and even elementary, but basic psychological skills, training is impossible even in principle. That is why, taking care of the psychological readiness of the child for schooling, it is first of all necessary to form these skills in him. It is important that their formation under the guidance of an adult does not act as an educational and school activity for the child. It can occur within the framework of any preschool-type activity, for example, drawing, physical education, manual labor, etc.

The question of psychological readiness for learning during the school period once again arises when students from primary school go to secondary, basic, school, that is, at the end of grade IV. In this case, we are talking about the psychological readiness of younger students to study in secondary school.

A.P. Nechaev When Should You Start Teaching Your Child to Read?

In the book: A.P. Nechaev Psychology and school. Fav. psychol. works / Ed. A. A. Nikolskaya. - M .: Institute of Practical Psychology; Voronezh: publishing house NPO "MODEK", 1997.- S. 316-317.

We see that the ability to read meaningfully presupposes a certain general level of mental development. A child cannot properly perceive the readable text, if his perception processes are not developed at all, if he is not yet able to properly see and hear the environment. A child is not able to successfully learn to read if his speech is insufficiently developed, if he has not associated certain names with certain objects, feelings and actions. The process of learning to read will be very difficult if the child generally discovers a lack of imagination, ingenuity, and understanding.

Trying to teach a child to read at a time when his mental life has not yet been prepared for this is a rather fruitless work. Moreover, the premature teaching of an unprepared child to read can even have a harmful effect on him, causing disgust for the learning process itself and undermining self-confidence.

Therefore, it is very important for any teacher, before starting to teach his students to read and write, to take a good look at them and see if they have sufficiently developed the processes that are necessary for reading and usually appear for about 6-7 years.

Children with poor general development, sedentary attention, poor speech, pale interests and weak receptivity before learning to read must undergo a series of systematic pedagogical exercises.

What can these exercises consist of?

One of the most important exercises that prepares a child for learning to read is nature studies, in which the child learns to perceive the environment, gets acquainted with its properties, makes attempts to judge them and make various assumptions, and at the same time, his speech is developed, so how he involuntarily has to associate certain names with all received perceptions and to express in words those thoughts that arise when observing the environment.

Along with natural science, great importance in the sense of preparing for reading, they can have other kinds of conversations with children, accompanied by showing different objects and pictures. Taking a variety of walks with children, telling them tales and events from real life that correspond to their development, evoking in them memories of recently experienced phenomena and prompting them to express and evaluate all this, the teacher will contribute to the enrichment and development of children's speech, as well as the greater development of imagination processes , judgment and perception.

A great service in preparing for literacy training can be provided by correctly set drawing classes. Not to mention the fact that the painter receives exercise in various movements of the fingers and wrist, thus preparing himself for the process of writing - sketching objects from nature and reproducing their outlines from memory provides a constant reason for deepening perceptions, judgments and imagination. And all this, as we have seen, forms the basis of the reading process.

Finally, outdoor games and other physical exercises that force children, depending on changing circumstances, but in accordance with a certain plan, change the direction of your attention, quickly moving it from one view to another. When a child plays tag or robber Cossack and must either attack, then dodge, then stubbornly run in one direction, then suddenly change it depending on the changed circumstances - all these actions are natural exercises in the flexibility of attention and a counterbalance to the development in the child of that " mental automatism ”, which, as we have seen, is one of the major obstacles to successful literacy training.

Psychological factors and their impact on school performance. Individual psychological characteristics of temperament and their influence on the success of educational activities

Basic concepts

Individual personality traits are psychological and psychophysiological qualities inherent in a given person, giving him uniqueness, originality, distinguishing him from other people (temperament, character, abilities, dynamic characteristics).

An individual style of activity is a system of individually unique techniques and methods for solving a problem, determined by a complex of natural characteristics of a person.

Melancholic temperament - individual psychological characteristics characterized by slight vulnerability, a tendency to deeply experience even minor failures, but external lethargy in response to the environment.

The main properties of the nervous system are the main, predominantly genetically determined features of the functioning of the nervous system, which determine the differences in behavior and in relation to the same influences of the physical and social environment.

Sanguine temperament - individual psychological characteristics characterized by liveliness, mobility, quick response to external events, relative ease of experiencing failures and troubles.

Temperament - individual psychological characteristics that characterize a person's personality from the side of the dynamics of his mental processes (pace, speed, rhythm, intensity).

Phlegmatic temperament - individual psychological characteristics characterized by slowness, equanimity, stability of aspirations, more or less constant mood, weak external expression of mental states.

Choleric temperament - individual psychological characteristics, characterized by speed, impetuosity, the ability to devote himself to business with exceptional passion, but not poise, a tendency to violent emotional outbursts, sudden mood swings.

Educational activity does not impose special requirements on the natural characteristics of the student, the innate organization of his higher nervous activity. Equally high results in educational activity, all other things being equal, can be achieved by children with different characteristics of the nervous system. Differences in the natural organization of higher nervous activity determine only the ways and methods of work, the peculiarities of the individual style of activity, but not the level of achievement. Differences in temperaments are not differences in the level of mental capabilities, but in the originality of their manifestations.

Before describing the learning difficulties in schoolchildren with different types of temperament, let us consider their natural basis and the differences in the procedural characteristics of learning activity that occur in schoolchildren with different temperaments.

The natural basis of temperament is the types of higher nervous activity, which are formed by various combinations of the basic properties of the nervous system. These properties include strength - weakness, mobility - inertia, balance - imbalance of nervous processes (Pavlov I.P., 1935).

Strength (weakness) of nervous processes is the ability (inability) of nerve cells to maintain normal performance under significant stress of excitatory and inhibitory processes; the degree of endurance of the nervous system to a long-acting stimulus. The mobility (inertia) of nervous processes is expressed in the ability (inability) of a quick transition from an excitatory process to an inhibitory process and vice versa. Balance (imbalance) means the same (different) severity of excitatory and inhibitory nervous processes, their balance (lack thereof) in strength and mobility.

Combinations of extreme degrees of these properties form four types of combination, or four types of higher nervous activity: the living type - strong, balanced, mobile (corresponds to a sanguine temperament); unrestrained type - strong, unbalanced towards excitement (corresponds to choleric temperament), calm type - strong, balanced, slow (corresponds to phlegmatic temperament), weak type - low efficiency, rapid exhaustion (corresponds to melancholic temperament).

Without determining, on the one hand, the level of the final result of training, the psychological characteristics of temperament, on the other hand, can, to a certain extent, hinder the learning process. That is why it is important to take into account the peculiarities of the temperament of schoolchildren when organizing educational work.

Nevertheless, psychological studies have found a certain influence of the natural characteristics of students on the success of their learning. Psychological examination revealed that a significant part of poorly performing and unsuccessful schoolchildren are characterized by weakness of the nervous system, inertia of nervous processes.

Objectively educational process organized in such a way that individual educational tasks, situations are unequally difficult for students who differ in their typological characteristics, and for students with a strong and mobile nervous system, there are initially advantages over students with a weak and inert nervous system. In the lesson, situations often arise that are more favorable for students who are strong and mobile in their neurodynamic characteristics. For this reason, students with a weak and inert nervous system are more likely to find themselves in a less advantageous position and are more common among those who do not succeed. Changing the school timetable, replacing one lesson with another, the requirement to quickly switch from one task to another during a lesson also affects pupils with different temperaments in different ways, while children who are characterized by inertia of nervous processes experience great difficulties. On the contrary, in children with high mobility of nervous processes, it is the frequent changes in activity that maintain the working state in the classroom.

The fact that schoolchildren with inert nervous processes, that is, phlegmatic people, have a harder time at school has been noticed for a long time. “Not a single class of pupils in our schools have such a bad experience as those sluggish, stupid boys, whom teachers often call mediocre and stupid. In relation to them, modern upbringing is the most sinister. And yet they deserve the most careful attention and care from the educator. For the most part, such spiritual forces are hidden in them that far surpass the so-called talented, lively students ... Very many of the famous people who later distinguished themselves in science often played the role of such dull heads at school and often forced their former teachers to exclaim: who I could have assumed it in them! " (Dobrolyubov N.A., 1952 .-- S. 232, 238).

Noting the need to take into account the characteristics of the temperament of students in the learning process, first of all, one should take into account the originality of the phlegmatic and melancholic temperaments.

In fact, success or failure in learning can be explained not by the natural traits of the subject themselves, but by the extent to which individual techniques and methods of action are formed that meet both the requirements of the educational process and individual manifestations typological properties of students. The peculiarities of the organization of the educational process, the degree of formation of the individual style of the student's activity, taking into account his natural typological characteristics, acquire considerable importance here. So, insufficient concentration and distraction of attention of students with a weak nervous system can be compensated by increased self-control and self-examination of work after its completion, their rapid fatigue - by frequent interruptions in work, etc. An important role in overcoming procedural difficulties in the educational process in students with a weak nervous the system and inert nervous processes is played by the teacher, whose ignorance of the situations that make it difficult for students with a weak nervous system and inert nervous processes can involuntarily either facilitate or further complicate the student's learning activity.

It would be wrong to think that students with a weak nervous system and inert nervous processes can be characterized only in terms of their characteristics that negatively affect learning activity. These schoolchildren also have positive sides, thanks to which it is possible to "neutralize" their natural characteristics, which are not very favorable for learning, and create a good basis for ensuring the success of school education. So, the positive aspects of students with a weak nervous system are that they:

they can work in a situation requiring monotonous work, according to an algorithm or a pattern;

they like to work in detail, consistently, systematically, according to the scheduled stages of work;

plan upcoming activities, make plans in writing;

prefer to use external supports, visual images (graphs, diagrams, figures, tables);

are prone to careful control of tasks and verification of the results obtained.

What situations make it difficult for students with a weak nervous system?

These situations include the following:

long-term strenuous work (gets tired quickly, loses efficiency, makes mistakes, learns more slowly);

work accompanied by emotional stress (control, independent, especially if they have limited time);

a high rate of asking questions and demanding an immediate answer;

unexpected question and demand for an oral answer;

work after an unsuccessful answer, assessed negatively;

work in a situation requiring distraction (to the teacher's remarks, the answer or question of other students);

work in a situation requiring the distribution of attention and its switching (at the same time make notes, follow the textbook, etc.);

work in a noisy, hectic environment;

work after a sharp remark from a teacher, quarrel with a friend;

a situation in which it is necessary to assimilate material of large volume and variety of content.

To create favorable conditions for students with a weak nervous system, it is recommended:

give time to think and prepare an answer, do not ask unexpected questions;

poll at the beginning of the lesson;

give an answer in writing;

do not ask for the material just explained;

evaluate failures carefully;

create a calm environment, distract to a minimum.

Positive aspects of schoolchildren with inert nervous processes:

able to work for a long time without distraction;

perform well monotonous activities;

a high degree of independence in performing educational tasks;

slowness, endurance.

Situations in which special difficulties arise for students with inert nervous processes:

school timetable changes;

replacing one lesson with another;

when performing tasks that are varied in content and solutions;

high pace of the lesson;

limiting the time to complete the work;

the need for frequent distraction;

the need to quickly switch attention from one type of work to another;

assessment of the productivity of assimilation of the material at the beginning of its assimilation;

performing tasks for quick wits at a high pace of work.

To create favorable conditions for students with inert nervous processes, it is recommended:

do not require immediate involvement in work;

give time to think;

do not poll at the beginning of the lesson;

do not require quick answers;

at the time of completing the task, do not distract, do not switch attention;

do not ask for new material just explained in the lesson (Akimova M.K., Gurevich K.M., Zarkhin V.G., 1984).

What difficulties in learning arise for students with different types of temperament?

Phlegmatic students. VA Sukhomlinsky characterized the mental activity of students in the following way: “... In one child, the stream of thoughts flows violently, rapidly, giving birth to new images, in the other - like a wide, full-flowing, mighty, mysterious in its depths, but slow river. It is even imperceptible whether this river has a current, but it is strong and unstoppable, it cannot be turned into a new channel, while the fast, light, impetuous flow of thought of other children can be, as it were, blocked, and it will immediately rush around ”( Sukhomlinsky V.A., 1979-1980. - S. 46). And this is what he wrote about the phlegmatic students: “But such silent slow-witted, oh, how they suffer in the classroom. The teacher wants the student to quickly answer the question, he doesn't care how the child thinks, take out and put the answer and get a mark. He does not even realize that it is impossible to accelerate the flow of a slow but mighty river. Let it flow in accordance with its nature, its waters will surely reach the intended milestone, but do not rush, please, do not be nervous, do not whip the mighty river with a birch rod - nothing will help ”(ibid., P. 47). Children with phlegmatic temperament need more time to complete cognitive tasks, to practice exercises, to prepare an oral answer at the blackboard. They often have a mistaken attitude to avoid quick actions, as if they doom him to frequent mistakes. He resigns himself to the fact that he moves and speaks more slowly than other children, and no longer makes any attempts to act at a faster pace.

But even the most inert nervous system is not devoid of some plasticity, so this slowness can be overcome to some extent, and best of all, by activating the child's motor sphere, which is closely related to the mental sphere, namely, the organization of outdoor games. In addition, it is necessary to develop such personal qualities as self-discipline, organization, the ability not to spend too much time on "swing". It is useful to put such a student at the same desk with a classmate with more mobile nervous processes.

Melancholic students. They quickly develop mental fatigue, so it is advisable to allow as much time as possible to rest. This is especially important during the transition from the primary to the secondary level, when children first encounter multidisciplinary subjects and the office system, which dramatically increases the load on the nervous system. The weakness of the nervous processes in melancholic students also means a reduced resistance to the influence of failures. They produce an inhibitory, disorganizing effect on such children. On the contrary, systematic encouragement, instilling confidence in one's own strengths, disclosing reserves that have not yet been used, etc., gives the melancholic student the opportunity to show the advantages of his temperament (increased accuracy, diligence, thoroughness) in educational work, which allows him to achieve good academic success.

Sanguine students. The positive aspects of these students are vigor, quick reaction, sharpness, quick transition from one type of activity to another. They are cheerful, they are leaders by nature.

Among the shortcomings of students with a sanguine temperament are superficiality in working with educational material and therefore superficiality of its assimilation, restlessness, insufficient endurance, instability and insufficient depth of feelings, lack of persistent cognitive and professional interests, "scattered" and variety of hobbies.

Choleric students. They are characterized by irascibility, harshness, intemperance, intolerance to remarks addressed to them, high self-esteem. An important task in working with them is to prevent the appearance of affects. To do this, you need to switch your attention from the object that caused negative emotions to some "neutral" object, so that a decrease in arousal occurs, and only then make a comment. You need a calm, balanced atmosphere of the social environment. Should be avoided conflict situations, but this does not mean that for this you need to indulge in whims, rudeness, wrong actions.

The high speed of nervous processes can be the cause of various educational difficulties and mistakes of schoolchildren. The fast pace of writing, which negatively affects its quality (poor handwriting, missing letters); haste when reading, leading to misreading or misreading words and, as a result, poor reading comprehension; errors in performing computational operations with an insufficient degree of their automation - these are the difficulties in educational work, the cause of which may be the natural high speed of the students' nervous processes. In each of these cases, special techniques should be used that "neutralize" the student's disposition to too high a rate of completing assignments.

The described types of temperament are rare in full and pure form. And this is good, since a combination of features of various temperaments is important for a person for life. In different life situations he needs the enthusiasm and cheerfulness of a sanguine person, the persistence of a choleric person, a dryish restraint and caution of a melancholic, composure and calmness of a phlegmatic person.

School, with its life and learning, is the most favorable environment for the education of mixed temperaments. It contains beneficial influences to soften the harsh, angular and undesirable manifestations of one or the other temperament. After all, she herself represents a society of people gathered for a common goal for all, necessarily subordinate to the same orders, also common to all. A child at school gradually begins to realize that everyone cannot do whatever he likes, and always do what he wants. He notices that some of his qualities are inconvenient for living in the midst of other people. Gradually, the children develop qualities that are comfortable both for themselves and for their comrades, the sharp features of temperament are blurred. And this happens without violence, but by itself. The school teaches a very important science - to live with people, to subordinate their interests to common ones.

General teaching, when everyone must learn without interfering with others, school orders that establish certain teacher-student, student-student, student-class relationships, general games, general reading, when children have different impressions - all this gradually leads the child to the need moderate your noisiness and impetuosity, more deeply and emotionally perceive the environment, be persistent in achieving your goals.

And finally, it is necessary to distinguish between the manifestations of temperament and the shortcomings of upbringing. Lack of self-control, impatience, inability to listen to the teacher to the end do not necessarily speak of the student's choleric temperament: such behavior may be the result of precisely the lack of upbringing for any temperament. Or the student may seem timid, helpless at school, keep away from peers, that is, give the impression of a representative of the melancholic type, but not really be one. This behavior can be caused, for example, by the fact that he has fallen behind in academic subjects, is afraid of a survey or test work, or he does not have a relationship with classmates.

" "Lokalova N. P. - SPb .: Peter, 2009.

Lectures on the discipline "Educational Psychology"

Many factors influence the success of students in higher education:

• financial situation;
• health status;
• age;
• marital status;
• the level of pre-university training;
• possession of the skills of self-organization, planning and control of their activities (primarily educational);
• motives for choosing a university;
• the adequacy of the initial ideas about the specifics of university education;
• form of education (full-time, evening, part-time, distance learning, etc.);
• availability of tuition fees and its value;
• organization of the educational process at the university; material base of the university;
• the level of qualifications of teachers and service personnel; the prestige of the university and, finally,
• individual psychological characteristics of students.

Why do some students work a lot and willingly on mastering knowledge and professional skills, and the difficulties that arise only add to them energy and desire to achieve their goal, while others do everything as if from under a stick, and the appearance of any significant obstacles dramatically reduces them activity up to the destruction of learning activity? Such differences can be observed under the same external conditions of educational activity (socio-economic situation, organization and methodological support of the educational process, teacher qualifications, etc.).

When explaining this phenomenon, psychologists and teachers most often appeal to such individual psychological characteristics learners as

• intelligence level(the ability to assimilate knowledge, abilities, skills and successfully apply them to solve problems);
• creativity(the ability to develop new knowledge yourself);
• educational motivation, providing strong positive experiences in achieving educational goals;
• a high self-evaluation leading to the formation of a high level of claims, etc.

But neither each of these qualities in isolation, nor even their combination is sufficient to guarantee the formation of a student's mindset for the daily, hard and hard work of mastering knowledge and professional skill in conditions of fairly frequent or long-term failures that are inevitable in any complex activity. ... Each teacher can give examples from his teaching practice, when a very capable and creative student with high (and sometimes inadequately high) self-esteem and initially strong learning motivation, “broke down”, faced with serious difficulties in one or another type of learning activity and stopped moving forward, while his much less gifted comrade successfully overcame these difficulties and, over time, achieved much more.

To come to the answer to this question, it is necessary at least briefly to consider the main types of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of people, as well as the available data on their influence on the educational activity of students.

Constitution(body type). According to E. Kretschmer, the following types are distinguished: leptosomatic(asthenic) - average or above average growth, underdeveloped muscles, narrow chest, elongated limbs, elongated neck and head; picnic- average or below average growth, large internal organs, shortened limbs, not very muscular development, short neck, overweight; athletic- average or above average growth, well-developed muscles, large chest volume, broad shoulders, narrow hips, proportional head; dysplastic- sharp imbalances in the structure of the body (for example, too long limbs, wide hips and narrow shoulders in men, etc.). There are few data on the influence of the constitution on learning activity, but some authors indicate that more reactive picnics consume energy faster and therefore it is better to ask them among the first and give more difficult problems at the beginning, and easier ones later. They are more likely to need to revisit what they have covered because of their poorer long-term memory. Asthenics can be given tasks of increasing complexity, in exams they can ask among the latter. They need less repetition of the material.

Neurodynamics - features of the course of processes of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system according to I.P. Pavlov. The following properties stand out: strength-weakness of arousal processes(the ability to adequately respond to strong stimuli without going into transcendental inhibition; people with a weak nervous system are not capable of this, but they have a higher sensitivity); strength-weakness of inhibition processes(the ability to inhibit the response to a very strong stimulus); balance of processes of excitation and inhibition in terms of strength; mobility-inertia- the speed of transition from inhibition processes to excitation processes and vice versa. According to I.P. Pavlov, the features of human neurodynamics act as a physiological basis temperament. The latter means a set of formal-dynamic (power and speed) characteristics of human behavior that do not depend on the content of the activity and are manifested in three areas - motor skills, emotionality and general activity. A person with a weak nervous system - melancholic; with a strong and unbalanced - choleric(excitation processes dominate over inhibition processes); with a strong, balanced, agile - sanguine; with a strong, balanced, inert - phlegmatic person.

The properties of the nervous system and temperament are of a genotypic nature and practically do not change during life, but a person with any temperament is capable of any social achievement, including in educational activity, but this is achieved in different ways. For people with different types of temperament, some conditions are more favorable for successful learning, while others are unfavorable. Organizational forms of education in a modern school and university are more favorable for people with a strong and mobile nervous system, therefore, among them there are more of those who study well than among those who have a weak and inert nervous system. The latter need to develop compensatory techniques in order to adapt to the demands of the activity that are not relevant to their temperament.

There are the following situations where difficulties arise in students with a weak nervous system:

• responsible, requiring neuropsychic or emotional stress, independent, control or examination work, especially when there is a lack of time;
• work with a hot-tempered, unrestrained teacher, etc.

Features of work

sanguine

phlegmatic person

melancholic

Tips for the teacher

long, hard work;

responsible work, especially when there is a lack of time;

work in conditions when the teacher asks an unexpected question and requires an oral answer to it (the situation of a written answer is much more favorable);

work after an unsuccessful answer, assessed negatively by the teacher;

work in a situation requiring constant distraction (to the teacher's remarks, to the questions of other students);

work in a situation requiring the distribution of attention or its switching from one type of work to another;

work in a noisy, hectic environment;

work with a hot-tempered, unrestrained teacher

monotonous work

intensive work at a high pace

To mitigate negative effects of this kind, it is desirable that the teacher use the following techniques: do not put the student in a situation of a sharp time limit, but give enough time to prepare; more often allowed the student to provide written answers; split complex and large-volume material into separate information blocks and introduced them gradually, as the previous ones were mastered; did not force to answer according to the newly learned material; more often encouraged and encouraged the student to relieve stress and increase his self-confidence; in a mild form gave negative assessments in case of an incorrect answer; gave time to check and correct the completed task; if possible, did not distract the student's attention to other work until the completion of the work already started.

Students with a weak nervous system can successfully act in situations requiring monotonous work, if necessary, act according to a pattern or pattern; they are able to organize well independent work, carefully plan it and control the results, achieving maximum accuracy; they do not jump from one to another, do not run impatiently forward, doing everything in a strict sequence. Through careful preparatory work, they are able to independently penetrate into deeper connections and relationships in the educational material, often going beyond the curriculum; willingly use graphs, diagrams, tables and visual aids.

A student with inert nervous system difficulties arise in the following situations:

• when tasks are offered at the same time, various in content and methods of solution;
• when the material is presented by the teacher at a sufficiently high pace;
• when the time to complete the work is strictly limited;
• when you need frequent distraction from the main task for additional types of work, for answers to the teacher or comrades;
• when the productivity of the assimilation of the material is assessed at the initial stages of its comprehension or memorization; when you need to give a quick answer to an unexpected question, etc.

Accordingly, the teacher can be recommended when working with inert students: not to demand immediate and active involvement in the work, but to give the opportunity to gradually become involved in the task; do not require the simultaneous execution of several dissimilar tasks; do not demand a quick (on the go) change of unsuccessful formulations, remember that improvisation is difficult for inert ones; do not conduct a survey at the beginning of the class or on new material. The main thing is to help such students find the most suitable methods and techniques for organizing educational activities, develop their own individual style according to E.A. Klimov.

The "inert" ones also have their advantages - they are able to work for a long time and with deep immersion, without being distracted by interference; are distinguished by a high degree of independence in performing tasks; have a more developed long-term memory. Like the "weak", they are capable of long monotonous work, careful planning and control of their activities.

With the non-systematic nature of work, characteristic of more than 60 percent of modern Russian students, persons with a strong nervous system have advantages, since they are capable of mobilization and emergency preparation for passing the exam, and the “weak” cannot cope with the overload and are often expelled.

An important factor influencing the success rates of students with a weak or inert nervous system is the teacher's behavior on the oral exam. You can often meet such situations when the teacher, after listening to the student's answer to the questions and problems contained in the ticket, gives an additional problem with words like: “Solve the problem, while I ask another student and after 5 (10, etc.) minutes I will approach you. If you decide, you will get "excellent", and if not, then "good". A “weak” or “inert” student in a time-limited situation may never start solving a problem in the short time allotted to him. He will be disturbed by the consciousness that half a minute has passed and there are only 4.5 and so on. Approaching the student and seeing a blank sheet of paper, the teacher demands “I haven't decided yet, well then answer a very simple question….”. "Backed", as they say, to the wall, the student, having no time to think, says the first thing that comes to his mind, just to say something. The indignant teacher "clutches his head": "Why, you don't even know such a simple thing, what kind of five is there, you don't even deserve a three."

The further is not difficult to imagine - heavy stress for the student, light stress for the teacher…. In this case, the teacher's mistake consisted in a sharp limitation of the time to find a solution in a situation that was given increased importance (if you solve a problem, you get a "five", if you do not solve it, it can be anything). Of course, a lot in this case depends on the attendant factors: the emotional state of the student, the degree of benevolence demonstrated by the teacher, the importance of the exam outcome for the student (he may be left without a scholarship, be expelled, etc.).

It should be noted that there are psychophysiological methods and questionnaires that make it possible to determine, if necessary, the type of a student's nervous system. With all the controversial nature of the typological approach to temperament and its physiological foundations (the partial nature of the properties of the nervous system, the predominance of mixed types, etc.), the empirical data described above can help in solving many pedagogical problems both in terms of optimizing the organizational and methodological foundations of teaching, and in terms of helping students develop an individual style of activity and communication. After all, it is the extreme (pronounced) types that most often need psychological and pedagogical assistance.

Influence Statement abilities on the success of students' learning seems trivial, but the nature of this influence was not as unambiguous as it seems at first glance. Much depends on the place the abilities occupy in the personality structure of a particular student, in the system of his life values, and how they affect the development of other personal qualities.

First, in the structure of abilities, such relatively independent components should be distinguished as general intelligence, social intelligence, special abilities and creativity(creativity).

We can unequivocally say about a positive relationship with the success of training only relatively special abilities... These include

sensory abilities(phonemic hearing for a linguist, pitch for a musician, color-discriminating sensitivity for an artist, etc.);

motor abilities(plasticity and fine coordination of movements for athletes, dancers, circus performers, etc.);

professional ability(technical thinking, spatial thinking, mathematical, etc.). In many cases, a low level of development of professionally important special abilities simply makes it unavailable to successfully study at a university of the corresponding profile. And vice versa, successful education at a university will actually coincide with the process of forming special professional abilities.

Recently in psychology, social intelligence, understood as a set of abilities that underlie communicative competence (competence in communication), which ensures the successful solution of tasks for an adequate perception of a person by a person, establishing and maintaining contacts with other people, influencing other people, ensuring joint activities, taking a decent position in a team and society (social status). A high level of social intelligence is important for mastering professions, such as "man-man" according to the classification of E.A. Klimov. At the same time, there is evidence that a high level of social intelligence sometimes develops as a compensation for a low level of development of subject (general) intelligence and creativity. In favor of the fact that a high level of social intelligence often correlates with a low level of learning success, some typologies of students' personality, which will be discussed below, also record. At the same time, the formal academic performance of such students can be overestimated by skillfully influencing teachers in order to obtain the desired higher grade.

In many studies, fairly high correlations of the level general intellectual development with the academic performance of students. At the same time, only slightly more than half of the students increase the level of general intelligence from the first year to the fifth, and, as a rule, such an increase is observed in weak and average students, and the strong often leave the university with the same thing with which they came. This fact reflects the predominant orientation of the entire system of our education towards the secondary (and in a sense, the average) student. All teachers are well aware of the phenomenon when a very capable and "shining" student in the first year of study develops an inadequately high self-esteem, a feeling of superiority over others, he stops working systematically and sharply reduces the success of his studies. This phenomenon also found its expression in almost all typologies of student personality.

Creativity, like intelligence, it belongs to the number of general abilities, but if intelligence is the ability to assimilate knowledge and skills already existing in society, as well as to successfully apply them to solve problems, then creativity ensures that a person creates something new (primarily new for himself often new to others). At the same time, it is estimated fluency thinking (the number of generated solutions), flexibility thinking (variety of used decision categories), originality(fixed when the frequency of occurrence of this solution is less than in one percent of cases). Most psychologists accept the so-called "threshold theory", according to which for successful activity (including educational) it is preferable to have a high level of creativity and an IQ (intelligence quotient) of at least 120. A lower IQ may not provide creative products of sufficiently high social significance ( creativity for oneself), and a higher level of intelligence does not greatly increase a person's capabilities. Finally, an extremely high level of intelligence can inhibit successful activity by refusing to use intuition. There are few direct experimental studies of the relationship between creativity and the success of university studies, but data on the influence of creativity on the success of other types of activity, as well as the experience of each teacher, based on intuitive ideas about the creative abilities of students, compared with their success in learning, allows us to conclude unequivocally that creativity contributes to the success of learning, but at the same time is not a prerequisite for it.

The vast majority of authors consider high self-esteem and the associated self-confidence and high level of aspirations are important positive factors for successful student learning. A student who is not confident in his abilities often simply does not tackle difficult problems, admits defeat in advance. But, as A. Dweck notes, in order for high self-esteem to be adequate and encourage further progress, a student or student should be praised, first of all, not for an objectively good result, but for the degree of effort that the student had to put in to obtain it, for overcoming obstacles on the way to the goal. Praise for easy success often leads to the formation of self-confidence, fear of failure and avoidance of difficulties, to the habit of tackling only easy-to-solve problems. The emphasis on the value of efforts, rather than a specific result, leads to the formation of an attitude towards mastery.

The most important factor in successful education at a university is the nature of the educational motivation, its energy level and structure. Some authors straightforwardly divide the motivation of educational activity into insufficient and positive, referring to the latter as cognitive, professional, and even moral motives. There is a direct correlation between focus on acquiring knowledge and learning success. Students aimed at acquiring knowledge are characterized by high regularity of educational activity, purposefulness, strong will, etc. Those who are aimed at obtaining a profession often show selectivity, dividing disciplines into "necessary" and "not necessary" for their professional development, which can affect academic performance. The attitude towards obtaining a diploma makes the student even less choosy in choosing the means on the way to obtaining it - irregular classes, "storming", cheat sheets, etc.

As noted by the authors of one of the most voluminous studies of the psychological characteristics of students, the main factor determining the success of educational activity is not the severity of individual mental properties of the individual, but their structure, in which the leading role is played volitional qualities... According to V.A. Ivannikov, a person shows his volitional qualities when he performs an action that is initially insufficiently motivated, that is, yields to other actions in the struggle for a “behavioral outlet”. The mechanism of volitional action can be called the replenishment of the deficit of realization motivation by intentionally strengthening the motive for this action and weakening the motives of competing actions. This is possible, in particular, by giving the action a new meaning.

In itself, the fact of the connection between the success of training and the volitional qualities of the personality does not raise doubts among any of the teachers, but the big problem is in such a structure of the educational process so that the student has to overcome himself as rarely as possible, force himself to be included in educational activities.

Character- an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person, setting a typical way of behavior and emotional response for him in certain life circumstances. Unlike temperament, it determines not the energetic (power and speed) side of the activity, but the choice of certain methods typical for a given person, ways to achieve goals, one might say "blocks" of behavior. It is formed in vivo on the basis of temperament and environmental factors. Like temperament, character does not directly affect the success of learning, but it can create difficulties or favor learning, depending on the organizational forms, teaching methods, and the teacher's style of pedagogical communication. First of all, this applies to people with so-called character accentuations that create "sharp corners", "problem areas" that make it difficult for their owners to build adequate relationships with other people, including in educational activities. One of the most popular classifications of accentuated characters was developed by the domestic psychiatrist A.E. Lichko. Here are just some of the most striking types of character accentuations, with an indication of the problems that may arise in their owners in the learning process.

Hyperthymic type- with a constantly elevated mood, energetic, sociable, inaccuracy, hypertim, noisiness and a tendency to mischief can lead to conflicts primarily with teachers. But more important is restlessness, a tendency to change activities and hobbies, which often turns into superficiality in relations with people and in relation to business.

Cycloid type - moods change in cycles; two to three weeks of elevated, almost euphoric mood is followed by a similarly long cycle of depressed mood, with increased irritability and a tendency to apathy. Such people find it difficult to change life stereotypes, in particular, the transition from school to university; during periods of depression, they need a sparing attitude in order to avoid deep breakdowns with serious consequences.

Frank type - suffers from mood swings many times a day, caused by the most insignificant reasons. In the presence of serious reasons, they demonstrate a tendency to reactive depression, which leads to serious disturbances in educational activity. During these periods, like cycloids, they need a sparing attitude. They feel and understand other people well, and they themselves often look for a psychotherapist in a friend.

Sensitive type - very sensitive to all good and bad, shy, timid, often notorious; he is sociable only with those whom he knows well and from whom he does not expect a threat. Has a heightened sense of duty, is conscientious, often takes the blame; in the case of strong and undeserved accusations, a suicidal outcome is real. Disciplined, diligent, works regularly.

Unstable type - reveals an increased craving for entertainment, idleness and indolence, has no stable professional interests, does not think about the future. Prone to alcoholism. Weakness and a certain amount of cowardice make it necessary and possible to regulate and carefully monitor educational activities. It is more common among "commercial" students, since it is not realistic to withstand a serious competition for students of this type.

Conformal type - demonstrates thoughtless, uncritical, and often opportunistic submission to any authority or majority in the group. Life credo is to be like everyone else. He is capable of betrayal, but always finds a moral justification for himself. As a pedagogical influence, we can recommend the demonstration of the harmfulness of opportunistic methods and the negative value of conformist attitudes.

Schizoid type - closed, emotionally cold, has little interest in the spiritual world of other people and is not inclined to admit them into his world. Often has highly developed abstract thinking combined with insufficient criticality. It is recommended not rude, but persistent involvement in communication, in the collective forms of student life.

Epileptoid type - possesses very strong inclinations, is prone to emotional outbursts, often demonstrates cruelty, selfishness and imperiousness, love of gambling. Viscosity and inertness are combined with accuracy (excessive prophecy) and punctuality. They easily obey (even to the point of being obsequious) to an imperious and strong teacher, but, having felt “weakness,” they can show all the baggage of their negative inclinations.

Hysteroid (demonstrative) type - most of all he loves to be in the center of attention, thirsts for praise and admiration, inclined to theatricality, posturing, drawing. Often has real artistic talent. To attract attention, he begins to fantasize, to tell fables, in which he begins to sincerely believe. Perhaps an escape into illness or false suicidality to attract faded attention to oneself. In order to create optimal conditions for learning activities, the teacher is recommended to devote more time and attention to such students.

Differences in value systems of students and the degree of their personal maturity, precisely in connection with the success of training, find their expression in numerous typologies of students. The foundations for the construction of these typologies are primarily attitudes to the profession, to study, to science and the entire system of life values ​​and attitudes of students.

By attitudes of students towards learning there are five groups

• Students who are active in all types of learning activities. Due to diligence and creativity, they demonstrate excellent academic success.

• Students of the second type are also active in all spheres of educational activity, but are not focused on obtaining deep knowledge, acting on the principle of "little by little is best."
• Students of the third type limit their activity to narrow professional frameworks, are aimed at selective assimilation of only those knowledge that, in their opinion, are necessary for their future professional activity. They do well in special subjects, but do not pay due attention to related disciplines.

• Students of the fourth type show interest only in those disciplines that they like and are easy to learn. They often skip classes, almost completely ignoring some disciplines.
• The fifth type includes "idlers and lazy people" who have no expressed interests in any of the areas of knowledge. They, as a rule, enter universities "for the company", at the insistence of their parents or to evade military service, work, etc.

If we build a typology based on academic performance, then the following types of excellent students can be distinguished:

• “Versatile” - enjoys the very process of acquiring knowledge, studies primary sources and literature that goes beyond the curriculum in all disciplines. This type of excellent student is the most common.
• "Professional" - concentrates on the major disciplines, mastering general education subjects more superficially, but at a level sufficient to obtain an excellent mark.
• "Universal" - combine the advantages of the two previous types. Thanks to their immense hard work and talent, they achieve outstanding success in the major fields of knowledge. This type of student is the most rare.
• "Cramps" (by definition of the students themselves) - do not have good abilities, but due to zeal and diligence they master the material at a level sufficient for an excellent assessment.

Similar types can be distinguished among the "good", but with lower levels of achievement.

Lisovskiy, Dmitrieva - The most complete classifications of a student's personality are based on taking into account the level and quality of students' activity in four areas: 1. Attitude towards studies, science, profession; 2. Attitude towards social activities, the presence of an active life position; 3. Attitude towards art and culture (level of spirituality); 4. Expression of collectivist attitudes, position in the team.

• “Harmonious” (ideal student) is the most active in all four areas and achieves excellent results everywhere.
• “Professional” - deliberately chose his specialty; academic performance is usually good; he does little research work, since after graduation he plans to work in the practical sphere. Conscientiously fulfills public assignments, moderately goes in for sports, is interested in literature and art. Honest, decent, respected by his comrades.
• “Academician” - he chose his specialty deliberately, he studies only with excellent marks. He is focused on studying in graduate school, so he devotes a lot of time to research work, often to the detriment of other occupations.
• "Social activist" - a propensity for social activity prevails over other interests, which negatively affects educational and scientific activity. I am sure that I chose my profession correctly, and is interested in literature and art. In recent years, this type has been less common.
• “Art lover” - usually studies well, the main interests are concentrated in the field of literature and art, so he does not pay enough attention to scientific work. Possesses good aesthetic taste, broad outlook and erudition in the field of art.
• "Diligent" - he chose his profession not quite consciously, but he studies conscientiously, making great efforts to study. Abilities are insufficiently developed, little interest in literature and art, prefers light genres. Uncommunicative and not very popular in the team.
• "Middle man" - learns without much effort, and is even proud of it. When choosing a profession, I did not really think about it, but I am convinced that since I have already entered a university, I need to finish it, although I do not get pleasure from studying.
• "Disappointed" - has good abilities, but the chosen specialty does not attract him. I am also convinced that since I have already entered a university, I need to finish it, although I do not get pleasure from studying. Strives to establish himself in hobbies, art, sports.
• "Lazy" - studies, obeying the principle of the least expenditure of effort and not very successfully, although he is satisfied with himself. When choosing a profession, I did not seriously think about it, almost does not engage in scientific and social work. Often he tries to "catch words" - the main thing is to get the desired mark. The team often refers to him as "ballast". The main interests are in the field of leisure.
• “Creative” is inventive in everything he does - in studies, scientific work, social activities or leisure. He does not like activities that require perseverance, accuracy, and performing discipline, therefore he studies unevenly, succeeding only in those areas that are interesting to him. In scientific work, he strives for originality, often neglecting the opinion of authorities.
• "Erudite" - collects knowledge in all areas and loves to demonstrate, but he himself is not very capable of creativity. He does little social work and sports. In the team, he often enjoys a reputation as a snob. Scientific work performs in a strictly academic tradition.
• "Sportsman" - learns according to an individual plan, acquiring knowledge at the minimum level necessary for passing the exams. He counts on concessions for his sporting achievements. In recent years, such students have become much smaller.
• “Pseudo-modernist” - the main thing for him is personal success. The main range of interests is concentrated outside the university. Follows fashion in all spheres of life. Almost does not engage in scientific and social work. As a rule, he chooses a fashionable profession.
• "Bohemian" - Successfully studies in the so-called prestigious universities, looks down on students who acquire "mass professions". Strives for leadership. Knowledge is vast, but often superficial. Participant of fashionable "parties", a regular at clubs and discos. He is indifferent to sports; in the team, the attitude towards it is polar - from admiring to disdainful.

This list can be continued, but any experienced teacher has his own similar typology, perhaps better reflecting the specifics of education in his university or in his professional environment.

But the question remains - what should be the ideal student from the point of view of teachers and students themselves? This question can be reformulated as follows - which student would most teachers like to work with? In the "pre-perestroika" times in our country, the opinions of students and teachers differed significantly. University teachers predominantly put such qualities as discipline, diligence, responsibility in the first place, and in the majority of real students they noted infantilism, social immaturity, and educational passivity. Modern teachers have come to appreciate the ability of students to think independently. Students also prioritize the ability to think independently and an interest in science.

4. Psychological factors determining success or failure in learning

Learning success depends on the following psychological factors:

Motivation for learning activities;

Arbitrariness of cognitive processes (perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking and speech);

The presence of the trainee of the necessary volitional and a number of other personality qualities (perseverance, purposefulness, responsibility, discipline, consciousness, etc.).

Among the psychological factors of successful learning can also be attributed to the ability to interact with people in joint activities with them, especially with teachers and classmates in the study group, intellectual development and the formation of educational activity as a teaching. Everything the listed factors refer not only to the student, but also to the teacher.

The attitude towards learning is important, that is, the statement by the teacher and the acceptance by the student learning task, the meaning of which for the teacher is to teach, and for the student - to learn something.

All the considered factors of the success of the teaching relate to the psychological characteristics of the people involved in the educational process. But, besides them, there are also the means and content of teaching, the teaching material used by the teacher and the student. He must meet certain requirements. The most important of these is accessibility and a sufficient level of complexity. Accessibility ensures the assimilation of this material by students, and sufficient complexity ensures the psychological development of students. From a psychological point of view, the optimal educational material in terms of complexity is considered to be at a sufficiently high level of difficulty, but still quite accessible for assimilation.

A subjectively important point related to the assessment by students of the degree of difficulty of the assimilated material is interest in it and the connection of this material with the needs of the student, with his experience, abilities and skills. Interesting, familiar, and personally meaningful material tends to be perceived by students as less difficult than material that has the opposite characteristics.

Another important factor in the success of learning is a well-thought-out system of rewarding students for success and punishment for failures in learning activities. Rewards should be consistent with actual success and reflect not so much the student's ability as the effort they make. Punishments should play a stimulating role, that is, touch and activate important motives for learning activities aimed at achieving success, and not at avoiding failure.

Using incentives in learning

Encouragement is based on a positive belief in your own abilities and the abilities of others, on accepting students as they are, not as they could be.

The purpose of the encouragement is to help students believe in themselves and their abilities.

Encouragement helps students take the risk of appearing imperfect, realizing that a mistake is not a failure. Mistakes can contribute to learning.

Promotion is different from praise. The student does not have to earn incentives by being the first to do so. It can be obtained for any positive action. Encouragement means that the student is accepted and respected for who he is.

Reward is given for the effort shown. (This does not give the student a value judgment, as in the case of praise.)

Encouragement begins with finding the value of the learners: talents, positive attitudes and goals, not their shortcomings. Each student has strengths.

Encouragement is the opposite of disapproval. Do not discourage students

making negative remarks and showing negative expectations,

using unreasonably high and double standards,

encouraging a spirit of competition between students and excessive ambition.

8. Reward is a statement that the student is trying and that it is worth trying.

What role does the teacher play in motivating students? What can a teacher do to improve her? First, the teacher can focus on learning, or the process of acquiring skills and knowledge, rather than on the achievement, or product, or result of this process. Teachers need to be responsive to student efforts, not just their results. Students receive specific feedback from the teacher regarding the correctness of their assignment, and not just grades; specific response to how children learn, and not to their personal characteristics and upbringing; reacting to how they learn, without referring to other students, all help students focus on learning.

Secondly, the teacher can increase the motivation of students by reducing competition between them. A collaborative approach and a mastery approach are ways to help students avoid negative inferences about the reasons for their performance by comparing it with the performance of other students. Compared to the conventional teaching approach used in the classroom, teaching in a collaborative structure and teaching prior to mastering the subject is more likely to provide a sense of success for learners who need it.

Third, the teacher needs to help students evaluate their performance based on causal factors other than ability. This is important because judgments about ability are associated with self-esteem and self-confidence, with negative judgments most detrimental to a student's desire to try to learn well. As noted, one way to do this is to reinforce incentives for effort rather than results, so that learners see effort rather than ability as the cause of success.

Another way is to introduce a new causal factor - strategy. Strategy refers to the way you do something. If a student is performing poorly on a test, it may not be due to ability or insufficient preparation effort. Poor teaching skills and poor execution skills may be the problem control works, both are strategies. By helping students view (failing) strategies as causes of failure, helping them improve their strategies, and praising them for their efforts to do so, teachers can turn failure into success for many students.

Fourth, the teacher should strive to set realistic goals in order to increase the likelihood of success and the students' personal assessment of their abilities.

Fifth, teachers need to constantly monitor the information they send to students about the reasons for academic failure, and accordingly modify their statements for the purpose of feedback from students. Audio and video recording can be very useful in this regard. Teachers should monitor whether and how they communicate to students that they feel they are incapable, and should try to change such expressions and the manner in which they convey it.

Sixth, teachers themselves need to avoid a state of learned helplessness as a result of their perceived failures and frustrations in the classroom.

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